DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

Classes of adjective pronouns.

132.Adjective pronouns are divided into three classes:—

(1) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, such asthis,that,the former, etc.

(2) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, such aseach,either,neither, etc.

(3) NUMERAL PRONOUNS, assome,any,few,many,none,all, etc.

Definition and examples.

133.A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is one that definitely points out what persons or things are alluded to in the sentence.

The person or thing alluded to by the demonstrative may be in another sentence, or may be the whole of a sentence. For example, "Bethatas it may" could refer to a sentiment in a sentence, or an argument in a paragraph; but the demonstrative clearly points to that thing.

The following are examples of demonstratives:—

I did not saythisin so many words.Allthesehe saw; but what he fain had seen He could not see.BeyondthatI seek not to penetrate the veil.How much we forgive inthosewho yield us the rare spectacle of heroic manners!The correspondence of Bonaparte with his brother Joseph, whenthe latterwas the King of Spain.Suchare a few isolated instances, accidentally preserved.Even as I have seen, they that plow iniquity, and sow wickedness, reapthe same.They know that patriotism has its glorious opportunities and its sacred duties. They have not shunnedthe one, and they have well performedthe other.

I did not saythisin so many words.

Allthesehe saw; but what he fain had seen He could not see.

BeyondthatI seek not to penetrate the veil.

How much we forgive inthosewho yield us the rare spectacle of heroic manners!

The correspondence of Bonaparte with his brother Joseph, whenthe latterwas the King of Spain.

Suchare a few isolated instances, accidentally preserved.

Even as I have seen, they that plow iniquity, and sow wickedness, reapthe same.

They know that patriotism has its glorious opportunities and its sacred duties. They have not shunnedthe one, and they have well performedthe other.

NOTE.—It will be noticed in the first four sentences thatthisandthatare inflected for number.

(a) Find six sentences using demonstrative adjective pronouns.

(b) In which of the following isthesea pronoun?—

1. Formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much as possible from the books, and to handtheseover to his successor as little worn as he could.—Lowell.2. They had fewer books, butthesewere of the best.—Id.3. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying in wait forthese.—Emerson4. Souls such asthesetreat you as gods would.—Id.5.Theseare the first mountains that broke the uniform level of the earth's surface.—Agassiz

1. Formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much as possible from the books, and to handtheseover to his successor as little worn as he could.—Lowell.

2. They had fewer books, butthesewere of the best.—Id.

3. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying in wait forthese.—Emerson

4. Souls such asthesetreat you as gods would.—Id.

5.Theseare the first mountains that broke the uniform level of the earth's surface.—Agassiz

Definition and examples.

134.The DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS are those which stand for the names of persons or things considered singly.

Simple.

Some of these aresimplepronouns; for example,—

They stood, or sat, or reclined, as seemed good toeach.As two yoke devils sworn toother'spurpose.Their minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music whichneithercould have claimed as all his own.

They stood, or sat, or reclined, as seemed good toeach.

As two yoke devils sworn toother'spurpose.

Their minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music whichneithercould have claimed as all his own.

Compound.

Two are compound pronouns,—each other,one another. They may be separated into two adjective pronouns; as,

We violated our reverenceeachforthe other'ssoul.—Hawthorne.

More frequently they are considered as one pronoun.

They led one another, as it were, into a high pavilion of their thoughts.—Hawthorne.Men take each other's measure when they react.—Emerson.

They led one another, as it were, into a high pavilion of their thoughts.—Hawthorne.

Men take each other's measure when they react.—Emerson.

Exercise.—Find sentences containing three distributive pronouns.

Definition and examples.

135.The NUMERAL PRONOUNS are those which stand for an uncertain number or quantity of persons or things.

The following sentences contain numeral pronouns:—

Trusting too much toothers'care is the ruin ofmany.'Tis of no importance how large his house, you quickly come to the end ofall.Anotheropposes him with sound argument.It is as ifoneshould be so enthusiastic a lover of poetry as to care nothing for Homer or Milton.There were plentymorefor him to fall in company with, assomeof the rangers had gone astray.The Soldan, imbued, asmostwere, with the superstitions of his time, paused over a horoscope.If those [taxes] were the onlyoneswe had to pay, we might the more easily discharge them.Muchmight be said on both sides.

Trusting too much toothers'care is the ruin ofmany.

