FOOTNOTES:

FOOTNOTES:[47]It is, moreover, not unreasonable to suppose that the Union Government found the example of Natal of considerable assistance when passing its already well-known Defence Act of 1911.[48]Commandant of Militia (Brig. Gen. Leader),Annual Report. See note, p. 45, where it is shown that a much larger numbervolunteeredfor service.[49]Regulations, No. 110.[50]The Act did not, however, come into force until March, 1904.[51]Act No. 30, 1905, sec. 1 substituted "Colonel" for "Major-General."[52]The members of the Cabinet were: C.J. Smythe,Prime Minister and Colonial Secretary; J.G. Maydon,Railways and Harbours; T. Hyslop,Treasurer; T. Watt,Justice(includingDefence)and Education; H.D. Winter,Native Affairs and Public Works; and W.F. Clayton,Agriculture.[53]Up to June, 1900, however, the approximate number of officers and men raised in Natal (inclusive of local Volunteer corps) was 9,500. Of those who did not belong to local corps, many, besides Natalians, were men from England, Transvaal, Orange Free State, etc., temporarily resident within the Colony.[54]Col. Bru-de-Wold first entered the Natal Volunteer forces as a trooper in 1873. He served throughout the Zulu War of 1879 (medal with clasp) and the Boer War, 1899-1902 (twice mentioned in dispatches, Queen's and King's medals with three clasps). By the end of the latter war he had risen to the rank of Major. He was awarded C.M.G. in 1900, in recognition of special services rendered by him during the Boer War.[55]Major T.H. Blew, Chief Staff Officer, Natal, May, 1912.[56]He assumed in August, but acted until October, the holder of the appointment being technically on leave.[57]Commandant of Militia (Col. Bru-de-Wold),Annual Report, 1906. With an establishment of 2,500, the figures at 31st December, 1905, of the different arms were approximately: Naval corps, 100; Mounted Rifles, 1,330; Artillery, 350; Infantry, 580; Departmental corps, 140. Total, 2,500.[58]Commandant of Militia (Col. Bru-de-Wold),Annual Report, 1906.[59]Sec. 32, Militia Act, 1903.[60]The same weakness appears to exist in the present South African Defence scheme.[61]Commandant of Militia (Col. Bru-de-Wold),Annual Report, 1906.[62]Ibid.[63]The Langalibalele Rebellion occurred between Estcourt and the Drakensberg Mountains. The words quoted are from the Commandant'sAnnual Report, 1906.[64]Several sections of maps (Major Jackson's series), Field Intelligence Department, Pretoria, were issued at the outset and proved very useful.[65]Commandant of Militia (Col. Bru-de-Wold),Annual Report, 1906.[66]Departmental Reportfor 1905 and 1906.[67]i.e.spears. Some of these are used for throwing—the average distance thrown being 50-60 yards—whilst hold is retained of the larger-bladed ones for stabbing on coming to close quarters.[68]On the cessation of hostilities all the foregoing irregular corps were gradually disbanded, the services of Royston's Horse and the Natal Rangers being the last to be dispensed with.[69]The guns were taken to Natal by Sir John Dartnell, and arrived in time to be of the greatest assistance.

[47]It is, moreover, not unreasonable to suppose that the Union Government found the example of Natal of considerable assistance when passing its already well-known Defence Act of 1911.

[48]Commandant of Militia (Brig. Gen. Leader),Annual Report. See note, p. 45, where it is shown that a much larger numbervolunteeredfor service.

[49]Regulations, No. 110.

[50]The Act did not, however, come into force until March, 1904.

[51]Act No. 30, 1905, sec. 1 substituted "Colonel" for "Major-General."

[52]The members of the Cabinet were: C.J. Smythe,Prime Minister and Colonial Secretary; J.G. Maydon,Railways and Harbours; T. Hyslop,Treasurer; T. Watt,Justice(includingDefence)and Education; H.D. Winter,Native Affairs and Public Works; and W.F. Clayton,Agriculture.

[53]Up to June, 1900, however, the approximate number of officers and men raised in Natal (inclusive of local Volunteer corps) was 9,500. Of those who did not belong to local corps, many, besides Natalians, were men from England, Transvaal, Orange Free State, etc., temporarily resident within the Colony.

[54]Col. Bru-de-Wold first entered the Natal Volunteer forces as a trooper in 1873. He served throughout the Zulu War of 1879 (medal with clasp) and the Boer War, 1899-1902 (twice mentioned in dispatches, Queen's and King's medals with three clasps). By the end of the latter war he had risen to the rank of Major. He was awarded C.M.G. in 1900, in recognition of special services rendered by him during the Boer War.

[55]Major T.H. Blew, Chief Staff Officer, Natal, May, 1912.

[56]He assumed in August, but acted until October, the holder of the appointment being technically on leave.

[57]Commandant of Militia (Col. Bru-de-Wold),Annual Report, 1906. With an establishment of 2,500, the figures at 31st December, 1905, of the different arms were approximately: Naval corps, 100; Mounted Rifles, 1,330; Artillery, 350; Infantry, 580; Departmental corps, 140. Total, 2,500.

[58]Commandant of Militia (Col. Bru-de-Wold),Annual Report, 1906.

[59]Sec. 32, Militia Act, 1903.

[60]The same weakness appears to exist in the present South African Defence scheme.

[61]Commandant of Militia (Col. Bru-de-Wold),Annual Report, 1906.

[62]Ibid.

[63]The Langalibalele Rebellion occurred between Estcourt and the Drakensberg Mountains. The words quoted are from the Commandant'sAnnual Report, 1906.

[64]Several sections of maps (Major Jackson's series), Field Intelligence Department, Pretoria, were issued at the outset and proved very useful.

[65]Commandant of Militia (Col. Bru-de-Wold),Annual Report, 1906.

[66]Departmental Reportfor 1905 and 1906.

[67]i.e.spears. Some of these are used for throwing—the average distance thrown being 50-60 yards—whilst hold is retained of the larger-bladed ones for stabbing on coming to close quarters.

