Nimrûd, orNimroud. The Arab name of the great mound on the east bank of the Tigris, near Mosul, supposed to represent the Assyrian city of Calah, which was destroyed at the final conquest of Assyria by the Medes and Babylonians.
Nineveh.The greatest city in Assyria and for some time the capital of the country, was situated on the eastern bank of the Tigris at its junction with the stream of the Khosr. The walls of Nineveh are described as about 55 miles in circumference, 100 feet high, and thick enough to allow three chariots to pass each other on them; with 1500 towers, 200 feet in height. The city is said to have been entirely destroyed by fire, when it was taken by the Medes and Babylonians, about 606B.C.
Ninians, St.A town and parish of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, about a mile south from Stirling. Several battles have been fought in this parish. The first was between the Scottish followers of Wallace and the English, who were defeated, the second was the famous battle of Bannockburn, and the third was that in which James III. of Scotland was defeated and slain by his rebellious nobles.
Nipple.Any small projection in which there is an orifice for discharging a fluid, or for other purposes, as the nipple of a percussion-lock, or that part on which the cap is put to be fired.
Niquibs(Ind.). Men whose military functions among the Sepoys correspond with those of corporals in other services.
Nisbet, orNesbit(Northumberland, Eng.). Here a battle was fought between the English and Scotch armies, the latter greatly disproportioned in strength to the former. Several thousands of the Scots were slain upon the field and in the pursuit, May 7, 1402.
Nishapoor, orNishapur. A town of Persia, province of Khorassan. The town is said to be very ancient, and to have existed in the time of Alexander the Great, by whom it was destroyed. In 1269 it was sacked by the Tartars, again by Ihengiz-khan, and in 1749 by Nadir Shah, from which last calamity it has never recovered.
Nisibis.The capital of ancient Mygdonia, the northeastern part of Mesopotamia. It was a place of great importance as a military post, was twice taken by the Romans (under Lucullus and Trajan), and again given up by them to the Armenians; but being a third time taken by Lucius Verus in 165, it remained the chief bulwark of the Roman empire against the Persians, till it was surrendered to them by Jovian after the death of Julian in 363.
Nissa, orNish. A well-fortified town of Turkey in Europe, in the province of Servia, about 120 miles southeast from Belgrade. It commands the communication between the provinces of Servia, Bulgaria, and Roumelia. It was taken by Amurath II. in 1389, and again by the Austrians in 1737.
Nithing.A coward or poltroon.
Nitre.Potassium nitrate or saltpetre, the most important ingredient of gunpowder. It is obtained principally from the East Indies. It has been the policy of the American government to keep large quantities in store. SeeSaltpetre.
Nitro-cellulose.SeeGun-cotton.
Nitro-glycerine.Is a light, yellow, oily liquid, inodorous, with a sweet, pungent, aromatic taste. It received its name from Sobrero, a chemist, who in 1847 discovered that glycerine when treated with nitric acid was converted into a highly-explosive substance. This liquid appears to have been almost forgotten by chemists until in 1864 Nobel, a Swedish engineer, succeeded in applying it to a very important branch of his art, namely, blasting. It is now prepared by introducing glycerine into a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, the whole being kept at a temperature below freezing-point. When uncongealed this preparation explodes by concussion, and is therefore unfit for transportation, and very dangerous to handle while in that state. The chief advantage for mining purposes which nitro-glycerine possesses is, that it requires a much smaller hole or chamber than gunpowder does, the strength of the latter being scarcely one-tenth of the former. Hence the miner’s work, which, according to the hardness of the rock, represents from five to twenty times the price of the gunpowder used, is so short that the cost of blasting is often reduced 50 per cent. The process is very easy: if the chamber of a mine presentsfissures it must first be lined with clay, to make it water-tight; this done, the nitro-glycerine is poured in, and water after it, which, being the lighter liquid, remains at the top. A slow-match, with a well-charged percussion-cap at one end, is then introduced into the nitro-glycerine. The mine may then be sprung by lighting the match, there being no need of tamping. Submarine mines may be sprung by electricity. In this manner the obstructions of Hell Gate, N. Y., were removed by Gen. Newton, one of the greatest engineering feats of the time. On account of its liability to spontaneous explosion, the great danger in handling it, and its liability to decomposition, nitro-glycerine is now almost entirely superseded for ordinary mining purposes by dynamite.
Nitroleum.Nitro-glycerine; a name given it by Shaffner, an American patentee of high explosives.
Nitro-mannite.SeeMannite, Nitro-.
Nive.A river in the southwest of France, the scene of an important battle, December, 1813. After Wellington had forced Marshal Sault to fall back on Bayonne from the Pyrenees, the former determined to cross the Nive in order to place the right of his own army upon the Adour, with the double purpose of establishing a communication with the interior of France, and cutting off the enemy’s means of obtaining supplies. The brunt of this enterprise fell upon the right division of Wellington’s army under Lord Hill, a good deal of work, however, being done by the left division under Sir John Hope. Hill’s success was complete, and after five days’ fighting (December 9-13), the passage of the Nive had been effected, with the loss on the part of the British of 650 killed and 3459 wounded.
Nivelle.A small river which rises in Spain, and, after a short course, falls into the Bay of Biscay at St. Jean-de-Luz, in the French department of the Lower Pyrenees, near which the Duke of Wellington crossed the river in 1812, after carrying the French posts.
Nizam’s Dominions, orHyderabad. An extensive territory in the interior of Southern India, lying to the northwest of the Presidency of Madras. In 1687 the territory now known as the Nizam’s Dominions, became a province of the Mogul empire; but in 1719 the governor or viceroy of the Deccan, Azoph Jah, made himself independent, and took the title ofNizam-ool-Moolk(Regulator of the State). After his death, in 1748, two claimants appeared for the throne,—his son Nazir Jung, and his grandson Mirzapha Jung. The cause of the former was espoused by the East India Company, and that of the latter by a party of French adventurers under Gen. Dupleix. Then followed a period of strife and anarchy. In 1761, Nizam Ali obtained the supreme power, and after some vacillation signed a treaty of alliance with the English in 1768. He aided them in the war with Tippoo Sahib, sultan of Mysore, and at the termination of that war, in 1799, a new treaty was formed, by which, in return for certain territorial concessions, the East India company bound itself to maintain a subsidiary force of 8000 men for the defense of the Nizam’s dominions. The Nizam or ruler,Afzul-ul-Dowlah, remained faithful to the British during the mutiny of 1857-58.