'Tis of no importance how large his house, you quickly come to the end ofall.

Anotheropposes him with sound argument.

It is as ifoneshould be so enthusiastic a lover of poetry as to care nothing for Homer or Milton.

There were plentymorefor him to fall in company with, assomeof the rangers had gone astray.

The Soldan, imbued, asmostwere, with the superstitions of his time, paused over a horoscope.

If those [taxes] were the onlyoneswe had to pay, we might the more easily discharge them.

Muchmight be said on both sides.

If hand of mineanother'stask has lightened.It felt the guidance that it does not claim.So perishallwhose breast ne'er learned to glowForothers' good, or melt forothers' woe.

Noneshall rule but the humble.

Some inflected.

It will be noticed that some of these are inflected for case and number; such asone other,another.

The wordonehas a reflexive form; for example,—

Onereflexive.

The best way to punishoneselffor doing ill seems to me to go and do good.—Kingsley.The lines sound so prettily toone's self.—Holmes.

The best way to punishoneselffor doing ill seems to me to go and do good.—Kingsley.

The lines sound so prettily toone's self.—Holmes.

Exercise.—Find sentences containing ten numeral pronouns.

Definition and examples.

136.Indefinite pronounsare words which stand for an indefinite number or quantity of persons or things; but, unlike adjective pronouns, they are never used as adjectives.

Most of them are compounds of two or more words:—

List.

Somebody,some one,something;anybody,any one(oranyone),anything;everybody,every one(oreveryone),everything;nobody,no one,nothing;somebody else,anyone else,everybody else,every one else, etc.; alsoaught,naught; andsomewhat,what, andthey.

The following sentences contain indefinite pronouns:—

As he had them of all hues, he hoped to fiteverybody'sfancy.Every oneknows how laborious the usual method is of attaining to arts and sciences.Nothingsheds more honor on our early history than the impression which these measures everywhere produced in America.Let us also performsomethingworthy to be remembered.William of Orange was more thananything elsea religious man.Frederick was discerned to be a purchaser ofeverythingthatnobody elsewould buy.These other souls draw me asnothing elsecan.The genius that created it now createssomewhat else.Every one elsestood still at his post.That is perfectly true: I did not wantanybody else'sauthority to write as I did.

As he had them of all hues, he hoped to fiteverybody'sfancy.

Every oneknows how laborious the usual method is of attaining to arts and sciences.

Nothingsheds more honor on our early history than the impression which these measures everywhere produced in America.

Let us also performsomethingworthy to be remembered.

William of Orange was more thananything elsea religious man.

Frederick was discerned to be a purchaser ofeverythingthatnobody elsewould buy.

These other souls draw me asnothing elsecan.

The genius that created it now createssomewhat else.

Every one elsestood still at his post.

That is perfectly true: I did not wantanybody else'sauthority to write as I did.

Theyindefinite means people in general; as,—

At lovers' perjuries,theysay, Jove laughs.—Shakespeare.

Whatindefinite is used in the expression "I tell youwhat." It meanssomething, and was indefinite in Old English.

Now, in building of chaises, I tell youwhat,There is always somewhere a weakest spot.

Exercise.—Find sentences with six indefinite pronouns.

137.Some indefinite pronouns are inflected for case, as shown in the wordseverybody's,anybody else's, etc.

See also "Syntax" (Sec. 426) as to the possessive case of the forms withelse.

A reminder.

138.Inparsingpronouns the student will need particularly to guard against the mistake of parsing words according toforminstead of according to function or use.

