CAUTION FOR ANALYZING OR PARSING.

We have it in a muchlesserdegree.—Matthew Arnold.Thrust thelesserhalf by main force into the fists of Ho-ti.—Lamb.

We have it in a muchlesserdegree.—Matthew Arnold.

Thrust thelesserhalf by main force into the fists of Ho-ti.—Lamb.

(4) The wordsmuchandmanynow express quantity; but in former timesmuchwas used in the sense oflarge,great, and was the same word that is found in the proverb, "Many a little makesa mickle." Its spelling has beenmicel,muchel,moche,much, the parallel formmicklebeing rarely used.

The meaningsgreater,greatest, are shown in such phrases as,—

Themorepart being of one mind, to England we sailed.—Kingsley.Themostpart kept a stolid indifference.—Id.

Themorepart being of one mind, to England we sailed.—Kingsley.

Themostpart kept a stolid indifference.—Id.

The latter, meaningthe largest part, is quite common.

(5) The formselder,eldest, are earlier thanolder,oldest. A few other words with the vowelohad similar change in the comparative and superlative, aslong,strong, etc.; but these have followedoldby keeping the same voweloin all the forms, instead oflenger,strenger, etc., the old forms.

(6) and (7) Bothnighandnearseem regular in Modern English, except the formnext; but originally the comparison wasnigh,near,next. In the same way the wordhighhad in Middle English the superlativehexte.

By and by the comparativenearwas regarded as a positive form, and on it were built a double comparativenearer, and the superlativenearest, which adds-estto what is really a comparative instead of a simple adjective.

(8) These words also show confusion and consequent modification, coming about as follows:furtherreally belongs to another series,—forth,further,first.Firstbecame entirely detached from the series, andfurthestbegan to be used to follow the comparativefurther; then these were used as comparative and superlative offar.

The wordfarhad formerly the comparative and superlativefarrer,farrest. In imitation offurther,furthest,thcame into the others, making the modernfarther,farthest. Between the two sets as they now stand, there is scarcely any distinction, except perhapsfurtheris more used thanfartherin the sense ofadditional; as, for example,—

When that evil principle was left with nofurthermaterial to support it.—Hawthorne.

(9)Latterandlastare the older forms. Sincelater,latest, came into use, a distinction has grown up between the two series.Laterandlatesthave the true comparative and superlative force, and refer to time;latterandlastare used in speaking of succession, or series, and are hardly thought of as connected in meaning with the wordlate.

(10)Hinderis comparative in form, but not in meaning. The formhindmostis really a double superlative, since themis for-ma, an old superlative ending, to which is added-ost, doubling the inflection.Hind-er-m-ostpresents the combination comparative + superlative + superlative.

List II.

165.In List II. (Sec. 163) the comparatives and superlatives are adjectives, but they have no adjective positives.

The comparatives are so in form, but not in their meaning.

The superlatives show examples again of doubleinflection, and of comparative added to double-superlative inflection.

Examples (from Carlyle) of the use of these adjectives: "revealing theinnersplendor to him;" "a mind that has penetrated into theinmostheart of a thing;" "This of painting is one of theoutermostdevelopments of a man;" "Theouteris of the day;" "far-seeing as the sun, theupperlight of the world;" "theinnermostmoral soul;" "theirutmostexertion."

-Mostadded to other words.

166.The ending-mostis added to some words that are not usually adjectives, or have no comparative forms.

There, on the verytopmosttwig, sits that ridiculous but sweet-singing bobolink.—H. W. Beecher.Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman of family innorthernmostSpain.—De Quincey.Highest andmidmost, was descried The royal banner floating wide.—Scott.

There, on the verytopmosttwig, sits that ridiculous but sweet-singing bobolink.—H. W. Beecher.

Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman of family innorthernmostSpain.—De Quincey.

Highest andmidmost, was descried The royal banner floating wide.—Scott.

List III.

167.The adjectives in List III. are like the comparative forms in List II. in having no adjective positives. They have no superlatives, and have no comparative force, being merely descriptive.

Her bows were deep in the water, but herafterdeck was still dry.—Kingsley.Her, by the by, inafteryears I vainly endeavored to trace.—De Quincey.The upper and theunderside of the medal of Jove.—Emerson.Have you ever considered what a deepundermeaning there lies in our custom of strewing flowers?—Ruskin.Perhaps he rose out of somenetherregion.—Hawthorne.