Nizza-Montferrato.A town of northern Italy, province of Alessandria, on the Belbo. It was a strongly-fortified place during the Middle Ages, was besieged unsuccessfully for forty days by Charles of Anjou, and afterwards suffered severely from the Spanish and French armies.
Noblesse Militaire(Fr.). Military nobility. Although most of the orders may be considered as appendages which confer a species of military nobility, especially that of the British “Garter,” which was instituted by King Edward III. on January 19, 1344, yet the British cannot be strictly said to have among them that species of military nobility or distinction that was peculiarly known in France under the immediate title ofnoblesse militaire. In order to reward military merit, an edict was issued by the French court at Fontainebleau, in November, 1750, and enregistered on the 25th of the same month by the Parliament of Paris, whereby anoblesse militaire, or military nobility, was created; the acquisition of which depended wholly upon martial character, but did not require any letters patent for the purpose of ennobling the individual. By the first article of this perpetual and irrevocable edict, as it was then stated, it was decreed that no person serving in the capacity and quality of officer in any of the king’s troops, should be liable to the land- or poll-tax, so long as he continued in that situation. (2) That by virtue of this edict, and from the date thereof, all general officers, not being otherwise ennobled, but being actually and bona fide in the service, should be considered as noble, and remain so, together with their children, born or to be born in lawful wedlock. (3) That in future the rank of general officer should of itself be sufficient to confer the full right of nobility upon all those who should arrive at that degree of military promotion; and that their heirs and successors, as well as their children, actually born and lawfully begotten, should be entitled to the same distinction; and that all general officers should enjoy all the rights and privileges of nobility from the date of their commissions. In Articles IV., V., VI., and VII., it was specifically provided upon what conditions those officers, who were not noble, and were inferior in rank to that of maréchal-de-camp, but who had been chevaliers or knights of the royal and military order of St. Louis, and who should retire from the service after having been in the army during thirty years without intermission, were to be exempted from the payment of the land- and poll-tax, and howthe same privileges were to be transferred to their sons, provided they were in the service. By Article VIII. it was enacted, that those officers who had risen to the rank of captain, and were chevaliers or knights of the order of St. Louis, but who were disabled by wounds, or diseases contracted in the service, should not be obliged to fill up the period of thirty years as prescribed by the recited articles. By Article IX. it was provided that when any officer, not under the rank of captain, died in the actual exercise of the functions or bearing the commission of captain, the services he had already rendered should be of use to his sons, lawfully begotten, who were either in the service or were intended for it. It was specified in Articles X. and XI. that every officer born in wedlock, whose father and grandfather had been exempted from the land- or poll-tax, should be noble in his own right, provided he got created a chevalier or knight of St. Louis, had served the prescribed period, or was entitled to the exemption mentioned in Article VIII.; that if he should die in the service, he would be considered as having acquired the rank of nobility, and that the title so obtained should descend, as a matter of right, to the children, lawfully begotten, of such officers as had acquired it. It further specified, that even those who should have been born previous to their fathers being ennobled, were entitled to the same privilege. Article XII. pointed out the method by which proofs of military nobility were to be exhibited in conformity to the then existing edict. Articles XIII. and XIV. provided for those officers, who were actually in the service at the promulgation of the edict, in proportion as the prescribed periods were filled up. This provision related wholly to the personal services of officers; as no proof was acknowledged relative to services done by their fathers or grandfathers, who might have retired from the army, or have died prior to the publication of the edict. The XVth or last Article was a sort of register, in which were preserved the different titles that enabled individuals to lay claim to military nobility. The whole of this edict may be seen, page 206, in the 3d volume “Des Elemens Militaires.” The French emperor Bonaparte instituted an order of nobility called the “Legion of Honor,” the political influence of which appears to be greater than any order ever established, even than that of the Jesuits. He also adopted the ancient military title of duke, which was conferred only on men who had merited renown by their military greatness. The title of count was also established, and all the members of the Legion of Honor held a rank corresponding with the knights of feudal institution. Private soldiers and tradesmen, for acts of public virtue, have been created members of the Legion of Honor.
Noblesse Oblige.A French phrase,—rank has its obligations.
Nocera dei Pagani(anc.Nuceria Alfaterna). A town of Southern Italy, province and 8 miles northwest of Salerno. During the second Samnite war (315B.C.) the Nucerians, who were on friendly terms with the Romans, were induced to abandon their alliance and make common cause with the Samnites, for which they were punished in 308 by the Roman consul Fabius, who invaded their territory, laid siege to their city, and compelled them to unqualified submission. In the second Punic war the city was besieged by Hannibal, and after a vigorous resistance was compelled by famine to surrender; it was given up to plunder and totally destroyed, while the surviving inhabitants took refuge in the other cities of Campania. It again became a flourishing town, and its territory was ravaged in the Social war, 90B.C.The decisive battle between Narses and Teïas, which put an end to the Gothic monarchy in Italy (533A.D.), was fought in its neighborhood. Its modern appellation is derived from the circumstance that in the 13th century a body of Saracens were established there by the emperor Frederick II.
Nogent-le-Rotrou.A parish and town of France, in the department of the Eure and Loire, 33 miles southwest from Chartres. Taken by the English in 1428.
Nola.A city of Italy, province of Terra di Lavoro, 14 miles east-northeast of Naples. The ancient Nola was founded by the Ausonians, but afterwards fell into the hands of the Tyrrheni (Etruscans). In 327B.C.it was sufficiently powerful to send 2000 soldiers to the assistance of Neapolis. In 313 the town was taken by the Romans. It remained faithful to the Romans even after the battle of Cannæ, when the other Campanian towns revolted to Hannibal; and in consequence retained its own constitution as an ally of the Romans. In the Social war it fell into the hands of the confederates, and when taken by Sulla it was burnt to the ground by the Samnite garrison.
Nolan’s Range-finder.SeeRange-finder.
Nolle Prosequi(Practice). An entry made on the record of courts-martial, by which the prosecutor or plaintiff declares that he will proceed no further. The effect of anolle prosequi, when obtained, is to put the defendant without day, but it does not operate as an acquittal; for he may be afterwards re-indicted, and even upon the same indictment fresh process may be awarded.
Nomenclature.Technical designation. Fornomenclature of ordnance, see appropriate headings in this work.
Nominal.By name, hencenominal call, which corresponds with the Frenchappel nominatif; and, in a military sense, with our roll-call.