[68]On the cessation of hostilities all the foregoing irregular corps were gradually disbanded, the services of Royston's Horse and the Natal Rangers being the last to be dispensed with.

[69]The guns were taken to Natal by Sir John Dartnell, and arrived in time to be of the greatest assistance.

ZULU MILITARY SYSTEM AND CONNECTED CUSTOMS.[70]

(With a Note on the Rebel Organization, 1906.)

Asa result of the precarious conditions of living anterior to Tshaka's accession (about 1814), each of the then more or less independent Chiefs of Zululand was obliged to establish a kind of militia force for employment in defensive or aggressive operations as circumstances demanded. Owing to this prevalence of all-round isolation, it was impossible for any Chief to do otherwise than send into the field heterogeneously formed groups of warriors—old and young fighting side by side. The character of warfare of those days was, in consequence, of a very mild description. When, however, Tshaka becameChief of the Zulu tribe, and, by a policy of vigorous aggression, succeeded in obtaining the allegiance of other tribes, it became possible for him greatly to extend and perfect the system, learnt from his friend and protector Dingiswayo, of recruiting regiments on an age basis.[71]And, once he had acquired a force more efficient and powerful than that of other tribes, only time was wanted to enable him to extend his operations and add still further to the strength and efficiency of his army.

With the various tribes knit together into one nation, the establishment and development of what is known as the Zulu Military System,i.e.Tshaka's system, became for the first time possible. Thus, this engine of war, as we now know it, was simply the outcome of a successful application of principles superior in themselves to those of surrounding tribes, and its pre-eminence and dominion were won by intrinsic merit and genius rather than by accident or sheer force of numbers. We proceed, then, to describe what came into being about one hundred years ago and continued to exist until 1879.

The whole manhood of the country was liable for service. In practice, however, a few exceptions were allowed—among them diviners and those physically or mentally unfit. The total strength averaged from 40,000 to 50,000, though, on special occasions, it rose to 60,000 or even higher.

Each man was armed with a stabbing assegai and one or more throwing ones, also an ox or cow-hide shield. About fifteen to twenty royal kraals were established in various well-inhabited parts of the country. Some of these were used as military barracks, and were known asamakanda(heads). Large numbers of warriors were, moreover, usually stationed at the principal royal kraal.All these kraals, being composed of wood and wattles, and the huts covered with grass, were occasionally moved to fresh sites in their respective localities whilst retaining their names.

Regiments were constantly being formed, more by automatic than independent process. This is seen from the fact that every boy of about sixteen was required to serve as a cadet at thekandawithin whose jurisdiction his father's kraal happened to fall. Every two years or so, when the lads were old enough to be formed into a regiment, they were "collected" from the variousamakanda, and marched off to the King for inspection, when the latter gave them their new or regimental title. The destination of the new regiment depended on circumstances. It might, if numerous, be directed to go to some district and build and live in akandaof its own, or it might be ordered, wholly or in part, to serve at one or more of the already existingamakanda, where, of course, they would profit by the older men's experience. Thus, at these barracks one frequently found men of various ages, notwithstanding that recruitment had invariably taken place on the basis of age. It was from the fact of cadets being "collected" that the wordibuto(regiment) was probably derived.

Theamakandawere designed and built in accordance with a plan common to all. For instance, the barracks of a regiment, according as they were on the right or left side as one entered the principal gate below, were technically described, so with various other sections of such right or left side, down to the gate referred to or up to the King's harem at the top. Thus, it was possible for any soldier to define exactly where he belonged, even though the rows of huts were three or more deep. In the case of the largest regiments,e.g.Tulwana, the men, according to the portions occupied, would be given distinguishing names. Thus, in Tulwana, one found the Zisongo, Mkingoma, etc., divisions on the right, whilst Amabunsumana, Ingoye, etc., were on the left—each of them, by the way, nearly as large as an ordinary regiment.

The principal motive for keeping up this huge organization, once the safety of the State was assured, was for attacking neighbouring tribes, generally on the slightest pretext, and making them subject to the State by looting as many of their cattle as possible. This, in fact, was but another expression of the mercenary ideal which even civilized nations of to-day seem to keep before them.

Until an age between thirty-five and forty had been reached, the warriors were not permitted to marry or even to associate with girls. Nor might girls marry men of any age until special authority had been given. Girls, too, were "collected" into classes, though not required to serve at anykanda.

It was on some such occasion as the great Feast of the First Fruits, held annually about the first week in January, that the King himself gave permission to a regiment or a class of girls to marry. This was granted, not to individuals, but to a particular regiment or classen bloc. Special directions were also given as to what regiment or regiments any particular class of girls should marry into.

Before, however, receiving permission to marry, a regiment required royal approval to conform to the ancient practice of assuming theisicocoor headring. As this ring, made of wax and strips of sedge bound round with cord, was sewn into the hair by means of ox-sinew, it sometimes happened that an aggressive military expedition was arranged to take place beyond the borders of the State "for the purpose of fetching the necessary sinew"—a metonymic expression, where "sinew" stands for "cattle." The head was shaved on the crown and sides when the ring was put on.

Owing to this wearing of the headring—once on never removed[72]—the warriors became roughly divided into two great sections, (a) the headringed, (b) those without the ring. The former were known as the "white" Zulus, the latter as the "black"—the colour of the first beingprobably derived from the glittering of the highly polished ebony-like rings or the preponderatingly white colour of the shields they carried, whilst that of the latter was from their heads all being jet black from the uniform colour of their hair, or from the amount of black in their shields.

In charge of eachkandawas an officer as well as others of subordinate rank. Upon these devolved the responsibility of seeing that all within the military district rendered a reasonable amount of service in each year. Owing to a wonderfully efficient system of control, evasions rarely occurred.