Her bows were deep in the water, but herafterdeck was still dry.—Kingsley.

Her, by the by, inafteryears I vainly endeavored to trace.—De Quincey.

The upper and theunderside of the medal of Jove.—Emerson.

Have you ever considered what a deepundermeaning there lies in our custom of strewing flowers?—Ruskin.

Perhaps he rose out of somenetherregion.—Hawthorne.

Overis rarely used separately as an adjective.

Think what each adjective belongs to.

168.Some care must be taken to decide what word is modified by an adjective. In a series of adjectives in the same sentence, all may belong to the same noun, or each may modify a different word or group of words.

For example, in this sentence, "The young pastor's voice was tremulously sweet, rich, deep, and broken," it is clear that all four adjectives afterwasmodify the nounvoice. But in this sentence, "She showed her usual prudence and her usual incomparable decision,"decisionis modified by the adjectiveincomparable;usualmodifiesincomparable decision, notdecisionalone; and the pronounherlimitsusual incomparable decision.

Adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of thesame rank; those modifying different words or word groups are said to be adjectives ofdifferent rank. This distinction is valuable in a study of punctuation.

In the following quotations, tell what each adjective modifies:—

1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black eyes, it invested them with a strange remoteness and intangibility.—Hawthorne.2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of Christendom a college which is positively Christian must be controlled by some religious denomination.—Noah Porter.3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood backward to her heart.—Mrs. Stowe.4. This, our new government, is the first in the history of the world based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth.—A. H. Stephens5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system rests?—Id.6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid, satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths.—Hawthorne.7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate and profound impression.—Holmes.

1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black eyes, it invested them with a strange remoteness and intangibility.—Hawthorne.

2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of Christendom a college which is positively Christian must be controlled by some religious denomination.—Noah Porter.

3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood backward to her heart.—Mrs. Stowe.

4. This, our new government, is the first in the history of the world based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth.—A. H. Stephens

5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system rests?—Id.

6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid, satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths.—Hawthorne.

7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate and profound impression.—Holmes.

169.By a convenient brevity, adverbs are sometimes used as adjectives; as, instead of saying, "the one who was then king," in whichthenis an adverb, we may say "thethenking," makingthenan adjective. Other instances are,—

Mythenfavorite, in prose, Richard Hooker.—Ruskin.Oursometimesister, now our queen.—ShakespeareMessrs. Bradbury and Evans, thethenandstillowners.—Trollope.Theseldomuse of it.—Trench.For thy stomach's sake, and thineofteninfirmities.—Bible.

Mythenfavorite, in prose, Richard Hooker.—Ruskin.

Oursometimesister, now our queen.—Shakespeare

Messrs. Bradbury and Evans, thethenandstillowners.—Trollope.

Theseldomuse of it.—Trench.

For thy stomach's sake, and thineofteninfirmities.—Bible.

What to tell in parsing.

170.Since adjectives have no gender, person, or case, and very few have number, the method of parsing is simple.

Inparsingan adjective, tell—

(1) The class and subclass to which it belongs.

(2) Its number, if it has number.

(3) Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared.

(4) What word or words it modifies.

These truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts.

Thesepoints outwhattruths, therefore demonstrative; plural number, having a singular,this; cannot be compared; modifies the wordtruths.

Unfamiliardescribestruths, therefore descriptive; not inflected for number; compared by prefixingmoreandmost; positive degree; modifiestruths.

Parse in full each adjective in these sentences:—

1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to Eliza.2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched and creaked.3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end by a direct, frank, manly way.4. She made no reply, and I waited for none.5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the plain.6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible enemy, whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure, and most astounding were those frightful yells.7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed it to the fullest extent.8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice.9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man, seventy-five drachmas.10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his or her birthday, on which occasion the elders of the family were bound to be absent.11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture, those dogs in the yard, are immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs.12. I know not what course others may take.13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell.14. What a ruthless business this war of extermination is!15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal country.16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed?17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been more to him than all the men in his country.18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease.19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward fortunes of those he loves, yet are remarkably self-forgetful.20. Their name was the last word upon his lips.21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen.22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again.23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged.24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited.25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal benefit there is in being serviceable.26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and hates nothing so much as pretenders.27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were few, as for armies that were too many by half.28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, the same love to France would have been nurtured.29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy?30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to us, is the settlement of our own country.31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all directions, and many poles supported the lower ones.32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care.33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so noble a fruit.34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is no literary man.35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit!36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized.37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he.