Non-combatant.Any person connected with an army, or within the lines of an army, who does not make it his business to fight, as any one of the medical officers and their assistants, chaplains, and others, also any ofthe citizens of a place occupied by an army; also, any one holding a similar position with respect to the navy.
Non-commissioned Officers(Fr.sous-officers, Ger.unter-offizieren). Are the subordinate officers of the general staff, regiments, and companies who are appointed, not by commission, but by the secretary of war or commanding officers of regiments; and they are usually selected on account of good conduct or superior abilities.
Non-effective.Signifies men not fit or available for duty, in contradistinction toeffective(which see).
Noose.A running knot, which binds the closer the more it is drawn.
Nootkas, orAhts. The generic name of the Indians residing on Vancouver Island and the shore of the mainland along the sound of the same name. They are subdivided into many tribes and number about 14,000, some of whom are partially civilized.
Nora.A mountain fortress of Cappadocia, on the borders of Lycaonia, on the northern side of the Taurus, noted for the siege sustained in it by Eumenes against Antigonus for a whole winter.
Norba, orNorbanus(nowNorma). A strongly fortified town in Latium, on the slope of the Volscian Mountains, and near the sources of the Nymphæus, originally belonged to the Latin and subsequently to the Volscian league. The Romans founded a colony at Norba in 492B.C.It espoused the cause of Marius in the civil war, and was destroyed by fire by its own inhabitants when it was taken by one of Sulla’s generals.
Nordlingen.A walled town of Bavaria, in the circle of Swabia, 48 miles southwest from Nuremberg. Here the Swedes under Count Horn were defeated by the Austrians, August 27, 1634; and the Austrians and allies by Turenne in 1645.
Noreia(nowNeumarkt, in Styria, Austria). The ancient capital of the Taurisci, or Norici, in Noricum. It was situated in the centre of Noricum, a little south of the river Murius, and on the road from Virunum to Ovilaba. It is celebrated as the place where Carbo was defeated by the Cimbri, 113B.C.It was besieged by the Boii in the time of Julius Cæsar.
Norfolk.A city and capital of Norfolk Co., Va., on the Elizabeth River, an arm of Chesapeake Bay, about 18 miles from Fortress Monroe, has a fine harbor, safe, commodious, and of sufficient depth to admit the largest vessels. It is the largest naval station in the United States. Its navy-yard was destroyed on April 21, 1861, by the Federals, to prevent the ships of war and naval stores that were there from being appropriated and used by the seceding States.
Noricum.A Roman province south of the Danube, was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the west by Rhætia and Vindelicia, on the east by Pannonia, and on the south by Pannonia and Italy. Its inhabitants, the most important of which were the Taurisci, also called Norici, were conquered by the Romans toward the end of the reign of Augustus, after the subjugation of Rhætia by Tiberius and Drusus, and their country was formed into a Roman colony.
Normandy(Fr.Normandie). Formerly a province in the north of France, bordering on the English Channel; now divided into the departments of Seine-Inférieure, Eure, Orne, Calvados, and Manche. In the time of the Romans, the country bore the name ofGallia Lugdunensis II.Under the Frankish monarchs it formed a part of Neustria. From the beginning of the 9th century it was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, termed Northmen, or Normans, from whose irruptions Charles the Simple of France purchased immunity by ceding the duchy to their leader, Rollo, 905. Rollo, the first duke, and several of his successors held it as a fief of the crown of France, until William, the seventh duke, acquired England in 1066; it was reunited to France in 1204; was reconquered by Henry V. 1418, and held by England partially till 1450.
Normans(the Northmen). Toward the end of the 8th century Western Europe began to be scourged by the inroads of Scandinavian pirates, known to the inhabitants of the British Isles as “East-men” and “Danes,”—to those of the continent as “North-men.” These Northmen were of Germanic stock, a vigorous, seafaring race, not yet Christianized, peopling the coasts of the Baltic and of the two peninsulas which form the Norway and Sweden and the Denmark of to-day. Need and the national thirst for adventure and for strife drove forth from the thickening population, down upon the sunnier, richer, weaker South, swarms of vikings,—i.e.warriors,—who scourged the coasts of England, Germany, and France, pressed with their small, sharp, open vessels up the narrowest streams, burned, slew, and plundered, and sailed away laden with booty and with slaves. About the middle of the 9th century these raids began to assume an altogether new character and importance. The consolidation of the three great Scandinavian kingdoms broke the power of the petty kinglets and independent nobles, and drove many a jarl forth with his followers to seek a freer life in some new home. Northmen threw themselves in larger bands upon England, which the Wessex kings had not yet fairly centralized; upon the Frankish kingdoms, fast falling asunder under the later Karlings; harried the country, besieged and sacked the cities, wintered at the mouths of the rivers, and by the end of the century had wrested from Alfred half his kingdom, and begun to plant colonies on the coasts of France. Northmen ravaged Spain and the shores of the Mediterranean, fell upon Western Italy, penetrated Greece and Asia Minor, and there met others of their countrymen, who had pressed down through Russia. For in the Russia of that day, under the name of Verangians, Northmen had become the rulingclass, a military aristocracy; while those who made their way still farther south had formed the famous Verangian body-guard of the Byzantine emperors, which maintained its existence and its distinctive character for five centuries. During the latter half of the 9th century, also, Scandinavians, sailing westward, found and settled Iceland. With the establishment, early in the 10th century, of settlements upon the continent, with the occupation Scandinavian energy now found at home in wars between the three new kingdoms, and with the gradual triumph of Christianity in the North, Europe gained, at last, comparative rest. England’s period of misery and humiliation under Ethelred the Unready (979-1016), ended by the establishment of a Danish dynasty (1017-42), marks the last great outburst of the pent-up heathenism.
Northallerton.A town of Yorkshire, England, 31 miles northwest from York. Near here was fought the “battle of the Standard,” where the English under the Earls of Albemarle and Ferrers totally defeated the Scotch armies, August 22, 1138. The archbishop of York brought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage at the moment when they were hotly pressed by the invaders, headed by King David.