With the lapse of time, and on account of the perpetually recurring warfare, it followed members of any given regiment became greatly diminished. Thus, although the names of perhaps forty to forty-five regiments could be furnished as having been enrolled since Tshaka became King, all but eighteen to twenty would, at any given period, have been of little real use. This is best appreciated by recalling the fact that "collection" began at eighteen or nineteen, that a regiment was, as a rule, formed after every two years, and that, after a man reaches the age of fifty-five or sixty, he is unfit to undertake the exertion of long and rapid marches on foot. The power to mobilize for war lay with the King, though for some years it became customary for him to seek permission of Mnkabayi (grand-aunt of Cetshwayo), who lived in the north-west of Zululand. For all occurrences of a sudden and local kind,e.g.raid, insurrection, or breach of the peace, the resident officer or induna had authority to call out men under his command. Indeed, it was his duty to do so, and one which he dared not neglect.

At the head of each regiment was an induna or commanding officer, generally a good deal older than the men of his corps. There was also a second in command, together with junior officers. The strength of regiments varied greatly; the maximum of one might be 700, of another 4,000. There was also subdivision into companies, known asamaviyo, with 50 to 60 or more men apiece. Eachviyohad two junior officers. Thesecompanies originated at theamakandaduring the days of cadetship. Members associated early with one another, grew up and kept together. If, however, any such group was too small, batches of others, from otheramakanda, were "thrown into" them on arrival at headquarters to make up aviyo. As cadets, there was no appointed induna to a company.Amaviyodiminished in size as time went on,—from death, desertion (to Natal), or by being put to death by the King. For instance, shortly before the Zulu War, Cetshwayo sent a force on purpose to put so-called invalids (but really malingerers) to death. Many, again, to evade military service, became diviners, who, as has been remarked, obtained exemption as a matter of course. These were, with notable and necessary exceptions, collected by Mpande into a regiment of their own, and ordered to live in a single kraal. This device had the effect of checking the prevailing craze.

When reduced,amaviyowere often combined with others of their own age, though younger men were often added. The reason for so keeping up the strength of regiments was to cause the enemy to respect them and not treat them with contempt. Certain corps, again, were made abnormally large so that notwithstanding wastage through sickness, etc., when on the march, their size, on reaching the enemy, would still appear formidable.

From what has been said, it can be seen there was no such thing as retirement from service. When Tshaka dispatched his army to Sotshangana, a Chief living on the coast beyond Delagoa Bay, he insisted on every available person going, even old men who no longer left their homes.

During the period of cadetship, known asuku-xeza, from commonly milking the royal cows they herded into their mouths, boys learnt the use of the national weapon, the assegai orumkonto. The proficiency then attained remained with them through life, hence there was practically no special training necessary in after years. There were no special exercises in throwing or stabbing, in guarding with their 5-ft. oval shields, or in marching,running, manœuvring, etc. The fact that the people were a pastoral race and spent the greater portion of their lives in the open under exacting conditions stood them in good stead.

There was nothing in the shape of remuneration for service, either in time of war or of peace. Nor was compensation given for any injuries received in war. Offences were punished by the indunas, but punishment never took the form of imprisonment for obvious reasons. In regard to the younger warriors, it was invariably severe beating about the body administered by the indunas.

Although no oath of allegiance was prescribed, not a soul ever dared question the right of the King to call him out, or failed to render instant and loyal service of the most arduous description.

The Zulu army took on the character more of a permanent militia than of a standing army. Although required to serve at the variousamakanda, service was not obligatory for more than a reasonable period, say two or three months per annum. And, as with Europeans, men of a given regiment were under the orders of only their own officers.

Just as the whole nation was compelled to render military service, so, in time of need, all aliens who owed or pretended to owe allegiance to the King were called upon to assist. Tshaka, on more than one occasion, insisted on Fynn, Isaacs and others taking part in his operations.

Zulus erected defences, but only to the extent of what is known as the outer fence of the kraal. The cattle enclosure was frequently made much higher and stronger than was necessary to keep the cattle from getting out on their own accord. But the latter provision was a protection more against wild beasts than human foes. Where it was necessary to obtain protection against a too powerful enemy, the people fled, with their property, to caves, precipices, forests or other places in their immediate neighbourhood.

The uniforms, a most striking characteristic of the army, varied with the different regiments. They werelavishly ornamental, and composed almost entirely of feathers, cow-tails and hides. The birds chiefly favoured were the ostrich, lorie, crane and sakabuli (jet-black finch, with especially long and beautiful tail feathers); the animals were: blue monkey, civet cat or genet, otter, leopard and the ordinary cow. All wore the bushy portion of cow-tails (generally white) tied round at the elbows, wrists, below the knees, and the neck (falling over the chest). Some had kilts; the majority, loose coverings of various hides. Many, again, wore ear-flaps of different hides and designs, also bands tied round the head across the forehead, of otter or leopard skin. The feathers were worn about the head singly, also in large rounded or otherwise artistically-shaped tufts and plumes. Every man carried one or more assegais and a large war-shield of ox or cow-hide capable of completely covering him. It sometimes happened the principal distinguishing feature of a regiment was the colour of its shield; for instance, all might have black and white, or red and white, red only, black only, white with small black patches, or a single regiment might have two or more types of shields. The shield Tshaka himself carried was a great snow-white one, with a small black patch slightly to the left of the centre, and there stood planted erect in his hair a solitary crane-feather fully two feet long.

No portion of the uniform, arms or equipment belonged to the King or government. All was privately owned. It, however, often happened that iron-smiths,—many of whom flourished in the neighbourhood of Nkandhla forest and on the Imfolozi River—were required by the King to manufacture assegais for the troops. Once presented—but only to men known to be brave and daring—they became the property of the warriors. The cutting of shields was the work of experts.

In all affairs of State, civil and military, the King was assisted by a small privy council as well as a national non-elective assembly. There was a recognized commander-general of the forces properly equipped with an efficient staff.

One of the leading features, especially in Tshaka's day, was the system of espionage. Skilled and intrepid observers were frequently sent out, before the beginning of a campaign, to collect all the intelligence they could of the enemy's strength, property (especially cattle), strongholds, grain, etc. To find their way about, they were obliged to resort to much ingenious cunning and daring.

Orders were transmitted from kraal to kraal, as also in the field, by messengers,i.e.verbally. There was, indeed, no other form of communication, excepttête-a-tête. The messages were almost invariably correctly delivered, due to constant training in childhood when, of course, the same mode was observed.