1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to Eliza.

2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched and creaked.

3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end by a direct, frank, manly way.

4. She made no reply, and I waited for none.

5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the plain.

6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible enemy, whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure, and most astounding were those frightful yells.

7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed it to the fullest extent.

8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice.

9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man, seventy-five drachmas.

10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his or her birthday, on which occasion the elders of the family were bound to be absent.

11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture, those dogs in the yard, are immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs.

12. I know not what course others may take.

13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell.

14. What a ruthless business this war of extermination is!

15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal country.

16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed?

17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been more to him than all the men in his country.

18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease.

19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward fortunes of those he loves, yet are remarkably self-forgetful.

20. Their name was the last word upon his lips.

21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen.

22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again.

23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged.

24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited.

25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal benefit there is in being serviceable.

26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and hates nothing so much as pretenders.

27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were few, as for armies that were too many by half.

28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, the same love to France would have been nurtured.

29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy?

30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to us, is the settlement of our own country.

31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all directions, and many poles supported the lower ones.

32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care.

33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so noble a fruit.

34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is no literary man.

35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit!

36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized.

37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he.

171.There is a class of words having always an adjectival use in general, but with such subtle functions and various meanings that they deserve separate treatment. In the sentence, "He passes an ordinary brick house on the road, with an ordinary little garden," the wordstheandanbelong to nouns, just as adjectives do; but they cannot be accurately placed under any class of adjectives. They are nearest to demonstrative and numeral adjectives.

Their origin.

172. The articlethecomes from an old demonstrative adjective (sē,sēo,ðat, laterthē,thēo,that) which was also an article in Old English. In Middle Englishthebecame an article, andthatremained a demonstrative adjective.

Anoracame from the old numeralān, meaningone.

Two relics.

Our expressionsthe one,the other, were formerlythat one,that other; the latter is still preserved in the expression, in vulgar English,the tother. Not only this is kept in the Scotch dialect, but the former is used, these occurring asthe tane, the tother, orthe tane, the tither; for example,—

We ca' her sometimesthe tane, sometimesthe tother.—Scott.

Anbefore vowel sounds, abefore consonant sounds.

173.Ordinarilyanis used before vowel sounds, andabefore consonant sounds. Remember that avowel sounddoes not necessarily mean beginning with a vowel, nor doesconsonant soundmeanbeginning with a consonant, because English spelling does not coincide closely with the sound of words. Examples: "ahouse," "anorange," "aEuropean," "anhonor," "ayelling crowd."

Anwith consonant sounds.

174.Many writers useanbeforeh, even when not silent, when the word is not accented on the first syllable.

Anhistorian, such as we have been attempting to describe, would indeed be an intellectual prodigy.—Macaulay.The Persians wereanheroic people like the Greeks.—Brewer.He [Rip] evincedanhereditary disposition to attend to anything else but his business.—Irving.Anhabitual submission of the understanding to mere events and images.—Coleridge.Anhereditary tenure of these offices.—Thomas Jefferson.

Anhistorian, such as we have been attempting to describe, would indeed be an intellectual prodigy.—Macaulay.

The Persians wereanheroic people like the Greeks.—Brewer.

He [Rip] evincedanhereditary disposition to attend to anything else but his business.—Irving.

Anhabitual submission of the understanding to mere events and images.—Coleridge.

Anhereditary tenure of these offices.—Thomas Jefferson.

Definition.

175.Anarticleis a limiting word, not descriptive, which cannot be used alone, but always joins to a substantive word to denote a particular thing, or a group or class of things, or any individual of a group or class.

Kinds.

176.Articles are eitherdefiniteorindefinite.

Theis the definite article, since it points out a particular individual, or group, or class.

Anorais the indefinite article, because it refers to any one of a group or class of things.

Anandaare different forms of the same word, the olderān.

Reference to a known object.