Northampton.The chief town of Northamptonshire, situated on the Nen, or Nene, 60 miles northwest from London. It was held by the Danes at the beginning of the 10th century, and was burnt by them in 1010. Its castle was besieged by the barons in 1215, during the civil wars of King John. On July 10, 1460, a conflict took place between the Duke of York and Henry VI. of England, in which the king was defeated, and made prisoner (the second time) after a sanguinary fight which took place in the meadows below the town. It was seized and fortified by the Parliamentary forces in 1642. On March 30, 1645, Cromwell marched from it with 1500 horse and two regiments of foot to Rugby. After the restoration, October 17, 1661, the walls of Northampton were demolished, it having taken the side of the Parliament.
North Carolina.One of the Southern Atlantic States, and one of the original thirteen of the American Confederacy. Attempts were made under the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh to settle North Carolina as early as between 1585 and 1589, but in one year after no trace of the colony could be found. The first permanent settlement was made on the banks of the Roanoke and Chowan, by some emigrants from Virginia, in 1653. John Culpepper rebelled against the arbitrary government of Miller in 1678, and held the government for two years. In 1693, North and South Carolina were separated. In 1711 the Tuscaroras, Corees, and other savages attacked and massacred 112 settlers, principally of the Roanoke and Chowan settlements; but the following year the united forces of the two Carolinas completely routed them, killing 300 savages. In 1729 the proprietors sold their rights to the crown. A party of malcontents, in 1771, rose against the royal governor, but after two hours’ contest, fled with considerable loss. A severe conflict with the Northwest Indians occurred in 1774, on the Kanawha River, which resulted in the abandonment of the ground by the savages. North Carolina took an early and active part in the events of the Revolution, and within her borders took place sanguinary conflicts at Guilford Court-house, Brier Creek Springs, Fishing Creek, and other places. The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence was made May 20, 1775: so North Carolina has the honor to have first proposed a separation from Great Britain. In the second war with Great Britain she also played a prominent part, although she had no serious losses on her territory. During the late civil war North Carolina suffered greatly, and was the scene of many important engagements, among which were the capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark in 1861, Roanoke Island and Newbern in February, 1862, and Fort Fisher in January, 1865. In March, 1865, the battles of Averysboro’ and Bentonville were fought by the armies of Gen. Sherman and J. E. Johnston, which ended in the final surrender of the latter, at Durham Station, April 26, 1865.
Norwich.A city of England, and the capital of the county of Norfolk, on the river Wensum, 108 miles from London. In 1549 the city was the scene of an insurrection resembling that of the Jacquerie in France and the Peasant’s war in Germany. The poor objected to the inclosure of certain commons and waste lands in the neighborhood of Attleborough and Wymondham; fences were thrown down; Robert,aliasKnight, a tanner, a bold and resolute man, headed the rebels, aided by his brother William, a butcher. Their numbers increased, and, marching towards Norwich, they encamped on Mousehold Heath, took possession of the mansion of the Earl of Surrey, and thence proceeded to lay siege to the city. Having augmented their number to 16,000, and strongly fortified their camp, they summoned the city to surrender. For months they maintained hostilities, and the country round was pillaged and laid waste, until at length they gained an entrance to the city. A strong force was sent down for the defense of the city, under the Marquis of Northampton, who was defeated on St. Martin’s Palace plain; the rebels plundered and set fire to the city in many parts. The Earl of Warwick, assisted by his son Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, was then sent to the relief of the citizens. The city was stormed by the king’s troops, and the rebels forced to retreat after a two days’ sharp conflict, during which upwards of 3000 were killed, and the insurgents subdued. About 300 of the ringleaders, including the two Ketts, were executed.
Nose-bag.A bag of stout canvas with a leather bottom, and straps by which it can be hung over a horse’s head. It is used for feeding grain to horses out of stables.
Note.A brief writing intended to assist the memory. Members of courts-martial sometimes take notes. They are frequently necessary to enable a member to bring the whole body of evidence into a connected view, where the case is complex.
Noted.Well known by reputation or report; celebrated; as, a noted commander.
Nottingham.A large town of England, the capital of the county of the same name, 13 miles northeast from Derby. The castle here was defended by the Danes against King Alfred, and his brother Ethelred, who retook it, 868. William the Conqueror erected a castle, and constructed fortifications so strong as to render the place impregnable against any of the methods of attack which were then known. The castle of Nottingham, defended by the royalists, was besieged by the Parliamentary forces under the command of Col. Hutchinson, to whom, after a brave defense, it at length surrendered.
Nottoways.A tribe of Indians who formerly resided in Virginia on the river of the same name. As a distinct race they have ceased to exist.
Novara.A city of Northern Italy, defended by a castle, 53 miles west from Turin. In 1849 the Sardinians were disastrously defeated here by the Austrians; and in 1859 a French corps occupied the town.
Nova Scotia.A province of British North America, connected with New Brunswick by a narrow isthmus lying between Chignecto and Varte Bays. This country was discovered by Cabot in 1497; it was subsequently settled by the French; and came into the possession of the English in 1758.
Novi.A town of Northern Italy, situated at the foot of the Apennines, 13 miles southeast from Alessandria. It is noted for a sanguinary battle fought here in August, 1799, between the French under Joubert and the allied Austro-Russian forces under Suwarrow. The former were defeated, and among 10,000 of the French slain were Joubert and several other distinguished officers.
Noyan(Fr.). In Englishmandril; it also means the whole of the vacant space or bore of a cannon, under which are comprehended the diameter of the mouth, the vacant cylinder, the breech, and the vent. With respect to bombs, grenades, and hollow balls, that which is callednoyanconsists of a globular piece of earth, upon which the cover of bombs, grenades, and hollow balls is cast. The metal is poured in between this cover and the noyan, after which the noyan, or core, is broken, and the earth taken out.
Nubia.A large country of Africa, the ancientÆthiopia supra Ægyptum, said to have been the site of the kingdom of Meroë, received its name from a tribe named Nubes or Nubates. It is now subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been conquered by Ibrahim Pasha in 1822.
Nuddea.A town of British India, in the district of Burdwan, 80 miles north of Calcutta. It was taken and entirely destroyed in 1204.
Nuggar.A term in the East Indies for a fort.
Nuits.A small fortified town near Dijon, in Burgundy, Northeast France. It was frequently captured and ravaged, especially in 1569, 1576, and 1636. It was taken by the Badenese under Von Werder, December 18, 1870, after five hours’ conflict, in which above 1000 French are said to have been killed and wounded, and 700 prisoners taken. The German loss was also heavy. A depot of arms and ammunition was gained by the victors.
