ADJECTIVES.

Plural.

But the King's treatment of the great lords will be judged leniently byallwhoremember, etc.—Pearson.Whenall weregone, fixing his eyes on the mace, etc.—LingardAllwho did not understand Frenchwerecompelled, etc.—Mcmaster.

But the King's treatment of the great lords will be judged leniently byallwhoremember, etc.—Pearson.

Whenall weregone, fixing his eyes on the mace, etc.—Lingard

Allwho did not understand Frenchwerecompelled, etc.—Mcmaster.

Somebody's else,orsomebody else's?

426.The compoundssomebody else, any one else, nobody else, etc., are treated as units, and the apostrophe is regularly added to the final wordelseinstead of the first. Thackeray has the expressionsomebody's else, and Ford hasnobody's else, but the regular usage is shown in the following selections:—

A boy who is fond ofsomebody else'spencil case.—G. Eliot.A suit of clothes likesomebody else's.—Thackeray.Drawing off his gloves and warming his hands before the fire as benevolently as if they weresomebody else's.—Dickens.Certainly not! norany one else'sropes.—Ruskin.Again, my pronunciation—likeeveryone else's—is in some cases more archaic.—Sweet.Then everybody wanted some ofsomebody else's.—Ruskin.His hair...curled once all over it in long tendrils, unlikeanybody else'sin the world.—N. P. Willis."Ye see, there ain't nothin' wakes folks up likesomebody else'swantin' what you've got."—Mrs. Stowe.

A boy who is fond ofsomebody else'spencil case.—G. Eliot.

A suit of clothes likesomebody else's.—Thackeray.

Drawing off his gloves and warming his hands before the fire as benevolently as if they weresomebody else's.—Dickens.

Certainly not! norany one else'sropes.—Ruskin.

Again, my pronunciation—likeeveryone else's—is in some cases more archaic.—Sweet.

Then everybody wanted some ofsomebody else's.—Ruskin.

His hair...curled once all over it in long tendrils, unlikeanybody else'sin the world.—N. P. Willis.

"Ye see, there ain't nothin' wakes folks up likesomebody else'swantin' what you've got."—Mrs. Stowe.

These sort, all manner of,etc.

427.The statement that adjectives agree with their nouns in number is restricted to the wordsthisandthat(withtheseandthose), as these are the only adjectives that have separate forms for singular and plural; and it is only in one set of expressions that the concord seems to be violated,—in such as "these sortof books," "those kindof trees," "all mannerof men;" the nouns being singular, the adjectives plural. These expressions are all but universal in spoken English,and may be found not infrequently in literary English; for example,—

These kindof knaves I know, which in this plainnessHarbor more craft, etc.—Shakespeare

Allthese sortof things.—Sheridan.I hoped we had done withthose sortof things.—Muloch.You have been so used tothose sortof impertinences.Sydney Smith.Whitefield or Wesley, or some other such great man as a bishop, orthose sortof people.—Fielding.I always delight in overthrowingthose kindof schemes.—Austen.There are women as well as men who can thoroughly enjoythose sortof romantic spots.—Saturday Review, London.The library was open, withall mannerof amusing books.—Ruskin.

Allthese sortof things.—Sheridan.

I hoped we had done withthose sortof things.—Muloch.

You have been so used tothose sortof impertinences.Sydney Smith.

Whitefield or Wesley, or some other such great man as a bishop, orthose sortof people.—Fielding.

I always delight in overthrowingthose kindof schemes.—Austen.

There are women as well as men who can thoroughly enjoythose sortof romantic spots.—Saturday Review, London.

The library was open, withall mannerof amusing books.—Ruskin.

According to the approved usage of Modern English, each one of the above adjectives would have to be changed to the singular, or the nouns to the plural.

History of this construction.

The reason for the prevalence of these expressions must be sought in the history of the language: it cannot be found in the statement that the adjective is made plural by the attraction of a noun following.

At the source.

In Old and Middle English, in keeping with the custom of looking at things concretely rather than in the abstract, they said, not "allkindsof wild animals," but "alles cunnes wilde deor" (wild animals of-every-kind). This the modern expression reverses.

Later form.

But in early Middle English the modern way of regarding such expressions also appeared, gradually displacing the old.

The result.

Consequently we have a confused expression.We keep the form of logical agreement in standard English, such as, "This sortof trees should be planted;" but at the same time the noun followingkind ofis felt to be the real subject, and the adjective is, in spoken English, made to agree with it, which accounts for the construction, "These kind oftrees are best."

A question.

The inconvenience of the logical construction is seen when we wish to use a predicate with number forms. Should we say, "This kind of rulesarethe best," or "This kind of rulesisthe best?"Kindorsortmay be treated as a collective noun, and in this way may take a plural verb; for example, Burke's sentence, "Asortof uncertain soundsare, when the necessary dispositions concur, more alarming than a total silence."

Use of the comparative degree.

428.The comparative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used when we wish to compare two objects or sets of objects, or one object with a class of objects, to express a higher degree of quality; as,—

Which isthe betterable to defend himself,—a strong man with nothing but his fists, or a paralytic cripple encumbered with a sword which he cannot lift?—Macaulay.