The officers did not wear any badges of rank, though, as only men of high status were permitted to wear such ornaments as leopard-skin and lorie feathers, there was no difficulty in inferring their rank.[73]

Decorations were of several forms. A man who had killed another in war wore about his shoulders and chest a long rope made of pieces of willow about half an inch long and of equal thickness, the ends being charred and stripped of bark; or a necklace of horns, with charred blocks of willow intervening.

Although there was no remuneration for service, the King was liberal in his rewards for valour in battle. A hero had doled out to him as many as ten fine cattle at a time, but only one who had been the first to rush into and among the enemy would be so treated.

Attached to every army were carriers, known as theudibi. These were usually numerous and marched two or three miles off on the right or left flank of the main body. This was the only means of transport, for Zulus had no horses or vehicles. The sleeping-mats and karosses or blankets of indunas and junior officers were borne by the carriers, as also provisions and equipment belonging to different members of the army. Another of their dutieswas to drive along a herd of cattle for purposes of consumption whilst the troops were on the march.

The interior economy of every regiment was regulated by a few plain unwritten rules, common to the whole army.

During peace-time, such soldiers as were serving either at headquarters or at any of the country barracks, were kept occupied in such ways as constructing or repairing kraals, cattle enclosures, fences or other work of a public character, the necessary poles, wattles, branches, reeds, fibrous plants, etc., being cut and carried by themselves; they also hoed, sowed, weeded and harvested the royal crops. Small groups and individuals were constantly engaged in smaller matters, such as carrying grain to or from a distance, or conveying messages to or from men of high position in all parts of the country, etc. Occasionally great hunts were organized for killing such game as buffalo, gnu, wild pigs, waterbuck, koodoo and other antelopes, or such wild animals as lions, elephants, rhinoceros or leopards.

Among the amusements were: dancing in large numbers, the men being arranged in semi-circular formation,—after one group had danced it was succeeded by another, women and even cattle, also fantastically dressed men, taking part in each pageant; dancingpas seuls(giya) in the presence of many assembled and applauding comrades; singing national and regimental war-songs; chanting national anthems; and last, but not least, shouting out some portion of the King's interminable praises, including the equally lengthy ones of his ancestors, or listening to one or other of the professional heralds doing so for hours at a time, until he got so hoarse as to be barely audible.

In addition to all this, there were religious observances, as also gatherings at which actual or supposed malefactors of all kinds were "smelt out" by diviners, only to be subsequently either put to death or heavily punished by order of the King. The execution of such orders, like everything else, was left to one or other of the regiments, for the whole nation lived perpetually under a state of martial law. And such state (can it be surprised at?)bore fruits of physical soundness, alertness and morality in the people, every man noble and energetic, every woman modest and comely. Those were the days when, as the lowing herds came home to be milked, one heard these fine fellows proudly shouting in reply:Kala, 'nkomo ya kwa Zulu, wen'o nga soze waya ndawo,i.e.Low on, oh cow of Zululand! whose hoof shall tread no alien soil.

Mobilization took place in this way: The King sent an order to the officers in charge at the variousamakandarequiring all men to collect at their respective barracks. The order was instantly re-transmitted by the officers to those in their respective commands, the utmost pains being taken to mobilize with rapidity, for fear the King might direct seizure of stock for dilatoriness. Those within fifteen miles of the royal kraal assembled there within twenty-four hours. There might be thirty to fortyamaviyoof them, a number of different regiments being represented. The King then reviewed the force and directed those present to separate themselves into regiments and companies, in order that he could see what proportion of each corps was present. He would then discuss with them his war affairs, and afterwards issue instructions as to where they were to bivouac.[74]Those whose barracks were near by might put up there, others had to camp in neighbouring specified valleys. Cattle were given for slaughter. Thus, the troops began at once to establish their camps, so that warriors from more distant parts were able, as they came up, to ascertain where the regiments they belonged to were, and fall in without loss of time. In the meantime, further messengers had reached each outlying post to enquire urgently when the men of that part would be ready. A report of the position was sent back, and redoubled efforts put forth to ensure the earliest possible attendance. In two to five days, according to the circumstances, the whole of the regiments were called to headquarters. They then, of course, went forward in regimental order divided into companies. Ifthe King found an insufficiently strong force assembled, further messengers were dispatched post-haste by the several officers, who had already been threatened by the King with heavy punishment in the event of further delay. And so, in half-a-dozen days, anything between 30,000-50,000 men mobilized and were actually at headquarters in regimental order, every man in his proper place and ready to march. The manner in which the army could come up under the Kings in time of emergency was nothing short of a revelation.

After the troops had massed in sufficient numbers, various ceremonies were held, notably the famous eating ofumbengo. As this involved certain preliminaries, one of which was the catching and killing of a bull, usually a black one, it will be best to consider them in proper sequence. A beginning was made by the King deputing one of the regiments to catch and kill the bull. The selected regiment forthwith devoted a day to collecting firewood for roasting the flesh. Cadets were, at the same time, directed to gather green branches of theumtolotree (a species of mimosa) to be used as a charm by being burnt along with the roasting flesh.

The "eating ofumbengo" ceremony took place the day following. Early that morning, the regiment in question went to the spot appointed for the troops tohlanzaat (vomit), and there, under the superintendence of war-doctors, proceeded to do so. These war-doctors were specially appointed by the King. A hole some 18 inches in diameter and 6 to 7 feet deep had already been dug, with its soil heaped alongside. It was into this that every warrior, after swallowing a mouthful or two of the decoctions placed ready in three or four great pots or baskets, proceeded to vomit. Knowing what was coming, he had taken care to abstain from food. Two, three or four might go to the hole at one time. There was a desire on the part of everyone to finish quickly, but the doctors, two of whom stood on either side to see that instructions were conformed to, would not allow crowding. Here and there the stick they each carried was used on those whohad merely pretended to drink the medicated water, and were therefore uninfluenced by its emetic properties. This process was gone through so as to "bring together the hearts of the people." The pots referred to stood, not on the ground, but on special articles, not unlike diminutive life-belts, made of straw bound round with plaited fibre—each doctor having one of his own. It was on such things the King stood when he washed himself of a morning.