Numantia.The chief town of the Celtiberian people, called Arevaci, in ancient Spain, was situated on the Douro, in Old Castile, and is celebrated for the long war of twenty years which it maintained against the Romans. SeeNumantine War.
Numantine War.The war between the Romans and the Celtiberians (Celts who possessed the country near the Iber, nowEbro) began 143B.C., on account of the latter having given refuge to their allies, the Sigidians, who had been defeated by the Romans. Numantia, an unprotected city, withstood a long siege, in which the army of Scipio Africanus, 60,000 men, was opposed by no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The Numantines fed upon horse-flesh, and on their own dead, and at last drew lots to kill one another. At length, those whom plague and famine had spared destroyed themselves, so that no one remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, 133B.C.
Numéros(Fr.). Round pieces of brass or other metal, which were numbered and used in the old French service in the detail of guards.
Numidia.An ancient country of North Africa, the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which began 111B.C., and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last king, Juba, joined Cato, and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46B.C., when Numidia became a Roman province.
Nuncio.An ambassador from the pope.
Nuremberg(Ger.Nürnberg). A town of Bavaria, in the circle of Middle Franconia, stands on the Pegnitz, an affluent of the Regnitz. In 1219 it became a free city, independent of any European power, and as such it continued till it was given over by Napoleon in 1806 to the king of Bavaria. At the Reformation the inhabitants embraced the Protestant cause; and in the Thirty Years’ War they were on the side of the Swedes, and suffered much in 1632, during the blockade which Gustavus Adolphus endured from the imperial forces under Wallenstein. The city was occupied by thePrussians in 1866, and its fortifications demolished.
Nurse.A person whose whole business is to attend the sick in hospital. In the U. S. service, nurses are detailed in post hospitals from the companies who are serving at the post, and are exempt from other duty, but have to attend the parades for weekly inspections and the musters of their companies, unless especially excused by the commanding officer. Ordinarily one nurse is allowed to every ten persons sick in hospital. In the British service there are sergeants, orderly men, and nurses (generally women) in hospitals of regiments of the line.
Nuthall’s Rifle.SeeSmall-arms.
Nyköping.A seaport of Sweden, pleasantly situated on the Baltic, about 60 miles southwest of Stockholm. In 1317 the castle of Nyköping was seized and sacked by the people, who demolished its keep and donjons. In 1719 the town was taken and dismantled by the Russians.
Nystadt.A town of Finland, on the eastern coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, 50 miles south of Biorneborg. Here, in 1721, a treaty was agreed to between Russia and Sweden, by virtue of which all the conquests of Peter the Great along the coasts of the Gulf of Finland were annexed to Russia.
Oakum.A tangled mass of tarred hempen fibres, is made from old rope by untwisting the strands and rubbing the fibres free from each other. Its principal use is in calking the seams between planks, the space round rivets, bolts, etc., for the purpose of preventing water from penetrating.
Oaths, Military.The taking of the oath of fidelity to government and obedience to superior officers, was, among ancient armies, a very solemn affair. A whole corps took the oath together, and sometimes an entire army. The tribunes of every legion chose out one whom they thought the fittest person, and gave him a solemn oath at large, the substance of which was, that he should oblige himself to obey the commanders in all things to the utmost of his power, be ready to attend whenever they ordered his appearance, and never to leave the army but by their consent. After he had ended, the whole legion, passing one by one, every man, in short, swore to the same effect, crying, as he went by,Idem in me, “the same by me.” In modern times when so many other checks are used in maintaining discipline, the oath has become little more than a form. A recruit enlisting in the army or navy, or a volunteer enrolling himself, swears to be faithful to the government, and obedient to all or any of his superior officers. The members of a court-martial take an oath to try the cases brought before them justly, according to the evidence, to keep secret the finding and sentence of the court, until they shall be published by the proper authority, and to keep secret the votes or opinions given by the members individually. The judge-advocate swears that he will not reveal the individual opinions or votes of the members nor the sentence of the court to any but the proper authority. There is also an oath for the members and an oath for the recorder of a court of inquiry. The only other military oath is the common oath of a witness before a court-martial, to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. SeeAppendix,Articles of War.
Obedience(Fr.obéissance). Submission to the orders of a superior. The first principle which ought to be inculcated and impressed upon the mind of every officer and soldier is obedience to all lawful commands. It is the mainspring, the soul and essence of military duty. It is evident that if all officers and soldiers are to judge when an order is lawful and when not, the captious and mutinous would never be at loss for a plea to justify their insubordination. It is, therefore, an established principle, that unless an order is so manifestly against law that the question does not admit of dispute, the order must first be obeyed by the inferior, and he must subsequently seek such redress against his superior as the laws allow. If the inferior disputes the legality before obedience, error of judgment is never admitted in mitigation of the offense. The redress now afforded by the laws to inferiors is not, however, sufficient; for doubtful questions of the construction of statutes, instead of being referred to the Federal courts of law for their true exposition, have received variable expositions from the executive, and left the army in an unfortunate state of uncertainty as to the true meaning of certain laws; and this uncertainty has been most unfavorable to discipline. Again, while the punishment of death is meted to officers and soldiers for disobedience oflawfulcommands, the law does notprotectofficers and soldiers for obeyingunlawfulcommands. Instances have occurred in the United States, where officers and soldiers have been subjected to vexatiousprosecutions, simply for obeying orders according to their oath of office. Would it not be just if the law, instead of requiring officers and soldiers thus nicely to steer between Scylla and Charybdis, should hold the superior who gives an illegal order alone responsible for its execution?
Obedience to Orders.An unequivocal performance of the several duties which are directed to be discharged by military men. All officers and soldiers are to pay obedience to the lawful orders of their superior officers.
Obey, To.In a military sense, is without question or hesitation to conform zealously to all orders and instructions which are legally issued. It sometimes happens that individuals are called upon (by mistake, or from the exigency of the service) out of what is called the regular roster. In either case they must cheerfully obey, and after they have performed their duty they may remonstrate.
Obidos.A town of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura, situated on the Amaya, 45 miles northwest from Lisbon. An engagement took place here between the French and English in 1808.
Object.A word in military movements and evolutions, synonymous withpoint. Thus, in marching forward in line, etc., the guide of a squad, company, or battalion, must take two objects at least to fix his line of march by which the whole body is regulated. As he advances he selects succession objects or points to prolong the line.
Object.The mark aimed at in the fire of small-arms or artillery.