Of two such lessons, why forgetThenoblerand themanlierone?—Byron.

We may well doubt which has thestrongerclaim to civilization, the victor or the vanquished.—Prescott.Abraverne'er to battle rode.—Scott.He istaller,by almost the breadth of my nail, than any of his court.—Swift.

We may well doubt which has thestrongerclaim to civilization, the victor or the vanquished.—Prescott.

Abraverne'er to battle rode.—Scott.

He istaller,by almost the breadth of my nail, than any of his court.—Swift.

Otherafter the comparative form.

429.When an object is compared with the class to which it belongs, it is regularly excluded from that class by the wordother; if not, the object would really be compared with itself: thus,—

The character of Lady Castlewood has required more delicacy in its manipulation than perhaps anyotherwhich Thackeray has drawn.—Trollope.I used to watch this patriarchal personage with livelier curiosity than anyotherform of humanity.—Hawthorne.

The character of Lady Castlewood has required more delicacy in its manipulation than perhaps anyotherwhich Thackeray has drawn.—Trollope.

I used to watch this patriarchal personage with livelier curiosity than anyotherform of humanity.—Hawthorne.

See if the wordothershould be inserted in the following sentences:—

1. There was no man who could make a more graceful bow than Mr. Henry.—Wirt.2. I am concerned to see that Mr. Gary, to whom Dante owes more than ever poet owed to translator, has sanctioned, etc.—Macaulay.3. There is no country in which wealth is so sensible of its obligations as our own.—Lowell.4. This is more sincerely done in the Scandinavian than in any mythology I know.—Carlyle.5. In "Thaddeus of Warsaw" there is more crying than in any novel I remember to have read.—Thackeray.6. The heroes of another writer [Cooper] are quite the equals of Scott's men; perhaps Leather-stocking is better than any one in "Scott's lot."—Id.

1. There was no man who could make a more graceful bow than Mr. Henry.—Wirt.

2. I am concerned to see that Mr. Gary, to whom Dante owes more than ever poet owed to translator, has sanctioned, etc.—Macaulay.

3. There is no country in which wealth is so sensible of its obligations as our own.—Lowell.

4. This is more sincerely done in the Scandinavian than in any mythology I know.—Carlyle.

5. In "Thaddeus of Warsaw" there is more crying than in any novel I remember to have read.—Thackeray.

6. The heroes of another writer [Cooper] are quite the equals of Scott's men; perhaps Leather-stocking is better than any one in "Scott's lot."—Id.

Use of the superlative degree.

430.Thesuperlative degreeof the adjective (or adverb) is used regularly in comparing more than two things, but is also frequently used in comparing only two things.

Examples of superlative with several objects:—

It is a case of which thesimpleststatement is thestrongest.—Macaulay.Even Dodd himself, who was one of thegreatesthumbugs who ever lived, would not have had the face.—Thackeray.To the man who plays well, thehigheststakes are paid.—Huxley.

It is a case of which thesimpleststatement is thestrongest.—Macaulay.

Even Dodd himself, who was one of thegreatesthumbugs who ever lived, would not have had the face.—Thackeray.

To the man who plays well, thehigheststakes are paid.—Huxley.

Superlative with two objects.

Compare the first three sentences in Sec. 428 with the following:—

Which do you lovebestto behold, the lamb or the lion?—Thackeray.Which of these methods has thebesteffect? Both of them are the same to the sense, and differ only in form.—Dr Blair.Rip was one of those ... who eat white bread or brown, whichever can be goteasiest.—Irving.It is hard to say whether the man of wisdom or the man of folly contributedmostto the amusement of the party.—Scott.There was an interval of three years between Mary and Anne. Theeldest, Mary, was like the Stuarts—theyoungerwas a fair English child.—Mrs. Oliphant.Of the two great parties which at this hour almost share the nation between them, I should say that one has thebestcause, and the other contains thebestmen.—Emerson.In all disputes between States, though thestrongestis nearly always mainly in the wrong, theweakeris often so in a minor degree.—Ruskin.She thought him and Olivia extremely of a size, and would bid both to stand up to see which was thetallest.—Goldsmith.These two properties seem essential to wit, more particularly thelastof them.—Addison."Ha, ha, ha!" roared Goodman Brown when the wind laughed at him. "Let us see which will laughloudest."—Hawthorne.

Which do you lovebestto behold, the lamb or the lion?—Thackeray.

Which of these methods has thebesteffect? Both of them are the same to the sense, and differ only in form.—Dr Blair.

Rip was one of those ... who eat white bread or brown, whichever can be goteasiest.—Irving.

It is hard to say whether the man of wisdom or the man of folly contributedmostto the amusement of the party.—Scott.

There was an interval of three years between Mary and Anne. Theeldest, Mary, was like the Stuarts—theyoungerwas a fair English child.—Mrs. Oliphant.

Of the two great parties which at this hour almost share the nation between them, I should say that one has thebestcause, and the other contains thebestmen.—Emerson.