As soon as the selected regiment had finished, it moved off to deal with the bull. After it had departed, the emetic continued to be used, none of the other regiments being permitted to leave off until the last men had "come into line." After the process was over, say by 3 or 4 p.m., the hole was carefully filled up by the doctors, to prevent possible visitors from hostile tribes obtaining any part of the substances that had been used. It was for this reason that the hole was dug deep.

Upon getting back to the royal kraal, the deputed regiment found a black bull had already been selected from among those of the King's cattle kept at a distance from the principal kraal. The beast chosen was large, full-grown and fierce. After being driven into the cattle enclosure, say, about 600 yards in diameter, it was tackled by the single, unassisted regiment, all the men being without shields or assegais. It was well chased about, prevented from going this way or that, and eventually, after being kept running about for two or three hours to tire it, it was rushed at about mid-day, caught and brought to earth by many taking hold of it simultaneously. The men then fastened on to it by its legs, tail, head, horns, ears, etc., whilst others proceeded as best they could to twist and eventually break its neck. As soon as it was dead, the war-doctors came up and drove all the warriors away for fear lest any disloyally inclined should cut off portions and carry them off to the King's enemies, whereby ascendancy might in some way be obtained over their own sovereign. The beast was now skinned and its flesh cut into long strips. These strips (known asumbengo, hencethe name of the custom) were then roasted on a huge fire that had already been made of the wood gathered on the preceding day. After being roasted, the flesh was smeared with black powders, and pungent, bitter drugs. The names and identity of some of these drugs were kept carefully concealed from the troops. The very reputation of the doctor depended on his being secretive. By this time, 3 or 4 p.m., the regiments had all come up and were waiting "to eat theumbengo." They moved to near where the doctors were, and there built a greatumkumbi, that is, formed themselves into a huge half-moon, the men at every part being many deep. The doctors came forward with the charred, half-cooked and medicated flesh. They and their assistants simultaneously started flinging the strips one after another into the air towards but above the heads of different sections of the troops, and in all directions. To do this satisfactorily, they passed through theumkumbiat conveniently-situated and specially-prepared openings. The warriors all standing, each carrying weapons and shield in the left hand, were ready to catch with the other the flesh as it descended. There was a scramble to snatch every piece as it got within reach. The man catching, immediately bit off a lump and pitched the remainder back into the air to be again violently contended for, caught and similarly dealt with, one after another. In the meantime, the pieces bitten or torn off were chewed and spat on to the ground, the juice, however, being swallowed. Owing to many being hungry, and even ravenous, the flesh itself was often gulped down, although quite contrary to custom to do so. If any of the strips fell to the ground when being tossed about, it was not picked up, as supposed then to have lost its virtue. It not unfrequently happened for these discarded portions to be consumed by the half-famished during the excitement. Here and there one saw a weak man fall forward in a faint, and his shield and assegais go clattering to the ground as he did so. But for his friends, who rushed forward to help, he must have been trampled to death for all the others cared. The process of distribution continueduntil each had had his bite; no one was allowed to retire until the last had conformed to the custom.

One bull was sufficient for an entire army. Two were never killed. The entrails were secretly buried in what was known as the King's cattle enclosure (cut off from the main one), the grave being guarded all night by watchmen.

Boy mat-bearers and cooks who had not reached the age of puberty were then sought in all parts of the barracks and ordered to eat up such remains as were consumable, but all who were commandeered were obliged to sleep where the bull had been cut up and roasted, until the following morning. A further special requirement was that all so set apart had to refrain from passing water from the moment of coming up until permission was given to depart. For this reason, it was with considerable difficulty that boys could be found when wanted.

Every atom of the bull that remained over was afterwards burnt to cinders, including bones, hide, etc., etc. The doctors thereupon gathered together all the ashes and conveyed them to some large and deep pool into which they were thrown. This was done to guard, as before, against any portion being taken by strangers and used to obtain ascendancy over the King and nation.

After this observance, everyone who had taken part therein had to refrain from all intercourse with womenfolk. For this reason, as often as girls or women arrived at headquarters with bundles of food for fathers, brothers or husbands, they set them down and left for their homes forthwith without escort of any kind. The word having gone forth that all must arm was an absolute guarantee against interference of every kind. All who armed, including the ones detailed to remain as the King's bodyguard, were obliged to eat theumbengo, the general object of which was, not only to knit the people together, but to hearten and strengthen them.

Following upon these formalities was another, equally indispensable, viz. the eating of beasts offered as a sacrifice to the spirits of the King's departed ancestors. Such cattle were apportioned to the various regiments. Theywere killed and eaten at night, famous national chants being sung at the same time. The departed spirits were invoked by the various highly-placed officers and aristocrats, of whom there were at least a score, men of sufficient status to remonstrate with the King on great and critical occasions. The ancient, undisturbed graves of former Kings were also visited, the spirit being invoked at each.

By way of stimulating the troops to put forth their best efforts in war, the King would call a couple of regiments into the great cattle enclosure and there urge individuals of the one to challenge those of the other, one at a time. "I have," he would say, "summoned you all to hear how you mean to behave on coming in sight of the enemy." It is of melancholy interest to know that this practice was observed by the regiments Kandempemvu and Ngobamakosi, which proved so terribly destructive at Isandhlwana. After the King had spoken, the challenging proceeded in this way: Some man belonging to, say, the Ngobamakosi jumped up and shouted: "I can do better than you, son of ... (giving name); you won't stab a white man, before one has already fallen by my hand. If you do, you can carry off the whole of our kraal and the property attached (giving name of the kraal), or, you shall take my sister ... (giving her name, and implying marriage)." Having said this, he started to dance apas seul, with a small shield and stick (on such occasions assegais and war-shields were not carried). The other man, stung by the words uttered in public, jumped up as smartly and, dancing towards and after his challenger as the latter retired, called out defiantly: "Well, if you can do better than I, you may take our kraal ... and my sister too ... (giving names)." As each danced, they were loudly applauded by their respective comrades. When a man, known by the King to be a brave fellow, sprang up and danced, the King might point and shake his hand at him approvingly. Others followed the same process, though by no means in monotonous or regular fashion; and so it went on until sunset. Occasionally the one addressed or "selected," as it was called, refrained fromtaking up the challenge. Such a fellow was called a coward, and, when the regiments had left the King, his failure was freely commented on. He was then made to suffer the usual indignities of cowards, viz. having his meat dipped in cold water, etc.