Objective-points.The point to be reached or gained by an army in executing a movement, has been termed the “objective-point.” There are two classes of objectives, viz.,naturalandaccidental. The termgeographicalis frequently used to designate the first of these.
Anatural objectivemay be an important position, strong naturally, or made so by fortifications, the possession of which gives control over a tract of country, and furnishes good points of support or good lines of defense for other military operations. Or, it may be a great business centre, or a capital of a country, the possession of which has the effect of discouraging the enemy and making him willing to sue for peace.
Accidental objectivesare dependent upon the military operations which have for their object the destruction or disintegration of the enemy’s forces. These objectives are sometimes called “objective-points of manœuvre.” The position of the enemy determines their location. Thus, if the enemy’s forces are greatly scattered, or his front much extended, the central point of his position would be a good objective-point, since the possession of it would divide the enemy’s forces, and allow his detachments to be attacked separately. Or, if the enemy has his forces well supported, a good objective would be on that flank, the possession of which would allow his communications with his base to be threatened. It is well to remark that the term “point” used in this connection is not to be considered merely in its geometrical sense, but is used to apply to the object which the army desires to attain, whether it be a position, a place, a line, or even a section of country.—Prof. J. B. Wheeler.
Oblat(Fr.). Disabled soldier formerly maintained by abbeys.
Oblique.In tactics, indicates a direction which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the front, but more or less diagonal. It is a command of warning in the tactics for the movement. It is used in referring to diagonal alignments, attacks, orders of battles, squares against cavalry, changes of front, fires, etc.
Oblique Deployments.When the component parts of a column that is extending into line, deviate to the right or left, for the purpose of taking up an oblique position, its movements are calledobliquedeployments.
Oblique Fire.SeeFire, Oblique.
Oblique Flank.SeeFlank, Oblique.
Oblique Order of Battle.SeeOrder of Battle, Oblique.
Oblique Percussion.Is that wherein the striking body is not perpendicular to the body struck, or is not in line with its centre of gravity.
Oblique Position.Is a position taken in an oblique direction from the original line of formation.
Oblique Projection.Is that wherein the direction of the striking body is not perpendicular to the body struck, which makes an oblique angle with the horizontal line.
Oblique Radius.Is a line extending from the centre to the exterior side of a polygon.
Oblique Step.Is a step or movement in marching, in which the soldier, while advancing, gradually takes ground to the right or left at an angle of about 25°. It is not now practiced.
Oblique, To.In a military sense, is to move forward to the right or left, by obliquing in either of those directions, according to the words of command.
Oblong Projectiles.SeeProjectiles.
Obsequies.SeeFuneral Honors.
Observation, Army of.An army assigned to the duty of observing and checking the movements of an enemy.
Observer Sergeants.In the United States, are sergeants in the signal service, stationed in large towns and important commercial centres, to give timely warning of the approach of storms, rise of rivers, and all other important weather news for the guidance of merchants and others.
Observe, To.To watch closely, etc. Hence,to observethe motions of an enemy, is to keep a good lookout by means of small corps of armed men, or of intelligent and steady spies and scouts, and to be constantlyin possession of information regarding his different movements.
Obsession.The act of besieging.
Obsidional.Belonging to a siege.
Obsidional Crown(Fr.couronne obsidionale). A crown so called among the ancient Romans, which was bestowed upon a governor or general, who by his skill and exertions, either held out or caused the siege to be raised of any town belonging to the republic. It was made from the grass which grew on the spot, and was therefore calledgramineus(Lat.gramen, “grass”).
Obsidionale Monnaie(Fr.). Any substitute for coin which has a value put upon it that is greater than its intrinsic worth; and a currency given to answer the convenience of the inhabitants of a besieged place.
Obstacles.Are narrow passes, woods, bridges, or any other impediments which present themselves when a battalion is marching to front or rear; or abatis, crows-feet, palisades, etc., which, being placed in the glacis of a fortress, obstruct the operations of an assaulting party.
Obstinate.In a military sense, means determined; fixed in resolution; as, an obstinate resistance.
Obstruct.To block up; to stop up or close, as a way or passage; to fill with obstacles or impediments that prevent passing; as, to obstruct a road, highway, channel, etc.
Obstruction.The act of obstructing, or the state of being obstructed. Also, that which obstructs or impedes; obstacle; impediment; hindrance.
Obtain.To get hold of by effort; to gain possession of.
Obus, orObusier(Fr.). A species of small mortar, resembling a mortar in everything but the carriage, which was made in the form of that belonging to a gun, only shorter. It has been frequently used at sieges; and was well calculated to sweep the covert way, and to fire ricochet shots. They were usually loaded with cartouches.
Obusier(Fr.). Howitzer, calledhaubitzby the Dutch. In 1434 it was known under the name ofhusenicze.
Oc.A Turkish arrow.
Ocana.A town of Spain, in New Castile, 33 miles southeast from Madrid. Near here the Spaniards were defeated by the French, commanded by Mortier and Soult, November 19, 1809.
Occasion(Fr.). Has the same signification in military matters thataffairbears among the French.Une occasion bien chaude, a warm contest, battle, or engagement; it further means, as with us, the source from whence consequences ensue.Les malheurs du peuple sont arrivés à l’occasion de la guerre, “the misfortunes of the people have been occasioned by the war,” or “the war has been the occasion of the people’s misfortunes.” The French make a nice distinction which may hold good in our language, between cause and occasion, viz.:Il n’en est pas la cause,—il n’en est que l’occasion, l’occasion innocente,—“He is not the cause, he is only the occasion, the innocent occasion of it.”
Occupation.The state of occupying or taking possession. Also, the state of being occupied or possessed; possession.
Occupation, Army of.An army which invades an enemy’s country and establishes itself in it either temporarily or permanently, is termed anarmy of occupation.
Occupy.Is a military phrase for taking possession of a work or fort, or to remain stationary in any place.
Octagon.A figure or polygon that has eight equal sides, which likewise form eight equal angles. The octagon in fortification is well calculated in its ground for the construction of large towns, or for such as have the advantage of neighboring rivers, especially if the engineer can so place the bastions, that the entrances and outlets of the rivers may be in some of the curtains. By means of this disposition no person could come in or go out of the garrison without the commandant’s permission, as the sentinels must have a full view from the flanks of the neighboring bastions.
Oczakov, orOtshakov. A town of Russia in Europe, in the government of Cherson, near the mouth of the Dnieper. This place was once the object of obstinate contests between the Turks and Russians.