Parse in full the pronouns in the following sentences:—

1. She could not help laughing at the vile English into which they were translated.2. Our readers probably remember what Mrs. Hutchinson tells us of herself.3. Whoever deals with M. de Witt must go the plain way that he pretends to, in his negotiations.4. Some of them from whom nothing was to be got, were suffered to depart; but those from whom it was thought that anything could be extorted were treated with execrable cruelty.5. All was now ready for action.6. Scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself again.7. He came back determined to put everything to the hazard.8. Nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the servant of his government, and of no other.9. Others did the same thing, but not to quite so enormous an extent.10. On reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful evening in June, I first found myself among the mountains,—a feature of natural scenery for which, from my earliest days, it was not extravagant to say that I hungered and thirsted.11. I speak of that part which chiefly it is that I know.12. A smaller sum I had given to my friend the attorney (who was connected with the money lenders as their lawyer), to which, indeed, he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings.13. Whatever power the law gave them would be enforced against me to the utmost.14. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers!15. But there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief in this island of ours.16. But amongst themselves is no voice nor sound.17. For this did God send her a great reward.18. The table was good; but that was exactly what Kate cared little about.19. Who and what was Milton? That is to say, what is the place which he fills in his own vernacular literature?20. These hopes are mine as much as theirs.21. What else am I who laughed or wept yesterday, who slept last night like a corpse?22. I who alone am, I who see nothing in nature whose existence I can affirm with equal evidence to my own, behold now the semblance of my being, in all its height, variety, and curiosity reiterated in a foreign form.23.What hand but would a garland cullFor thee who art so beautiful?24.And I had done a hellish thing,And it would work 'em woe.25. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is worth doing, that let him communicate.26. Rip Van Winkle was one of those foolish, well-oiled dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown, whichever can be got with least thought or trouble.27.And will your mother pity me,Who am a maiden most forlorn?28.They know not I knew thee,Who knew thee too well.29.I did remind thee of our own dear Lake,By the old Hall which may be mine no more.30.He sate him down, and seized a pen, and tracedWords which I could not guess of.31.Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow:Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now.32.Wild Spirit which art moving everywhere;Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, hear!33. A smile of hers was like an act of grace.34. No man can learn what he has not preparation for learning.35. What can we see or acquire but what we are?36. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives.37. We are by nature observers; that is our permanent state.38. He knew not what to do, and so he read.39. Who hears me, who understands me, becomes mine.40. The men who carry their points do not need to inquire of their constituents what they should say.41. Higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a certain sleep.42. Those who live to the future must always appear selfish to those who live to the present.43. I am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift comes from such as do not know my spirit.44. Here I began to howl and scream abominably, which was no bad step towards my liberation.45. The only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of the two—which is the master.

1. She could not help laughing at the vile English into which they were translated.

2. Our readers probably remember what Mrs. Hutchinson tells us of herself.

3. Whoever deals with M. de Witt must go the plain way that he pretends to, in his negotiations.

4. Some of them from whom nothing was to be got, were suffered to depart; but those from whom it was thought that anything could be extorted were treated with execrable cruelty.

5. All was now ready for action.

6. Scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself again.

7. He came back determined to put everything to the hazard.

8. Nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the servant of his government, and of no other.

9. Others did the same thing, but not to quite so enormous an extent.

10. On reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful evening in June, I first found myself among the mountains,—a feature of natural scenery for which, from my earliest days, it was not extravagant to say that I hungered and thirsted.

11. I speak of that part which chiefly it is that I know.

12. A smaller sum I had given to my friend the attorney (who was connected with the money lenders as their lawyer), to which, indeed, he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings.

13. Whatever power the law gave them would be enforced against me to the utmost.

14. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers!

15. But there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief in this island of ours.

16. But amongst themselves is no voice nor sound.

17. For this did God send her a great reward.

18. The table was good; but that was exactly what Kate cared little about.

19. Who and what was Milton? That is to say, what is the place which he fills in his own vernacular literature?

20. These hopes are mine as much as theirs.

21. What else am I who laughed or wept yesterday, who slept last night like a corpse?

22. I who alone am, I who see nothing in nature whose existence I can affirm with equal evidence to my own, behold now the semblance of my being, in all its height, variety, and curiosity reiterated in a foreign form.

23.

What hand but would a garland cullFor thee who art so beautiful?

24.

And I had done a hellish thing,And it would work 'em woe.

25. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is worth doing, that let him communicate.

26. Rip Van Winkle was one of those foolish, well-oiled dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown, whichever can be got with least thought or trouble.

27.

And will your mother pity me,Who am a maiden most forlorn?

28.

They know not I knew thee,Who knew thee too well.

29.

I did remind thee of our own dear Lake,By the old Hall which may be mine no more.

30.

He sate him down, and seized a pen, and tracedWords which I could not guess of.

31.

Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow:Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now.

32.

Wild Spirit which art moving everywhere;Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, hear!

33. A smile of hers was like an act of grace.

34. No man can learn what he has not preparation for learning.

35. What can we see or acquire but what we are?

36. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives.