A day or two afterwards, two other regiments were pitted against one another. Again the process of "selection" and challenging went on excitedly until sunset.

After the fighting had taken place, the same challenging pairs of regiments were called before the King to "discuss" the campaign. (Such rule was, however, not followed during the Zulu War, for obvious reasons). Some young man then jumped up and accosting the one "selected" by him before hostilities occurred, shouted exultingly: "What did you do, son of ...? I did this and did that (reciting various deeds of valour or supposed valour). What have you to your credit?" The other replied. The man generally allowed by those assembled to have distinguished himself the more, was declared to have won the wager. The property, as a matter of fact, did not change hands, though, at first, it seemed as if it would do so. The stakes were merely figuratively referred to for heightening public interest in the achievements.

Cattle rewards to acknowledged heroes were made by the King when "war discussions" took place on the above lines.

When the circumstances were such that the troops had to march forthwith against the enemy, the ceremony known asukucelwa(to be sprinkled) was held. As with eating theumbengo, there were phases of the custom. The essential features were: Cleansing internally by using specially-prepared emetics and external cleansing by washing in the stream; dipping one's fingers into an open dish placed on the fire, containing hot liquid and drugs poured in by the war-doctor, and thereafter sucking them and suddenly spitting out what has been so sucked; uttering imprecations on the enemy when spirting the medicated liquid from one's mouth; being smoked with drugs whilst standing in a circle round the doctor; beingsprinkled front and rear by the doctor with yet other drugs of a caustic character.

There were various ways in which these essentials were observed. Such variety was due to the fact that each medico to a certain extent kept his own drugs, and observed a procedure peculiar to himself.

As an illustration, let us take what occurred in 1883, after Cetshwayo had been attacked at Undi (Ulundi) by Zibebu. A couple of men who had escaped, returned to their tribe near St. Lucia Bay with an assegai that had been flung after them by Zibebu's men, but had failed to strike. This was handed to a well-known war-doctor, who, being called on to practise his arts on some fortyamaviyothen present, bent the blade, and at the bend tied a small round vessel containing charms. The assegai was stuck into the ground from 200 to 300 yards off by means of its wooden end, sharpened for the purpose. He then required the troops to approach, aviyoat a time, when, whilst escorting the company, he shouted out (in Zulu), "Here's a marvel! Here is the one who shuts out! Here's the keeper of the door!" Each of these phrases, on being uttered alternately, had to be repeated by theviyoin chorus. The doctor next directed each man, on filing past, to take hold of the vessel with his fingers, slightly shake it and, at the same instant, exclaim: "I have closed!" or "I shut!" The object of the performance was to cause all Zibebu's assegais to miss their mark or become blunt, and all his efforts against Dinuzulu and his allies to prove unavailing.

The same man, having later on caused the troops to form up in a circle round him, by way of finally preparing them for battle, strode hurriedly up and down and among the men holding something concealed in his right hand. "What is this?" he swiftly asked one, only to pass on similarly to another to put the same question. At the moment of asking, he opened his hand for the fraction of a second, when a glittering stone-like substance appeared, about two inches long, and as thick as one's thumb. "It is earth!" exclaimed those able to catcha glimpse. Upon which he said: "Did you see it?" "Yes, we did," was the reply. And so, ever moving, he went about, clothed in weird garb, asking the same questions in all directions, and always receiving the same answers: "What is this?" "Earth." "Did you see it?" "Yes, we did." The scene quickly became animated and exciting, due no doubt to the celerity of movement and abrupt questioning of the great doctor, with evident inability on the part of the warriors to know what the glittering substance, of which they kept on obtaining but the briefest glimpses, really was.

This was the man who was employed by Dinuzulu in 1888, shortly before scoring a signal victory over Zibebu within 1,000 yards of Nongoma magistracy in Zululand.

On leaving headquarters, after a stirring address by the King, the army marched in one great column, in order of companies. Upon reaching hostile territory it was split into two divisions of close formation, when competent men were selected for reconnaissance and advanced guard duty. This latter body, forming about ten companies, moved ahead of the column to which it was attached, at a distance of ten to twelve miles. The same was done in regard to the other division. The guard was made considerable, to give the enemy the impression, especially when in extended order, that it was the main body. It was held to be a serious breach in tactics for the column to fail to divide as stated, for, on being taken at a disadvantage, it was considered necessary for another force to be on the flank for creating a diversion and so relieve the situation.

The advanced guard purposely refrained from concealing itself. In addition to the guard, spies were sent out in twos and threes to locate the enemy, with a view to planning surprise or ambush. As soon as the guard found it had been perceived and was being moved against by the enemy, runners were at once dispatched to warn the main body.

The leading principle in attack was to endeavour to surround the enemy. To effect this, the men, on anengagement becoming imminent, were rapidly drawn up in semi-circular formation and instructed by the officer in supreme command. These instructions resolved themselves into specifying what regiments were to form the right "horn," as it was called, what the left, and what were to compose the "chest" or centre, as also the routes to be taken. The warriors, having been once more sprinkled with drugs to ward off injury, exhorted through lively recitation of praises of departed kings, and reminded of the challenges and promises made by them in the presence of the sovereign, dashed forward to realize the general plan or die in the attempt.

It was the rule to hold back a large force in reserve, for use in case of necessity. The commanding officer and his staff took up a position on high ground to watch the course of the battle, and issue any further necessary directions.

Pass-words and countersigns were frequently made use of, especially as much travelling about was necessary at night.

As it was only shortly before the Zulu War that firearms were acquired, the use of these was not sufficiently general to interfere with the national modes of warfare followed for over half a century.