Oda.The different corps or companies into which the Janissaries were divided bore this appellation. The word itself means a room, and the companies were so called from messing separately.
Oda-Bachi.Captain superintending the gunners at Constantinople.
Odas.Company of soldiers.
Odessa.A fortified seaport of European Russia, in the government of Cherson, on a small bay of the Black Sea between the Dniester and Dnieper, 85 miles west from Kherson. In the beginning of the 15th century the Turks constructed a fortress here, which was taken by the Russians in 1789. On the outbreak of the Crimean war, April, 1854, the British steamer “Furious” went to Odessa for the purpose of bringing away the British consul. While under a flag of truce, she was fired upon by the batteries of the city. On the failure of the written message from the admiral in command of the fleet to obtain explanations, 12 war-steamers invested Odessa, April 22, and in a few hours destroyed the fortifications, blew up the powder-magazines, and took a number of Russian vessels. On May 12, the English frigate “Tiger” stranded here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The captain, Giffard, and many of his men were killed, and the rest made prisoners.
Odius.A herald in the camp of the Greeks before Troy.
Odometer.An instrument attached to the wheel of a carriage to measure distances in traveling, indicating on a dialthe number of revolutions made by the wheel.
Odrysæ.The most powerful people in Thrace, dwelt, according to Herodotus, on both sides of the river Artiscus, a tributary of the Hebrus, but also spread farther west over the whole plain of the Hebrus. Their king Teres retained his independence of the Persians 508B.C.Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, and in 429 aided the Athenians against Perdiccas II. of Macedon with an army of 150,000 men. Sitalces was killed in battle with the Triballi, 424. Cotys, another king (382-353), disputed the possession of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens; after nine or ten years’ warfare, Philip II. of Macedon reduced the Odrysæ to tributaries.
Œniadæ(nowTriyardon, orTrikhardo). An ancient town of Acarnania, situated on the Achelous, near its mouth. Œniadæ espoused the cause of the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. At the time of Alexander the Great, the town was taken by the Ætolians, who expelled the inhabitants; but the Ætolians were expelled in their turn by Philip V., king of Macedonia, who surrounded the place with fortifications. The Romans captured and restored the town to the Acarnanians 211B.C.
Œnophyta(nowInia). A town in Bœotia, on the left bank of the Asopus, and on the road from Tanagra to Oropus, memorable for the victory gained here by the Athenians over the Bœotians, 456B.C.
Oesel.An island belonging to Russia, stretches across the mouth of the Gulf of Riga. It at one time belonged to the Teutonic knights, but was seized by the Danes at an early period, and ceded by them to Sweden in 1645. In the beginning of the 18th century it was taken possession of by Russia, to which power it was finally ceded in 1721.
Ofanto(anc.Aufidus). A river of Naples, which rises in the province of Principato Ultra, and after a course of 75 miles flows into the Adriatic, 4 miles from Barletta. Near its mouth was fought the famous battle of Cannæ, in which the Romans were defeated by Hannibal.
Off, To Go.To be discharged, as a gun.
Off, To March.To quit the ground on which you are regularly drawn up, for the purpose of going upon detachment, relieving a guard, or doing any other military duty.
Off, To Tell.To count the men composing a battalion or company, so as to have them readily and distinctly thrown into such proportions as suit military movements or evolutions.
Offa’s Dyke.An intrenchment from the Wye to the Dee, England, made by Offa, king of Mercia, to defend his country from the incursions of the Welsh, 779.
Offense, Weapons of.Those which are used in attack, in distinction from those ofdefense, which are used to repel.
Offenses.All acts that are contrary to good order and discipline, omissions of duty, etc., may be called military offenses. The principal ones are specified in theArticles of War(which see). No officer or soldier can be tried twice for the same offense, unless in the case of an appeal; nor can any officer or soldier be tried for any offense committed more than two years before the date of the order for trial, unless in cases where through some manifest impediment the offenders were not amenable to justice in that period, when they may be brought to trial any time within two years after the impediment has ceased.
Offensive.Used in attack; assailant; opposed todefensive; as, an offensive weapon or engine. Making the first attack; assailant; invading: opposed todefensive; as, an offensive war.
Offensive and Defensive Fireworks.SeePyrotechny.
Offensive and Defensive League.A league that requires both or all parties to make war together against a nation, and each party to defend the other in case of being attacked.
Offensive and Defensive Operations.Are operations the object of which is not only to prevent the enemy’s advance, but to attack him whenever there is a favorable opportunity which promises success.
Offensive Fortification.SeeFortification.
Offensive War.Military acts of aggression constitute what is called anoffensive war. Those who assail an opposite or adverse army, or invade the dominions of another power, are said to wage anoffensive war.
Office.Any place or department appointed for the officers and clerks to attend in, for the discharge of their respective employments; as, the adjutant-general’s office, etc.
Office of Ordnance.SeeBoard of OrdnanceandOrdnance Office.
Officer, Brevet.SeeBrevet.
Officer, Field-.SeeField-officer.
Officer, General.SeeGeneral Officer.
Officer in Waiting.In the British service, the officer next for duty is so called. He is also mentioned in orders, and ought to be ready for the service specified at a minute’s warning. He must not on this account quit the camp, garrison, or cantonment.
Officer, Non-commissioned.SeeNon-commissioned Officer.
Officer of the Day.Is an officer whose immediate duty is to attend to the interior economy of the corps or garrison to which he belongs, or of those with which he may be doing duty. The officer of the day has charge of the guard, prisoners, and police of the garrison, inspects the soldiers’ barracks, messes, hospital, etc.
Officer of the Guard.An officer detailed daily for service with the guard. It is his duty, under the officer of the day, to see that the non-commissioned officers and menof his guard are well instructed in all their duties, he inspects the reliefs, visits the sentinels, is responsible for the prisoners and the property used by them and the guard; he is also responsible for good order, alertness, and discipline, and should never quit his guard duty unless properly relieved.
Officer, To.To furnish with officers; to appoint officers over.
Officers.Commissioned officers are all those officers of a government who receive their commissions from the executive, and are of various grades from the ensign to the marshal, all of which see under their respective headings. SeeAppointing PowerandCommissions.
Officers, Marine.All those who command in that body of troops employed in the sea service.