177.The most common use of the definite article is to refer to an object that the listener orreader is already acquainted with; as in the sentence,—

Don't you remember how, whenthedragon was infestingtheneighborhood of Babylon,thecitizens used to walk dismally out of evenings, and look atthevalleys round about strewed withthebones?—Thackeray.NOTE.—This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a person is introduced bya, and afterwards referred to bythe:—By and byagiant came out of the dark north, and lay down on the ice near Audhumla....Thegiant frowned when he saw the glitter of the golden hair.—Heroes Of Asgard.

Don't you remember how, whenthedragon was infestingtheneighborhood of Babylon,thecitizens used to walk dismally out of evenings, and look atthevalleys round about strewed withthebones?—Thackeray.

NOTE.—This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a person is introduced bya, and afterwards referred to bythe:—

By and byagiant came out of the dark north, and lay down on the ice near Audhumla....Thegiant frowned when he saw the glitter of the golden hair.—Heroes Of Asgard.

With names of rivers.

178.Theis often prefixed to the names of rivers; and when the wordriveris omitted, as "theMississippi," "theOhio," the article indicates clearly that a river, and not a state or other geographical division, is referred to.

No wonder I could facetheMississippi with so much courage supplied to me.—Thackeray.The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country southwest oftheMissouri.—G. Bancroft.

No wonder I could facetheMississippi with so much courage supplied to me.—Thackeray.

The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country southwest oftheMissouri.—G. Bancroft.

To call attention to attributes.

179.Whentheis prefixed to a proper name, it alters the force of the noun by directing attention tocertain qualitiespossessed by the person or thing spoken of; thus,—

TheBacon,theSpinoza,theHume, Schelling, Kant, or whosoever propounds to you a philosophy of the mind, is only a more or less awkward translator of things in your consciousness.—Emerson.

With plural of abstract nouns.

180.The, when placed before the pluralized abstract noun, marks it as half abstract or a common noun.

Common.

His messages totheprovincialauthorities.—Motley.

Half abstract.

He was probably skilled inthe subtletiesof Italian statesmanship.—Id.

With adjectives used as nouns.

181.Whentheprecedes adjectives of the positive degree used substantively, it marks their use as common and plural nouns when they refer to persons, and as singular and abstract when they refer to qualities.

1.The simplerise as by specific levity, not into a particular virtue, but into the region of all the virtues.—Emerson.2. Ifthe goodis there, so isthe evil.—Id.

1.The simplerise as by specific levity, not into a particular virtue, but into the region of all the virtues.—Emerson.

2. Ifthe goodis there, so isthe evil.—Id.

Caution.

NOTE.—This is not to be confused with words that have shifted from adjectives and become pure nouns; as,—

As she hesitated to pass on,the gallant, throwing his cloak from his shoulders, laid it on the miry spot.—Scott.But De Soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish the temerity ofthe natives.—G. Bancroft.

As she hesitated to pass on,the gallant, throwing his cloak from his shoulders, laid it on the miry spot.—Scott.

But De Soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish the temerity ofthe natives.—G. Bancroft.

One thing for its class.

182.Thebefore class nouns may mark one thing as a representative of the class to which it belongs; for example,—

The faint, silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and moist fields fromthe bluebird,the song sparrow, andthe redwing, as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they fell!—Thoreau.In the sands of Africa and Arabiathe camelis a sacred and precious gift.—Gibbon.

The faint, silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and moist fields fromthe bluebird,the song sparrow, andthe redwing, as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they fell!—Thoreau.

In the sands of Africa and Arabiathe camelis a sacred and precious gift.—Gibbon.

For possessive person pronouns.

183.Theis frequently used instead of the possessive case of the personal pronounshis,her, etc.

More than one hinted that a cord twined aroundthe head, or a match put betweenthe fingers, would speedily extract the required information.—Kingsley.Themouth, and the region of the mouth, were about the strongest features in Wordsworth's face.—De Quincey.

More than one hinted that a cord twined aroundthe head, or a match put betweenthe fingers, would speedily extract the required information.—Kingsley.

Themouth, and the region of the mouth, were about the strongest features in Wordsworth's face.—De Quincey.

Thefora.