In all disputes between States, though thestrongestis nearly always mainly in the wrong, theweakeris often so in a minor degree.—Ruskin.

She thought him and Olivia extremely of a size, and would bid both to stand up to see which was thetallest.—Goldsmith.

These two properties seem essential to wit, more particularly thelastof them.—Addison.

"Ha, ha, ha!" roared Goodman Brown when the wind laughed at him. "Let us see which will laughloudest."—Hawthorne.

Double comparative and superlative.

431. In Shakespeare's time it was quite common to use a double comparative and superlative by usingmoreormostbefore the word already having-eror-est. Examples from Shakespeare are,—

How muchmore elderart thou than thy looks!—Merchant of Venice.Nor that I ammore betterthan Prospero.—Tempest.Come youmore nearer.—Hamlet.With themost boldestand best hearts of Rome.—J. Cæsar.

How muchmore elderart thou than thy looks!—Merchant of Venice.

Nor that I ammore betterthan Prospero.—Tempest.

Come youmore nearer.—Hamlet.

With themost boldestand best hearts of Rome.—J. Cæsar.

Also from the same period,—

Imitating the manner of themost ancientestandfinestGrecians.—Ben Jonson.After themost straitestsect of our religion.—Bible, 1611.

Imitating the manner of themost ancientestandfinestGrecians.—Ben Jonson.

After themost straitestsect of our religion.—Bible, 1611.

Such expressions are now heard only in vulgar English. The following examples are used purposely, to represent the characters as ignorant persons:—

The artful saddler persuaded the young traveler to look at "themost convenientestandhandsomestsaddle that ever was seen."—Bulwer."There's nothing comes out but themost loweststuff in nature; not a bit of high life among them."—Goldsmith.

The artful saddler persuaded the young traveler to look at "themost convenientestandhandsomestsaddle that ever was seen."—Bulwer.

"There's nothing comes out but themost loweststuff in nature; not a bit of high life among them."—Goldsmith.

THREE FIRSTORFIRST THREE?

432.As to these two expressions, over which a little war has so long been buzzing, we think it not necessary to say more than that both are in good use; not only so in popular speech, but in literary English. Instances of both are given below.

The meaning intended is the same, and the reader gets the same idea from both: hence there is properly a perfect liberty in the use of either or both.

First three,etc.

For Carlyle, and Secretary Walsingham also, have been helping them heart and soul for thelast twoyears.—Kingsley.The delay in thefirst threelines, and conceit in the last, jar upon us constantly.—Ruskin.Thelast dozenmiles before you reach the suburbs.—De Quincey.Mankind for thefirst seventy thousandages ate their meat raw.—Lamb.Thefirst twentynumbers were expressed by a corresponding number of dots. Thefirst fivehad specific names.—Prescott.

For Carlyle, and Secretary Walsingham also, have been helping them heart and soul for thelast twoyears.—Kingsley.

The delay in thefirst threelines, and conceit in the last, jar upon us constantly.—Ruskin.

Thelast dozenmiles before you reach the suburbs.—De Quincey.

Mankind for thefirst seventy thousandages ate their meat raw.—Lamb.

Thefirst twentynumbers were expressed by a corresponding number of dots. Thefirst fivehad specific names.—Prescott.

Three first,etc.

These are thethree firstneeds of civilized life.—Ruskin.He has already finished thethree firststicks of it.—Addison.In mytwo lastyou had so much of Lismahago that I suppose you are glad he is gone.—Smollett.I have not numbered the lines except of thefour firstbooks.—Cowper.Theseven firstcenturies were filled with a succession of triumphs.—Gibbon.

These are thethree firstneeds of civilized life.—Ruskin.

He has already finished thethree firststicks of it.—Addison.

In mytwo lastyou had so much of Lismahago that I suppose you are glad he is gone.—Smollett.

I have not numbered the lines except of thefour firstbooks.—Cowper.

Theseven firstcenturies were filled with a succession of triumphs.—Gibbon.

Definite article.

433.Thedefinite articleis repeated before each of two modifiers of the same noun, when the purpose is to call attention to the noun expressed and the one understood. In such a case two or more separate objects are usually indicated by the separation of the modifiers. Examples of this construction are,—

With a singular noun.

The merit ofthe Barb,the Spanish, andthe Englishbreed is derived from a mixture of Arabian blood.—Gibbon.The righteousman is distinguished fromthe unrighteousby his desire and hope of justice.—Ruskin.He seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either onthe sunnyorthe stormyside.—Carlyle.It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that betweenthe firstandthe secondpart of the volume.—The Nation, No. 1508.

The merit ofthe Barb,the Spanish, andthe Englishbreed is derived from a mixture of Arabian blood.—Gibbon.

The righteousman is distinguished fromthe unrighteousby his desire and hope of justice.—Ruskin.

He seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either onthe sunnyorthe stormyside.—Carlyle.

It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that betweenthe firstandthe secondpart of the volume.—The Nation, No. 1508.

With a plural noun.

There was also a fundamental difference of opinion as to whether the earliest cleavage was betweenthe Northernandthe Southernlanguages.—Taylor,Origin of the Aryans.