Officers, Staff-.Are all those officers who are not attached to regiments, whose duties extend over the whole, or a large section, such as a brigade or a division; such as the adjutant-general, the quartermaster-general, etc., and their subordinates, together with brigade-majors and aides-de-camp. The regimental staff-officers are those who are not attached to companies; they are the adjutant and quartermaster, in the U. S. service, and in European armies the surgeon, paymaster, adjutant, assistant-surgeon, and quartermaster. SeeStaff.
Officers, Subaltern.Are all those officers below the grade of captain.
Officers, Warrant-.Are those who have no commissions, but only warrants from such boards or persons as are authorized by law to grant them. The only warrant-officers in the British service are master-gunners and schoolmasters. Technically the non-commissioned officers of the U. S. army are not warrant-officers, though they are appointed by warrants.
Official.All orders, reports, applications, memorials, etc., which pass through the regular channels of communication, are called official.
Official Courtesies.The interchange of official compliments and visits between foreign military or naval officers and the authorities of a military post are international in character. In all cases it is the duty of the commandant of a military post, without regard to his rank, to send a suitable officer to offer civilities and assistance to a vessel of war (foreign or otherwise) recently arrived. After such offer it is the duty of the commanding officer of the vessel to send a suitable officer to acknowledge such civilities, and request that a time be specified for his reception by the commanding officer of the post. The commanding officer of the post, after the usual offer of civilities, is always to receive the first visit without regard to rank. The return visit by the commanding officer of the military post is made the following day, or as soon thereafter as practicable.
When a military commander officially visits a vessel of war he gives notice of his visit to the vessel previously thereto, or sends a suitable officer (or an orderly) to the gangway to announce his presence, if such notice has not been given. He is then received at the gangway by the commander of the vessel, and is accompanied there on leaving by the same officer. The officer who is sent with the customary offer of civilities is met at the gangway of a vessel of war by the officer of the deck; through the latter he is presented to the commander of the vessel, with whom it is his duty to communicate.
When a civil functionary entitled to a salute arrives at a military post, the commanding officer meets or calls upon him as soon as practicable. The commanding officer tenders a review, provided the garrison of the place is not less than four companies of troops. When an officer entitled to a salute visits a post within his own command, the troops are paraded and he receives the honor of a review, unless he directs otherwise. When a salute is to be given an officer junior to another present at a post, the senior will be notified to that effect by the commanding officer. Military or naval officers of whatever rank, arriving at a military post or station, are expected to call upon the commanding officer. Under no circumstances is the flag of a military postdippedby way of salute or compliment.
Officially.By the proper officer; by virtue of the proper authority; in pursuance of the special powers vested; as, accounts or reports officially verified or rendered; letters officially communicated; persons officially notified.
Off-reckonings.A specific account was so called which existed between the government and colonels of British regiments for the clothing of the men.
Ogee, orOgive. In pieces of ordnance, an ornamental molding on guns, mortars, and howitzers.
Ogival.The form given the head of oblong projectiles. It was found by Borda that this shape experienced less resistance from the air than any other.
Ohio.One of the Western States of the American Confederacy, lying between Lakes Michigan, Erie, and the Ohio River. In 1680, La Salle explored the State, and built a military post on the Ohio, which the French claimed; but in 1763 they relinquished it. The first settlement was made subsequent to the Revolution, a company of New Englanders having settled at Marietta in April, 1788. The early inhabitants were much annoyed by incursions of the Indians, who had successively defeated Gens. Harmar and St. Clair (the latter with great slaughter of his troops, leaving scarcely one-fourth) in 1791 and 1792, but were themselves in turn utterly routed by Gen. Wayne in August, 1794. Ohio was admitted as a State in 1802. In the second war with Great Britain, Ohio suffered greatly from raids by the British and Indians. Fort Sandusky was attackedby Gen. Proctor, with 500 regulars and as many Indians, and was successfully defended by Maj. Croghan, a youth of twenty-one years, with 160 men. But the most important action which occurred was the naval engagement on Lake Erie, fought at Put-in-Bay, September 10, 1813, in which Commodore O. H. Perry defeated a superior British fleet under command of Barclay. Ohio contributed greatly to the cause of the Union in the late civil war; she sent her full quotas of troops to the field, and the women attended to the sick and wounded with untiring zeal. The State was twice invaded by Confederate guerrillas, but suffered no material damage.
Oillets, orŒillets. Apertures for firing through in the walls of a fort.
Ojibways.SeeChippewas.
Okanagans, orCutsanim. A semi-civilized tribe of Indians who, to the number of about 300, reside to the east of the Cascade Mountains, in Washington Territory.
Olcades.An ancient people in Hispania Tarraconensis, north of Carthago Nova, nearer the sources of the Anas, in a part of the country afterwards inhabited by the Oretani. They are mentioned only in the wars of the Carthaginians with the inhabitants of Spain.
Oldensworth(Denmark). A conference was held here in 1713, between Peter the Great and Frederick IV. of Denmark.
Olifant, orOliphant(Fr.). A horn which a paladin or knight sounded in token of defiance, or as a challenge.
Olinde.A sort of sword-blade.
Olivenza.A fortified town of Spain, in Estremadura, situated on the Guadiana, 16 miles southwest from Badajos. This town was ceded by Portugal to Spain in 1801; and for having arranged this cession, Godoy received his title of “Prince of Peace.” In 1811 it was taken by the French.
Olmütz.The chief fortress of Moravia, in the district of the same name, in Austria, 40 miles north-northeast from Brünn. Olmütz was taken by the Swedes during the Thirty Years’ War; but was besieged in vain for seven weeks by Frederick the Great in 1758. Lafayette was confined here in 1794. A conference was held here November 29, 1850, under the czar Nicholas, when the difficulties between Austria and Prussia respecting the affairs of Hesse-Cassel were arranged.
Olot.A town of Spain, in the province of Gerona, 85 miles from Barcelona. It figured and suffered much in the war of independence, being a strong point, and passed alternately into the hands of French and Spaniards, until the latter dismantled the fortifications. In the civil war of 1856 and 1857 it was much coveted and frequently attacked by the Carlists, but unsuccessfully.
Oltenitza.A fortified village of Turkey in Europe, in Wallachia, situated on the Danube, 2 miles north from Turtukai. A Turkish force having crossed the Danube under Omar Pasha, established themselves at Oltenitza in spite of the vigorous attacks of the Russians, who were repulsed with loss November 2-3, 1853. On November 4, a desperate attempt to dislodge the Turks by Gen. Danneberg with 9000 men, was defeated with great loss.