The powers of endurance of the army when on the march were remarkable. Although living on scanty supplies of food, the men could, on emergency, travel forty miles in the course of a night and forthwith engage in battle. The provision-bearers and herds could not, of course, keep up with the column after the first day, with the result that each warrior was obliged to carry his own food and equipment. Men frequently rolled up their shields when marching, as they then became easier to carry. Those whose feet became sore and swollen were laughed at, including men who resorted to using sandals of ox-hide.

Let us conclude with a few customs formerly and still observed by individuals in war-time.

No warrior ever goes off to war without visiting hishome, in order to "take the spirit" along with him, as it is called. The home is the shrine at which he worships, and where the friendly aid and protection of departed spirits are sought. When about to leave, two or three enter the cattle enclosure and, at the upper end thereof, invoke their ancestral spirits. In the meantime, an old woman has taken her stand at, though outside, the gate awaiting the men's departure. She holds in her hand an ordinary hand-broom of grass. With this she flicks the calf of each warrior as he goes forth, thereby metaphorically warding off the dangers towards which he is moving, but says nothing. The custom is general, though not invariably practised.

After the men leave, various customs are observed by the women. The huts just vacated by the men are carefully swept. A fire is forthwith kindled in each, so as to make everything there bright and cheery. This is done to encourage the return of the soldier and avert his remaining eternally away. With the same object, his mat is carefully shaken and rolled up, an ear of millet being put inside it. It is then stood upright at the end of the hut (the usual position in normal times is horizontal). And in such position it remains until the owner's return. If he is injured, it is taken down.

Quarrelling of all kinds is studiously refrained from, as such is supposed to draw the absent ones into danger. Not only women and girls, but the whole establishment, including little children, observe the most orderly and quiet behaviour, crying infants being hushed as speedily as possible.

Wives and mothers mark their faces by rubbing with a specially-prepared black paste of ashes, earth, etc. The marks are of various designs, the most general being a semi-circle over each eye, the two meeting at the top of the nose, or a 1½ inch diameter circle on each cheek. The tops of their leather skirts, too, are reversed, i.e. the nap thereon is turned outwards.

Occasionally bitter-apple (solanum) berries are rolled slowly along that side of the hut on which the warrior wasin the habit of sleeping, the berry being aimed to go out by the doorway and so carry all possibilities of harm along with it.

The same berries, two or three of them, may be threaded on to a cord, as also a rabbit tail, the whole being tied as a necklace round the throat to ward off evil.

Other customs, not less quaint, are observed by mothers-in-law.

A sprig of wild asparagus is often stuck in the thatch over the doorway of a hut to safeguard the home.

The black markings on the face and the wearing of the berries represent formal suppression of ordinary personal feeling or the deliberate assumption of an ugly, callous, and unsympathetic disposition.

When husbands or sons are killed, various other customs are conformed to by women.

Turning to the soldiers themselves, we find that when any of the enemy are killed in battle, those responsible for the deaths proceed to rip open the deceased's stomach. This is done as it is feared the deceased's unreleased spirit will invest the one who slew him and turn him into a raving lunatic. He must also strip or, at least, partly strip the corpse of its clothing and wear it himself until, having cleansed himself in accordance with various formalities, he can resume his own.

Those who have killed others, eat and live entirely apart from the main body. This seclusion continues for many days. During this time, they observe other formalities before being finally washed with drugs and allowed to associate with their comrades. They are treated with great respect, the best and fattest portions of meat are served out to them, and they are entitled to wear the decorations previously referred to.

A coward, on the other hand, is subjected to the greatest indignities. His meat is handed to him after having been dipped in cold water. This causes girls to laugh at him. Not infrequently his fiancée will break off the engagement, on the ground that he has so far unmanned himself as to have become a woman. Being a woman, he naturally mustnot look to another woman to become his wife! To such extent is this carried, that one hears of cases where girls actually uncover themselves in his presence by way of shaming him.

And so one could go on describing the inner life of this remarkable race, but sufficient has been said to enable the reader to understand those with whom the Natal Government was, in 1906, called on to deal. The character of their tactics and military habits and customs has been roughly outlined in the foregoing sketch, which, as everyone who lives in the country knows, is descriptive not of a system of life gone by, but of one that was largely revived and practised by those who took part in the fighting, rebels as well as loyalists. The present is understood by studying the past, or, as a Zulu would say:Inyati i buzwa kwa ba pambili(news of the buffalo is sought of those who are ahead). Thus the chapter which, at first, seemed to deal only with old bones is found, on examination, to be a picture of the people as they were at the beginning of the campaign.

NOTE.

THE REBEL ORGANIZATION IN 1906.