434.The same repetition of the article is sometimes found before nouns alone, to distinguish clearly, or to emphasize the meaning; as,—

In every line ofthe Philipandthe Saul, the greatest poems, I think, of the eighteenth century.—Macaulay.He is master of the two-fold Logos,the thoughtandthe word, distinct, but inseparable from each other.—Newman.The flowers, andthe presents, andthe trunks and bonnet boxes... having been arranged, the hour of parting came.—Thackeray.

In every line ofthe Philipandthe Saul, the greatest poems, I think, of the eighteenth century.—Macaulay.

He is master of the two-fold Logos,the thoughtandthe word, distinct, but inseparable from each other.—Newman.

The flowers, andthe presents, andthe trunks and bonnet boxes... having been arranged, the hour of parting came.—Thackeray.

Thenot repeated. One object and several modifiers, with a singular noun.

435.Frequently, however, the article is not repeated before each of two or more adjectives, as in Sec. 433, but is used with one only; as,—

Or fanciest thouthe red and yellowClothes-screen yonder is but of To-day, without a Yesterday or a To-morrow?—Carlyle.The lofty,melodious,and flexiblelanguage.—Scott.The fairest and most lovingwife in Greece.—Tennyson.

Or fanciest thouthe red and yellowClothes-screen yonder is but of To-day, without a Yesterday or a To-morrow?—Carlyle.

The lofty,melodious,and flexiblelanguage.—Scott.

The fairest and most lovingwife in Greece.—Tennyson.

Meaning same as in Sec. 433, with a plural noun.

Neither can there be a much greater resemblance betweenthe ancient and moderngeneral views of the town.—Halliwell-phillipps.At Talaverathe English and Frenchtroops for a moment suspended their conflict.—Macaulay.The Crusades brought to the rising commonwealths ofthe Adriatic and Tyrrheneseas a large increase of wealth.—Id.Here the youth of both sexes, ofthe higher and middlingorders, were placed at a very tender age.—Prescott.

Neither can there be a much greater resemblance betweenthe ancient and moderngeneral views of the town.—Halliwell-phillipps.

At Talaverathe English and Frenchtroops for a moment suspended their conflict.—Macaulay.

The Crusades brought to the rising commonwealths ofthe Adriatic and Tyrrheneseas a large increase of wealth.—Id.

Here the youth of both sexes, ofthe higher and middlingorders, were placed at a very tender age.—Prescott.

Indefinite article.

436.Theindefinite articleis used, like the definite article, to limit two or more modified nouns, only one of which is expressed. The article is repeated for the purpose of separating or emphasizing the modified nouns. Examples of this use are,—

We shall livea betteranda higheranda noblerlife.—Beecher.The difference between the products ofa well-disciplinedand those ofan uncultivatedunderstanding is often and admirably exhibited by our great dramatist.—S. T. Coleridge.Let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other,a roundanda squareone alternately.—Burke.As if the difference betweenan accurateandan inaccuratestatement was not worth the trouble of looking into the most common book of reference.—Macaulay.To every room there wasan openanda secretpassage.—Johnson.

We shall livea betteranda higheranda noblerlife.—Beecher.

The difference between the products ofa well-disciplinedand those ofan uncultivatedunderstanding is often and admirably exhibited by our great dramatist.—S. T. Coleridge.

Let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other,a roundanda squareone alternately.—Burke.

As if the difference betweenan accurateandan inaccuratestatement was not worth the trouble of looking into the most common book of reference.—Macaulay.

To every room there wasan openanda secretpassage.—Johnson.

Notice that in the above sentences (except the first) the noun expressed is in contrast with the modified noun omitted.

One article with several adjectives.

437.Usually the article is not repeated when the several adjectives unite in describing one and the same noun. In the sentences of Secs. 433 and 436, one noun is expressed; yet the same word understood with the other adjectives has a different meaning (except in the first sentence of Sec. 436). But in the following sentences, as in the first three of Sec. 435, the adjectives assist each other in describing the same noun. It is easy to see the difference between the expressions "a red-and-whitegeranium," and "a red and a whitegeranium."

Examples of several adjectives describing the same object:—

To inspire us witha free and quietmind.—B. Jonson.Here and therea desolate and uninhabitedhouse.—Dickens.James was declareda mortal and bloodyenemy.—Macaulay.

To inspire us witha free and quietmind.—B. Jonson.

Here and therea desolate and uninhabitedhouse.—Dickens.

James was declareda mortal and bloodyenemy.—Macaulay.

So wert thou born into a tuneful strain,An early, rich, and inexhaustedvein.—Dryden.

For rhetorical effect.

438.The indefinite article (compare Sec. 434) is used to lend special emphasis, interest, or clearness to each of several nouns; as,—

James was declaredamortal and bloodyenemy, a tyrant, a murderer, anda usurper.—Macaulay.Thou hast spoken asa patriotanda Christian.—Bulwer.He saw him in his mind's eye,a collegian, a parliament man—a Baronetperhaps.—Thackeray.

James was declaredamortal and bloodyenemy, a tyrant, a murderer, anda usurper.—Macaulay.