184.In England and Scotlandtheis often used where we usea, in speaking of measure and price; as,—

Wheat, the price of which necessarily varied, averaged in the middle of the fourteenth century tenpencethe bushel, barley averaging at the same time three shillingsthe quarter.—Froude.

A very strong restrictive.

185.Sometimesthehas a strong force, almost equivalent to a descriptive adjective in emphasizing a word,—

No doubt but ye arethepeople, and wisdom shall die with you.—Bible.As for New Orleans, it seemed to methecity of the world where you can eat and drink the most and suffer the least.—Thackeray.He wastheman in all Europe that could (if any could) have driven six-in-hand full gallop over Al Sirat.—De Quincey.

No doubt but ye arethepeople, and wisdom shall die with you.—Bible.

As for New Orleans, it seemed to methecity of the world where you can eat and drink the most and suffer the least.—Thackeray.

He wastheman in all Europe that could (if any could) have driven six-in-hand full gallop over Al Sirat.—De Quincey.

Mark of a substantive.

186.The, since it belongs distinctively to substantives, is a sure indication that a word of verbal form is not used participially, but substantively.

In the hills of Sacramento there is gold forthe gathering.—Emerson.I thoughtthe writingexcellent, and wished, if possible, to imitate it.—Franklin.

In the hills of Sacramento there is gold forthe gathering.—Emerson.

I thoughtthe writingexcellent, and wished, if possible, to imitate it.—Franklin.

Caution.

187.There is one use ofthewhich is different from all the above. It is an adverbial use, and is spoken of more fully in Sec. 283. Compare this sentence with those above:—

There was something ugly and evil in his face, which they had not previously noticed, and which grew stillthe more obviousto the sightthe oftenerthey looked upon him.—Hawthorne.

Exercise.—Find sentences with five uses of the definite article.

Denotes any one of a class.

188.The most frequent use of the indefinite article is to denote any one of a class or group of objects: consequently it belongs to singular words; as in the sentence,—

Near the churchyard gate standsapoor-box, fastened toapost by iron bands and secured byapadlock, withasloping wooden roof to keep off the rain.—Longfellow

Widens the scope of proper nouns.

189.When the indefinite article precedes proper names, it alters them to class names. The qualities or attributes of the object are made prominent, and transferred to any one possessing them; as,—

The vulgar riot and debauchery, which scarcely disgracedan Alcibiadesora Cæsar, have been exchanged for the higher ideals ofa Bayardora Sydney.—Pearson

With abstract nouns.

190.Anorabefore abstract nouns often changes them to half abstract: the idea of quality remains, but the word now denotes only one instance or example of things possessing the quality.

Become half abstract.

The simple perception of natural forms isa delight.—Emerson

If thou hadsta sorrowof thine own, the brook might tell thee of it.—Hawthorne

In the first sentence, instead of the general abstract notion of delight, which cannot be singular or plural,a delightmeans one thing delightful, and implies others having the same quality.

Soa sorrowmeans one cause of sorrow, implying that there are other things that bring sorrow.

Become pure class nouns.

NOTE.—Some abstract nouns become common class nouns with the indefinite article, referring simply to persons; thus,—

If the poet of the "Rape of the Lock" be nota wit, who deserves to be called so?—Thackeray.He had a little brother in London with him at this time,—as greata beauty, as great a dandy, as great a villain.—Id.A youthto fortune and to fame unknown.—Gray.

If the poet of the "Rape of the Lock" be nota wit, who deserves to be called so?—Thackeray.

He had a little brother in London with him at this time,—as greata beauty, as great a dandy, as great a villain.—Id.

A youthto fortune and to fame unknown.—Gray.

Changes material to class nouns.

191.Anorabefore a material noun indicates the change to a class noun, meaning one kind or a detached portion; as,—

They that dwell up in the steeple,...Feel a glory in so rollingOn the human hearta stone.—Poe.

When God at first made man,Havinga glassof blessings standing by.—Herbert.

The roofs were turned into arches of massy stone, joined bya cementthat grew harder by time.—Johnson.

Like the numeral adjectiveone.

192.In some casesanorahas the full force of the numeral adjectiveone. It is shown in the following:—

To every room there wasanopen andasecret passage.—Johnson.In a short time these become a small tree,aninverted pyramid resting on the apex of the other.—Thoreau.All men are at last ofasize.—Emerson.At the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house, two atatime.—Thoreau.