State of affairs among the tribes.—On assuming the government of Natal, England found many disconnected tribes. This state of affairs has continued to exist to the present day, with the result that any attempts of Natives to organize among themselves have been confined chiefly to the limits of individual tribes. When Zululand was conquered, the principle of dissevering politically-connected tribes was followed, first by Sir Garnet Wolseley, later, and to greater extent, when the magistracies were established.Although the policy ofdivide et imperahas failed to destroy much of the natural affinity between tribes, there is no doubt it has also helped to drive others still further apart. The animosities between many of them are proverbial. The efforts of any Chief at organization have, moreover, been checked by a provision in the Code which prescribes penalties for "summoning an armed assembly of his tribe" or "classing or causing to be classed, themen of his tribe into companies or regiments," without the permission of the Supreme Chief. Notwithstanding this, various Chiefs have, for many years, divided their men into regiments and companies. In some cases, this has been done innocently by loyal men, in others by men not so loyal. No harm, however, arose out of the practice until the Insurrection took place, and even then the Government gained more, perhaps, from loyal Chiefs who happened to be semi-organized,e.g.Sibindi, Mveli, Sitshitshili and Mfungelwa, than it suffered from those who were openly disloyal,e.g.Bambata and Sigananda.The Poll Tax Act was, of course, a powerful agent in breaking down the long-standing differences referred to, whilst the order to kill off pigs and white fowls further influenced large numbers to unite and rebel. It was never possible to determine in any satisfactory way how many were prepared to join those actually in the field, even though approximate estimates of the latter could always be arrived at. It is enough, at this stage, to say that about 150 men struck the first decisive blow and that, although probably 1,000 adherents were gained at Nkandhla within the next two or three weeks, further accessions were determined rather by the successes met with than by a feeling that the methods adopted were the best available for securing the end in view. As these successes were insignificant, the rebels that joined did so in small lots at a time. Had the troops met with two or three reverses, especially at the beginning, it is probable thousands would have gone over, only to be followed by thousands of others if the efforts of these again had proved successful.Leaders.—Suitable and experienced leaders were wanting; not that capable men could not be found, but the most capable were the ones who best realized the difficulties of the undertaking and the poor chances of success. There is no doubt that many Chiefs espoused the cause whilst pretending to be personally loyal, and this when many members of their tribes had deserted to join the rebels.Arms and ammunition.—As there was no law forbidding the keeping of assegais and shields, it may be assumed nearly every Native in the Colony was fully armed, though many would not have been in possession of war shields.The law was strict in regard to firearms. Natives in general on the south-west side of the Tugela possessed no more than 200 registered guns, if so many. In Zululand, there were as many as 5,105 in 1897;[75]by 1904, they had not increased beyond 5,126—all of them registered. Of the latter, about 90 per cent. were of the old Tower musket, smooth-bore, and other obsolete types.Apart from legally held guns, Dinuzulu was in possession of a number which he had failed to register, some of them obtained at the time of the Boer War. He also had large quantities of ammunition of various kinds, obtained at the same time and in other ways. How many other guns were owned by his late tribe or other tribes associated therewith, as well as other Zululand and Natal tribes, it is quite impossible to say.These facts are given to show what would have been available had the Insurrection become universal. How far the foregoing arms were used against the troops it is difficult to judge. The majority of those that were used were of the Martini-Henry, Snider, Lee-Metford and Mauser types.Food supplies.—But for the premature outbreak at "Trewirgie," the Rebellion would probably not have begun until after all the crops had been reaped,i.e.about May. To have waited until all the grain was in would have been but to act in accordance with custom. The rebels, therefore, were somewhat at a disadvantage in regard to grain supplies. Although the cattle disease, known as East Coast Fever, had already invaded Zululand in the north, it had not up to that time made its way across the Umhlatuze, consequently, abundant meat supplies (cattle as well as goats) were always obtainable in the vicinity of Nkandhla. The ways in which supplies were procured whilst fighting was going on at Nkandhla, will be set forth later.

Although the policy ofdivide et imperahas failed to destroy much of the natural affinity between tribes, there is no doubt it has also helped to drive others still further apart. The animosities between many of them are proverbial. The efforts of any Chief at organization have, moreover, been checked by a provision in the Code which prescribes penalties for "summoning an armed assembly of his tribe" or "classing or causing to be classed, themen of his tribe into companies or regiments," without the permission of the Supreme Chief. Notwithstanding this, various Chiefs have, for many years, divided their men into regiments and companies. In some cases, this has been done innocently by loyal men, in others by men not so loyal. No harm, however, arose out of the practice until the Insurrection took place, and even then the Government gained more, perhaps, from loyal Chiefs who happened to be semi-organized,e.g.Sibindi, Mveli, Sitshitshili and Mfungelwa, than it suffered from those who were openly disloyal,e.g.Bambata and Sigananda.

The Poll Tax Act was, of course, a powerful agent in breaking down the long-standing differences referred to, whilst the order to kill off pigs and white fowls further influenced large numbers to unite and rebel. It was never possible to determine in any satisfactory way how many were prepared to join those actually in the field, even though approximate estimates of the latter could always be arrived at. It is enough, at this stage, to say that about 150 men struck the first decisive blow and that, although probably 1,000 adherents were gained at Nkandhla within the next two or three weeks, further accessions were determined rather by the successes met with than by a feeling that the methods adopted were the best available for securing the end in view. As these successes were insignificant, the rebels that joined did so in small lots at a time. Had the troops met with two or three reverses, especially at the beginning, it is probable thousands would have gone over, only to be followed by thousands of others if the efforts of these again had proved successful.

Leaders.—Suitable and experienced leaders were wanting; not that capable men could not be found, but the most capable were the ones who best realized the difficulties of the undertaking and the poor chances of success. There is no doubt that many Chiefs espoused the cause whilst pretending to be personally loyal, and this when many members of their tribes had deserted to join the rebels.

Arms and ammunition.—As there was no law forbidding the keeping of assegais and shields, it may be assumed nearly every Native in the Colony was fully armed, though many would not have been in possession of war shields.

The law was strict in regard to firearms. Natives in general on the south-west side of the Tugela possessed no more than 200 registered guns, if so many. In Zululand, there were as many as 5,105 in 1897;[75]by 1904, they had not increased beyond 5,126—all of them registered. Of the latter, about 90 per cent. were of the old Tower musket, smooth-bore, and other obsolete types.

Apart from legally held guns, Dinuzulu was in possession of a number which he had failed to register, some of them obtained at the time of the Boer War. He also had large quantities of ammunition of various kinds, obtained at the same time and in other ways. How many other guns were owned by his late tribe or other tribes associated therewith, as well as other Zululand and Natal tribes, it is quite impossible to say.

These facts are given to show what would have been available had the Insurrection become universal. How far the foregoing arms were used against the troops it is difficult to judge. The majority of those that were used were of the Martini-Henry, Snider, Lee-Metford and Mauser types.

Food supplies.—But for the premature outbreak at "Trewirgie," the Rebellion would probably not have begun until after all the crops had been reaped,i.e.about May. To have waited until all the grain was in would have been but to act in accordance with custom. The rebels, therefore, were somewhat at a disadvantage in regard to grain supplies. Although the cattle disease, known as East Coast Fever, had already invaded Zululand in the north, it had not up to that time made its way across the Umhlatuze, consequently, abundant meat supplies (cattle as well as goats) were always obtainable in the vicinity of Nkandhla. The ways in which supplies were procured whilst fighting was going on at Nkandhla, will be set forth later.

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