Thou hast spoken asa patriotanda Christian.—Bulwer.

He saw him in his mind's eye,a collegian, a parliament man—a Baronetperhaps.—Thackeray.

A broad and loose rule.

439.In English, thenumberof the verb follows the meaning rather than the form of its subject.

It will not do to state as a general rule that the verb agrees with its subject in person and number. This was spoken of in Part I., Sec. 276, and the following illustrations prove it.

The statements and illustrations of course refer to such verbs as have separate forms for singular and plural number.

Singular verb.

440.Thesingular formof the verb is used—

Subject of singular form.

(1) When the subject has a singular form and a singular meaning.

Such, then,wasthe earliest Americanland.—Agassiz.He wascertainly a happy fellow at this time.—G. Eliot.He seesthat it is better to live in peace.—Cooper.

Such, then,wasthe earliest Americanland.—Agassiz.

He wascertainly a happy fellow at this time.—G. Eliot.

He seesthat it is better to live in peace.—Cooper.

Collective noun of singular meaning.

(2) When the subject is acollective nounwhich represents a number of persons or thingstaken as one unit; as,—

The largerbreed[of camels]iscapable of transporting a weight of a thousand pounds.—Gibbon.Anotherschool professesentirely opposite principles.—The Nation.In this work therewasgrouped around hima scoreof men.—W. PhillipsAnumberof jeweled paternosterswasattached to her girdle.—Froude.Something like a horse loadof bookshasbeen written to prove that it was the beauty who blew up the booby.—Carlyle

The largerbreed[of camels]iscapable of transporting a weight of a thousand pounds.—Gibbon.

Anotherschool professesentirely opposite principles.—The Nation.

In this work therewasgrouped around hima scoreof men.—W. Phillips

Anumberof jeweled paternosterswasattached to her girdle.—Froude.

Something like a horse loadof bookshasbeen written to prove that it was the beauty who blew up the booby.—Carlyle

This usage, like some others in this series, depends mostly on the writer's own judgment.Another writer might, for example, prefer a plural verb afternumberin Froude's sentence above.

Singulars connected byorornor.

(3) When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns connected byorornor; as,—

It is by no means sure that either ourliterature, or the great intellectuallifeof our nation,hasgot already, without academies, all that academies can give.—M. Arnold.Jesus isnot dead, norJohn, norPaul, norMahomet.—Emerson.

It is by no means sure that either ourliterature, or the great intellectuallifeof our nation,hasgot already, without academies, all that academies can give.—M. Arnold.

Jesus isnot dead, norJohn, norPaul, norMahomet.—Emerson.

Plural form and singular meaning.

(4) When the subject isplural in form, but represents a number of things to be taken together asforming one unit; for example,—

Thirty-four yearsaffectsone's remembrance of some circumstances.—De Quincey.Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and two penceisno bad day's work.—Goldsmith.Every twenty pacesgivesyou the prospect of some villa; and every four hours, that of a large town.—MontagueTwo thirds of thisismine by right.—SheridanThe singular form is also used with book titles, other names, and other singulars of plural form; as,—Politicsisthe only field now open for me.—Whittier."Sesame and Lilies"isRuskin's creed for young girls.—Critic, No. 674The Three Pigeonsexpectsme down every moment.—Goldsmith.

Thirty-four yearsaffectsone's remembrance of some circumstances.—De Quincey.

Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and two penceisno bad day's work.—Goldsmith.

Every twenty pacesgivesyou the prospect of some villa; and every four hours, that of a large town.—Montague

Two thirds of thisismine by right.—Sheridan

The singular form is also used with book titles, other names, and other singulars of plural form; as,—

Politicsisthe only field now open for me.—Whittier.

"Sesame and Lilies"isRuskin's creed for young girls.—Critic, No. 674

The Three Pigeonsexpectsme down every moment.—Goldsmith.

Several singular subjects to one singular verb.

(5) Withseveral singular subjects notdisjoined byorornor, in the following cases:—

(a) Joined byand, but considered as meaning about the same thing, or as making up one general idea; as,—

In a word, all his conversation and knowledgehas beenin the female world—Addison.The strength and glare of each [color]isconsiderably abated.—BurkeTo imagine that debating and logicisthe triumph.—CarlyleIn a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitlyisnot the least of accomplishments.—De QuinceyThe genius and merit of a rising poetwascelebrated.—Gibbon.When the cause of ages and the fate of nationshangsupon the thread of a debate.—J. Q. Adams.

In a word, all his conversation and knowledgehas beenin the female world—Addison.

The strength and glare of each [color]isconsiderably abated.—Burke

To imagine that debating and logicisthe triumph.—Carlyle

In a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitlyisnot the least of accomplishments.—De Quincey

The genius and merit of a rising poetwascelebrated.—Gibbon.

When the cause of ages and the fate of nationshangsupon the thread of a debate.—J. Q. Adams.