To every room there wasanopen andasecret passage.—Johnson.

In a short time these become a small tree,aninverted pyramid resting on the apex of the other.—Thoreau.

All men are at last ofasize.—Emerson.

At the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house, two atatime.—Thoreau.

Equivalent to the wordeachorevery.

193.Often, also, the indefinite article has the force ofeachorevery, particularly to express measure or frequency.

It would be so much more pleasant to live at his ease than to work eight or ten hoursa day.—Bulwer

Compare to Sec. 184.

Strong beer, such as we now buy for eighteenpencea gallon, was then a pennya gallon.—Froude

Withsuch, many, what.

194.Anorais added to the adjectivessuch,many, andwhat, and may be considered a part of these in modifying substantives.

How was I to paysuch adebt?—Thackeray.Many aone you and I have had here below.—Thackeray.What aworld of merriment then melody foretells!—Poe.

How was I to paysuch adebt?—Thackeray.

Many aone you and I have had here below.—Thackeray.

What aworld of merriment then melody foretells!—Poe.

Withnotandmany.

195.Notandneverwithaoranare numeral adjectives, instead of adverbs, which they are in general.

Not adrum was heard,not afuneral note.—WolfeMy Lord Duke was as hot as a flame at this salute, but saidnever aword.—Thackeray.

Not adrum was heard,not afuneral note.—Wolfe

My Lord Duke was as hot as a flame at this salute, but saidnever aword.—Thackeray.

NOTE.—All these have the function of adjectives; but in the last analysis of the expressions,such,many,not, etc., might be considered as adverbs modifying the article.

Withfeworlittle.

196.The adjectivesfewandlittlehave the negative meaning ofnot much,not many, without the article; but whenais put before them, they have the positive meaning ofsome. Notice the contrast in the following sentences:—

Of the country beyond the Mississippilittlemore was known than of the heart of Africa.—McmasterTo both must I of necessity cling, supported always by the hope that whena littletime,a fewyears, shall have tried me more fully in their esteem, I may be able to bring them together.—Keats's Letters.Fewof the great characters of history have been so differently judged as Alexander.—Smith,History of Greece

Of the country beyond the Mississippilittlemore was known than of the heart of Africa.—Mcmaster

To both must I of necessity cling, supported always by the hope that whena littletime,a fewyears, shall have tried me more fully in their esteem, I may be able to bring them together.—Keats's Letters.

Fewof the great characters of history have been so differently judged as Alexander.—Smith,History of Greece

With adjectives, changed to nouns.

197.Whentheis used before adjectives with no substantive following (Sec. 181 and note), thesewords are adjectives used as nouns, or pure nouns; but whenanoraprecedes such words, they are always nouns, having the regular use and inflections of nouns; for example,—

Such are the wordsa braveshould use.—Cooper.In the great society of wits, John Gay deserves to bea favorite, and to have a good place.—ThackerayOnly the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for use in the verses ofa rival.—Pearson.

Such are the wordsa braveshould use.—Cooper.

In the great society of wits, John Gay deserves to bea favorite, and to have a good place.—Thackeray

Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for use in the verses ofa rival.—Pearson.

Exercise.—Bring up sentences with five uses of the indefinite article.

198.In parsing the article, tell—

(1) What word it limits.

(2) Which of the above uses it has.

Parse the articles in the following:—

1. It is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground, or bottling a little air in a phial, when the whole earth and the whole atmosphere are ours.2. Aristeides landed on the island with a body of Hoplites, defeated the Persians and cut them to pieces to a man.3. The wild fire that lit the eye of an Achilles can gleam no more.4. But it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that is mediæval; the whole city is of a piece.5. To the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods, to the craftsman in his rude workshop, to the great and to the little, a new light has arisen.6. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.7. The student is to read history actively, and not passively.8. This resistance was the labor of his life.9. There was always a hope, even in the darkest hour.10. The child had a native grace that does not invariably coexist with faultless beauty.11. I think a mere gent (which I take to be the lowest form of civilization) better than a howling, whistling, clucking, stamping, jumping, tearing savage.12. Every fowl whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in water.13. They seem to be lines pretty much of a length.14. Only yesterday, but what a gulf between now and then!15. Not a brick was made but some man had to think of the making of that brick.16. The class of power, the working heroes, the Cortes, the Nelson, the Napoleon, see that this is the festivity and permanent celebration of such as they; that fashion is funded talent.