(b) Not joined by a conjunction, but each one emphatic, or considered as appositional; for example,—

The unbought grace of life, the cheap defense of nations, the nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise,isgone.—Burke.A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of wealth, a loss of friends,seemsat the moment unpaid loss.—EmersonThe author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman,doesnot take the place of the man.—Id.To receive presents or a bribe, to be guilty of collusion in any way with a suitor,waspunished, in a judge, with death.—Prescott.

The unbought grace of life, the cheap defense of nations, the nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise,isgone.—Burke.

A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of wealth, a loss of friends,seemsat the moment unpaid loss.—Emerson

The author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman,doesnot take the place of the man.—Id.

To receive presents or a bribe, to be guilty of collusion in any way with a suitor,waspunished, in a judge, with death.—Prescott.

Subjects after the verb.

This use of several subjects with a singular verb is especially frequent when the subjects are after the verb; as,—

Thereisa right and a wrong in them.—M Arnold.Thereisa moving tone of voice, an impassioned countenance, an agitated gesture.—BurkeTherewasa steel headpiece, a cuirass, a gorget, and greaves, with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging beneath.—Hawthorne.Thencomesthe "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and the "No, sir!"—Macaulay.

Thereisa right and a wrong in them.—M Arnold.

Thereisa moving tone of voice, an impassioned countenance, an agitated gesture.—Burke

Therewasa steel headpiece, a cuirass, a gorget, and greaves, with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging beneath.—Hawthorne.

Thencomesthe "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and the "No, sir!"—Macaulay.

For wideisheard the thundering fray,The rout, the ruin, the dismay.—SCOTT.

(c) Joined byas well as(in this case the verb agrees with the first of the two, no matter if the second is plural); thus,—

Asia, as well as Europe,wasdazzled.—Macaulay.

The oldest, as well as the newest, wineBeginsto stir itself.—LONGFELLOW.

Her back, as well as sides,waslike to crack.—Butler.The Epic, as well as the Drama,isdivided into tragedy and Comedy.—Fielding

Her back, as well as sides,waslike to crack.—Butler.

The Epic, as well as the Drama,isdivided into tragedy and Comedy.—Fielding

(d) When each of two or more singular subjects is preceded byevery,each,no,many a, and such like adjectives.

Every fop, every boor, every valet,isa man of wit.—Macaulay.Every sound, every echo,waslistened to for five hours.—De QuinceyEvery dome and hollowhasthe figure of Christ.—Ruskin.Each particular hue and tintstandsby itself.—Newman.Every law and usagewasa man's expedient.—Emerson.Hereisno ruin, no discontinuity, no spent ball.—Id.Every week, nay, almost every day,wasset down in their calendar for some appropriate celebration.—Prescott.

Every fop, every boor, every valet,isa man of wit.—Macaulay.

Every sound, every echo,waslistened to for five hours.—De Quincey

Every dome and hollowhasthe figure of Christ.—Ruskin.

Each particular hue and tintstandsby itself.—Newman.

Every law and usagewasa man's expedient.—Emerson.

Hereisno ruin, no discontinuity, no spent ball.—Id.

Every week, nay, almost every day,wasset down in their calendar for some appropriate celebration.—Prescott.

Plural verb.

441.Theplural formof the verb is used—

(1) When the subject is pluralin form and in meaning; as,—

Thesebitsof woodwerecovered on every square.—Swift.Far, far away thy childrenleavethe land.—Goldsmith.The Arabian poetswerethe historians and moralists.—Gibbon.

Thesebitsof woodwerecovered on every square.—Swift.

Far, far away thy childrenleavethe land.—Goldsmith.

The Arabian poetswerethe historians and moralists.—Gibbon.

(2) When the subject is acollective nounin whichthe individualsof the collection are thought of; as,—

A multitudegomad about it.—Emerson.A great number of peoplewerecollected at a vendue.—Franklin.All our householdareat rest.—Coleridge.A party of workmenwereremoving the horses.—Lew WallaceThe fraternitywereinclined to claim for him the honors of canonization.—Scott.The travelers, of whom therewerea number.—B. Taylor.

A multitudegomad about it.—Emerson.

A great number of peoplewerecollected at a vendue.—Franklin.

All our householdareat rest.—Coleridge.

A party of workmenwereremoving the horses.—Lew Wallace

The fraternitywereinclined to claim for him the honors of canonization.—Scott.

The travelers, of whom therewerea number.—B. Taylor.

(3) When the subject consists ofseveral singulars connected by and, making up a plural subject, for example,—

Only Vice and Miseryareabroad.—CarlyleBut its authorship, its date, and its historyarealike a mystery to us.—Froude.His clothes, shirt, and skinwereall of the same color—Swift.Aristotle and Longinusarebetter understood by him than Littleton or Coke.—Addison.

Only Vice and Miseryareabroad.—Carlyle

But its authorship, its date, and its historyarealike a mystery to us.—Froude.

His clothes, shirt, and skinwereall of the same color—Swift.

Aristotle and Longinusarebetter understood by him than Littleton or Coke.—Addison.

Conjunction omitted.

The conjunction may be omitted, as in Sec. 440 (5,b), but the verb is plural, as with a subject of plural form.

A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water,aresufficient to attract a colony.—Gibbon.The Dauphin, the Duke of Berri, Philip of Anjou,weremen of insignificant characters.—Macaulay

A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water,aresufficient to attract a colony.—Gibbon.

The Dauphin, the Duke of Berri, Philip of Anjou,weremen of insignificant characters.—Macaulay

(4) When a singular is joined with a plural by a disjunctive word, the verb agrees with the one nearest it; as,—

One or two of these perhapssurvive.—Thoreau.One or two persons in the crowdwereinsolent.—Froude.One or two of the ladiesweregoing to leave.—AddisonOne or two of these old Cromwellian soldierswerestill alive in the village.—ThackerayOne or two of whomweremore entertaining.—De Quincey.

One or two of these perhapssurvive.—Thoreau.

One or two persons in the crowdwereinsolent.—Froude.

One or two of the ladiesweregoing to leave.—Addison

One or two of these old Cromwellian soldierswerestill alive in the village.—Thackeray

One or two of whomweremore entertaining.—De Quincey.

But notice the construction of this,—

A ray or twowandersinto the darkness.—Ruskin.

General usage.

442.If there is only one person in the subject, the ending of the verb indicates the person of its subject; that is, in those few cases where there are forms for different persons: as,—

Never oncedidstthou revel in the vision.—De Quincey.Romanism wiselyprovidesfor the childish in men.—Lowell.Ithathbeen said my Lord would never take the oath.—Thackeray.

Never oncedidstthou revel in the vision.—De Quincey.

Romanism wiselyprovidesfor the childish in men.—Lowell.

Ithathbeen said my Lord would never take the oath.—Thackeray.

Second or third and first person in the subject.

443.If the subject is made up of the first person joined with the second or third byand, the verb takes the construction of the first person, the subject being really equivalent towe; as,—

I flatter myself you and Ishallmeet again.—Smollett.You and Iarefarmers; we never talk politics.—D. Webster.

I flatter myself you and Ishallmeet again.—Smollett.

You and Iarefarmers; we never talk politics.—D. Webster.

Ah, brother! only I and thouAreleft of all that circle now.—Whittier.

You and Iaretolerably modest people.—Thackeray.Cocke and Ihavefelt it in our bones—Gammer Gurton's Needle

You and Iaretolerably modest people.—Thackeray.

Cocke and Ihavefelt it in our bones—Gammer Gurton's Needle

With adversative or disjunctive connectives.

444.When the subjects, of different persons, are connected by adversative or disjunctive conjunctions, the verb usually agrees with the pronoun nearest to it; for example,—

Neither you nor Ishouldbe a bit the better or wiser.—Ruskin.If she or youareresolved to be miserable.—Goldsmith.Nothing which Mr. Pattison or Ihavesaid.—M. Arnold.Not Altamont, but thou,hadstbeen my lord.—Rowe.Not I, but thou, his blooddostshed.—Byron.

Neither you nor Ishouldbe a bit the better or wiser.—Ruskin.

If she or youareresolved to be miserable.—Goldsmith.

Nothing which Mr. Pattison or Ihavesaid.—M. Arnold.

Not Altamont, but thou,hadstbeen my lord.—Rowe.

Not I, but thou, his blooddostshed.—Byron.

This construction is at the best a little awkward. It is avoided either by using a verb which has noforms for person (as, "He or Icango," "She or youmaybe sure," etc.), or by rearranging the sentence so as to throw each subject before its proper person form (as, "Youwouldnot be wiser, norshouldI;" or, "Ihavenever said so, norhasshe").

Exceptional examples.

445.The following illustrate exceptional usage, which it is proper to mention; but the student is cautioned to follow the regular usage rather than the unusual and irregular.

Change each of the following sentences to accord with standard usage, as illustrated above (Secs.440-444):—

1.And sharp Adversity will teach at lastMan,—and, as we would hope,—perhaps the devil,That neither of their intellects are vast.—Byron.2. Neither of them, in my opinion, give so accurate an idea of the man as a statuette in bronze.—Trollope.3. How each of these professions are crowded.—Addison.4. Neither of their counselors were to be present.—Id.5. Either of them are equally good to the person to whom they are significant.—Emerson.6. Neither the red nor the white are strong and glaring.—Burke.7. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder.—Addison.8. Neither of the sisters were very much deceived.—Thackeray.9.Nor wood, nor tree, nor bush are there,Her course to intercept.—Scott.10. Both death and I am found eternal.—Milton.11. In ascending the Mississippi the party was oftenobliged to wade through morasses; at last they came upon the district of Little Prairie.—G. Bancroft.12. In a word, the whole nation seems to be running out of their wits.—Smollett.

And sharp Adversity will teach at lastMan,—and, as we would hope,—perhaps the devil,That neither of their intellects are vast.—Byron.

2. Neither of them, in my opinion, give so accurate an idea of the man as a statuette in bronze.—Trollope.

3. How each of these professions are crowded.—Addison.

4. Neither of their counselors were to be present.—Id.

5. Either of them are equally good to the person to whom they are significant.—Emerson.

6. Neither the red nor the white are strong and glaring.—Burke.

7. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder.—Addison.