1. It is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground, or bottling a little air in a phial, when the whole earth and the whole atmosphere are ours.

2. Aristeides landed on the island with a body of Hoplites, defeated the Persians and cut them to pieces to a man.

3. The wild fire that lit the eye of an Achilles can gleam no more.

4. But it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that is mediæval; the whole city is of a piece.

5. To the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods, to the craftsman in his rude workshop, to the great and to the little, a new light has arisen.

6. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.

7. The student is to read history actively, and not passively.

8. This resistance was the labor of his life.

9. There was always a hope, even in the darkest hour.

10. The child had a native grace that does not invariably coexist with faultless beauty.

11. I think a mere gent (which I take to be the lowest form of civilization) better than a howling, whistling, clucking, stamping, jumping, tearing savage.

12. Every fowl whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in water.

13. They seem to be lines pretty much of a length.

14. Only yesterday, but what a gulf between now and then!

15. Not a brick was made but some man had to think of the making of that brick.

16. The class of power, the working heroes, the Cortes, the Nelson, the Napoleon, see that this is the festivity and permanent celebration of such as they; that fashion is funded talent.

Verb,—the word of the sentence.

199.The termverbis from the Latinverbummeaningword: hence it istheword of a sentence. A thought cannot be expressed without a verb. When the child cries, "Apple!" it means,Seethe apple! or Ihavean apple! In the mariner's shout, "A sail!" the meaning is, "Yonderisa sail!"

Sentences are in the form of declarations, questions, or commands; and none of these can be put before the mind without the use of a verb.

One group or a group of words.

200.The verb may not always be a single word. On account of the lack of inflections,verb phrasesare very frequent. Hence the verb may consist of:

(1)One word; as, "The young manobeyed."

(2)Several words of verbal nature, making one expression; as, (a) "Some day itmay be consideredreasonable," (b) "Fearing lest hemight have been anticipated."

(3)One or more verbal words united with other words to compose one verb phrase: as in the sentences, (a) "They knew well that this womanruled overthirty millions of subjects;" (b) "If all the flummery and extravagance of an armywere done away with, the money could be made to go much further;" (c) "It is idle cant to pretend anxiety for the better distribution of wealth until we can devise means by which this preying upon people of small incomescan be put a stop to."

In (a), a verb and a preposition are used as one verb; in (b), a verb, an adverb, and a preposition unite as a verb; in (c), an article, a noun, a preposition, are united with verbs as one verb phrase.

Definition and caution.

201.Averbis a word used as a predicate, to say something to or about some person or thing. In giving a definition, we consider a verb as one word.

Now, it is indispensable to the nature of a verb that it is "a word used as a predicate." Examine the sentences in Sec. 200: In (1),obeyedis a predicate; in (2,a),may be consideredis a unit in doing the work of one predicate; in (2,b),might have been anticipatedis also one predicate, butfearingis not a predicate, hence is not a verb; in (3,b),to gois no predicate, and not a verb; in (3,c),to pretendandpreyinghave something ofverbal nature in expressing action in a faint and general way, but cannot be predicates.

In the sentence, "Putmoney in thy purse,"putis the predicate, with some word understood; as, "Putthoumoney in thy purse."

The nature of the transitive verb.

202.By examining a few verbs, it may be seen that not all verbs are used alike. All do not express action: some denote state or condition. Of those expressing action, all do not express it in the same way; for example, in this sentence from Bulwer,—"The proud lonetookcare to conceal the anguish sheendured; and the pride of womanhasan hypocrisy whichcan deceivethe most penetrating, andshamethe most astute,"—every one of the verbs in Italics has one or more words before or after it, representing something which it influences or controls. In the first, lonetookwhat? answer,care;enduredwhat?anguish; etc. Each influences some object, which may be a person, or a material thing, or an idea.Hastakes the objecthypocrisy;can deceivehas an object,the most penetrating; (can)shamealso has an object,the most astute.

In each case, the word following, or the object, is necessary to the completion of the action expressed in the verb.

All these are called transitive verbs, from the Latintransire, which meansto go over. Hence

Definition.

203.A transitive verb is one which must have an object to complete its meaning, and to receive the action expressed.

The nature of intransitive verbs.

204.Examine the verbs in the following paragraph:—

Shesprang upat that thought, and, taking the staff which always guided her steps, shehastenedto the neighboring shrine of Isis. Till shehad beenunder the guardianship of the kindly Greek, that staffhad sufficedto conduct the poor blind girl from corner to corner of Pompeii.—Bulwer

In this there are some verbs unlike those that have been examined.Sprang, orsprang up, expresses action, but it is complete in itself, does not affect an object;hastenedis similar in use;had beenexpresses condition, or state of being, and can have no object;had sufficedmeanshad been sufficient, and from its meaning cannot have an object.

Such verbs are called intransitive (not crossing over). Hence

Definition.

205.An intransitive verb is one which is complete in itself, or which is completed by other words without requiring an object.

Studyuse,notform,of verbs here.

206. Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, according to their use in the sentence, It can be said, "The boywalkedfor two hours," or "The boywalkedthe horse;" "The rainsswelledthe river," or "The riverswelledbecause of the rain;" etc.

The important thing to observe is, many words must be distinguished as transitive or intransitive byuse, not byform.

207.Also verbs are sometimes made transitive by prepositions. These may be (1) compounded with the verb; or (2) may follow the verb, and be used as an integral part of it: for example,—

Asking her pardon for havingwithstoodher.—Scott.I can wish myself no worse than to have it all toundergoa second time.—Kingsley.A weary gloom in the deep caverns of his eyes, as of a child that hasoutgrownits playthings.—Hawthorne.It is amusing to walk up and down the pier andlook atthe countenances passing by.—B. Taylor.He was at once so out of the way, and yet so sensible, that I loved,laughed at, and pitied him.—Goldsmith.My little nurse told me the whole matter, which she had cunninglypicked outfrom her mother.—Swift.

Asking her pardon for havingwithstoodher.—Scott.

I can wish myself no worse than to have it all toundergoa second time.—Kingsley.

A weary gloom in the deep caverns of his eyes, as of a child that hasoutgrownits playthings.—Hawthorne.

It is amusing to walk up and down the pier andlook atthe countenances passing by.—B. Taylor.

He was at once so out of the way, and yet so sensible, that I loved,laughed at, and pitied him.—Goldsmith.

My little nurse told me the whole matter, which she had cunninglypicked outfrom her mother.—Swift.

(a) Pick out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in the following:—

1. The women and children collected together at a distance.2. The path to the fountain led through a grassy savanna.3. As soon as I recovered my senses and strength from so sudden a surprise, I started back out of his reach where I stood to view him; he lay quiet whilst I surveyed him.4. At first they lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on the ground, upon which they deposit a layer of eggs.5. I ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places, which was a sort of neck or little dock, from which ascended a sloping path or road up to the edge of the meadow, where their nests were; most of them were deserted, and the great thick whitish eggshells lay broken and scattered upon the ground.6. Accordingly I got everything on board, chargedmy gun, set sail cautiously, along shore. As I passed by Battle Lagoon, I began to tremble.7. I seized my gun, and went cautiously from my camp: when I had advanced about thirty yards, I halted behind a coppice of orange trees, and soon perceived two very large bears, which had made their way through the water and had landed in the grove, and were advancing toward me.

1. The women and children collected together at a distance.

2. The path to the fountain led through a grassy savanna.

3. As soon as I recovered my senses and strength from so sudden a surprise, I started back out of his reach where I stood to view him; he lay quiet whilst I surveyed him.

4. At first they lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on the ground, upon which they deposit a layer of eggs.

5. I ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places, which was a sort of neck or little dock, from which ascended a sloping path or road up to the edge of the meadow, where their nests were; most of them were deserted, and the great thick whitish eggshells lay broken and scattered upon the ground.

6. Accordingly I got everything on board, chargedmy gun, set sail cautiously, along shore. As I passed by Battle Lagoon, I began to tremble.

7. I seized my gun, and went cautiously from my camp: when I had advanced about thirty yards, I halted behind a coppice of orange trees, and soon perceived two very large bears, which had made their way through the water and had landed in the grove, and were advancing toward me.

(b) Bring up sentences with five transitive and five intransitive verbs.

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