8. Neither of the sisters were very much deceived.—Thackeray.

Nor wood, nor tree, nor bush are there,Her course to intercept.—Scott.

10. Both death and I am found eternal.—Milton.

11. In ascending the Mississippi the party was oftenobliged to wade through morasses; at last they came upon the district of Little Prairie.—G. Bancroft.

12. In a word, the whole nation seems to be running out of their wits.—Smollett.

SEQUENCE OF TENSES(VERBS AND VERBALS).

Lack of logical sequence in verbs.

446.If one or more verbs depend on some leading verb, each should be in the tense that will convey the meaning intended by the writer.

In this sentence from Defoe, "I expected every wave would have swallowed us up," the verbexpectedlooks forward to something in the future, whilewould have swallowedrepresents something completed in past time: hence the meaning intended was, "I expected every wavewould swallow" etc.

Also in verbals.

In the following sentence, the infinitive also fails to express the exact thought:—

I had hoped never to have seen the statues again.—Macaulay.

The trouble is the same as in the previous sentence;to have seenshould be changed toto see, for exact connection. Of course, if the purpose were to represent a prior fact or completed action, the perfect infinitive would be the very thing.

It should be remarked, however, that such sentences as those just quoted are in keeping with the older idea of the unity of the sentence. The present rule is recent.

Exercise.

Explain whether the verbs and infinitives in the following sentences convey the right meaning; if not, change them to a better form:—

1. I gave one quarter to Ann, meaning, on my return, to have divided with her whatever might remain.—De Quincey2. I can't sketch "The Five Drapers," ... but can look and be thankful to have seen such a masterpiece.—Thackeray.3. He would have done more wisely to have left them to find their own apology than to have given reasons which seemed paradoxes.—R. W. Church.4. The propositions of William are stated to have contained a proposition for a compromise.—Palgrave5. But I found I wanted a stock of words, which I thought I should have acquired before that time.—Franklin6. I could even have suffered them to have broken Everet Ducking's head.—Irving.

1. I gave one quarter to Ann, meaning, on my return, to have divided with her whatever might remain.—De Quincey

2. I can't sketch "The Five Drapers," ... but can look and be thankful to have seen such a masterpiece.—Thackeray.

3. He would have done more wisely to have left them to find their own apology than to have given reasons which seemed paradoxes.—R. W. Church.

4. The propositions of William are stated to have contained a proposition for a compromise.—Palgrave

5. But I found I wanted a stock of words, which I thought I should have acquired before that time.—Franklin

6. I could even have suffered them to have broken Everet Ducking's head.—Irving.

Definitions.

447.Direct discourse—that is, a direct quotation or a direct question—means the identical words the writer or speaker used; as,—

"I hope you have not killed him?" said Amyas.—Kingsley.

Indirect discoursemeans reported speech,—the thoughts of a writer or speaker put in the words of the one reporting them.

Two samples of indirect discourse.

448.Indirect discourse may be of two kinds:—

(1) Following the thoughts and also the exact words as far as consistent with the rules of logical sequence of verbs.

(2) Merely a concise representation of the original words, not attempting to follow the entire quotation.

The following examples of both are from De Quincey:—

Indirect.

1. Reyes remarked that it was not in his power to oblige the clerk as to that, but that he could oblige him by cutting his throat.Direct.His exact words were, "Icannotobligeyou..., but Icanobligeyouby cuttingyourthroat."

1. Reyes remarked that it was not in his power to oblige the clerk as to that, but that he could oblige him by cutting his throat.

Direct.

His exact words were, "Icannotobligeyou..., but Icanobligeyouby cuttingyourthroat."

Indirect.

Her prudence whispered eternally, that safety there was none for her until she had laid the Atlantic between herself and St. Sebastian's.

Direct.

She thought to herself, "Safety thereisnone formeuntilIhave laid," etc.

Summary of the expressions.

2. Then he laid bare the unparalleled ingratitude of such a step. Oh, the unseen treasure that had been spent upon that girl! Oh, the untold sums of money that he had sunk in that unhappy speculation!

Direct synopsis.

The substance of his lamentation was, "Oh, unseen treasurehasbeen spent upon that girl! Untold sums of moneyhave Isunk," etc.

449.From these illustrations will be readily seen the grammatical changes made in transferring from direct to indirect discourse. Remember the following facts:—

(1) Usually the main, introductory verb is in the past tense.

(2) The indirect quotation is usually introduced bythat, and the indirect question bywhetherorif, or regular interrogatives.

(3) Verbs in the present-tense form are changed to the past-tense form. This includes the auxiliariesbe,have,will, etc. The past tense is sometimes changed to the past perfect.

(4) The pronouns of the first and second persons are all changed to the third person. Sometimes it is clearer to introduce the antecedent of the pronoun instead.

Other examples of indirect discourse have beengiven in Part I., under interrogative pronouns, interrogative adverbs, and the subjunctive mood of verbs.

Rewrite the following extract from Irving's "Sketch Book," and change it to a direct quotation:—

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