37. We are by nature observers; that is our permanent state.

38. He knew not what to do, and so he read.

39. Who hears me, who understands me, becomes mine.

40. The men who carry their points do not need to inquire of their constituents what they should say.

41. Higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a certain sleep.

42. Those who live to the future must always appear selfish to those who live to the present.

43. I am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift comes from such as do not know my spirit.

44. Here I began to howl and scream abominably, which was no bad step towards my liberation.

45. The only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of the two—which is the master.

Office of Adjectives.

139.Nouns are seldom used as names of objects without additional words joined to them to add to their meaning. For example, if we wish to speak of a friend's house, we cannot guide one to it by merely calling ita house. We need to add some words to tell its color, size, position, etc., if we are at a distance; and if we are near, we need some word to point out the house we speak of, so that no other will be mistaken for it. So with any object, or with persons.

As to the kind of words used, we may beginwith the common adjectives telling thecharacteristicsof an object. If a chemist discovers a new substance, he cannot describe it to others without telling its qualities: he will say it issolid, orliquid, orgaseous;heavyorlight;brittleortough;whiteorred; etc.

Again, inpointing outan object, adjectives are used; such as in the expressions "thisman," "thathouse," "yonderhill," etc.

Instead of using nouns indefinitely, thenumberis limited by adjectives; as, "onehat," "somecities," "a hundredmen."

The office of an adjective, then, is to narrow down or limit the application of a noun. It may have this office alone, or it may at the same time add to the meaning of the noun.

Substantives.

140.Nouns are not, however, the only words limited by adjectives: pronouns and other words and expressions also have adjectives joined to them. Any word or word group that performs the same office as a noun may be modified by adjectives.

To make this clear, notice the following sentences:—

Pronoun.

Ifhebethankfulfor small benefits, it shows that he weighs men's minds, and their trash.—Bacon.

Infinitives.

To errishuman;to forgive, divine.—Pope.With exception of the "and then," the "and there," and the still lesssignificant"and so," they constitute all his connections.—Coleridge.

To errishuman;to forgive, divine.—Pope.

With exception of the "and then," the "and there," and the still lesssignificant"and so," they constitute all his connections.—Coleridge.

Definition.

141.Anadjectiveis a word joined to a noun or other substantive word or expression, to describe it or to limit its application.

Classes of adjectives.

142.Adjectives are divided into four classes:—

(1)Descriptive adjectives, which describe by expressing qualities or attributes of a substantive.

(2)Adjectives of quantity, used to tell how many things are spoken of, or how much of a thing.

(3)Demonstrative adjectives, pointing out particular things.

(4)Pronominal adjectives, words primarily pronouns, but used adjectively sometimes in modifying nouns instead of standing for them. They include relative and interrogative words.

143.This large class includes several kinds of words:—

(1) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES expressing quality; such assafe,happy,deep,fair,rash,beautiful,remotest,terrible, etc.

(2) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, made up of various words thrown together to make descriptive epithets. Examples are, "Heaven-derivedpower," "thislife-givingbook," "his spirit wrapt andwonder-struck," "ice-coldwater," "half-deadtraveler," "unlooked-forburden," "next-doorneighbor," "ivory-handledpistols," "thecold-shudder-inspiringWoman in White."

(3) PROPER ADJECTIVES, derived from proper nouns; such as, "an oldEnglishmanuscript," "theChristianpearl of charity," "the well-curb had aChineseroof," "theRomanwriter Palladius."

(4) PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES, which are either pure participles used to describe, or participles which have lost all verbal force and have no function except to express quality. Examples are,—

Pure participial adjectives: "Thehealingpower of the Messiah," "Theshatteringsway of one strong arm," "trailingclouds," "Theshatteredsquares have opened into line," "It came on like therollingsimoom," "God tempers the wind to theshornlamb."

Faded participial adjectives: "Sleep is ablessedthing;" "One is hungry, and another isdrunken;" "under thefittingdrapery of the jagged and trailing clouds;" "The clearness and quickness areamazing;" "anagedman;" "acharmingsight."

Caution.

144.Care is needed, in studying these last-named words, to distinguish between a participle that forms part of a verb, and a participle or participial adjective that belongs to a noun.

For instance: in the sentence, "The work was well and rapidly accomplished,"was accomplishedis a verb; in this, "No man of his day was more brilliant or more accomplished,"wasis the verb, andaccomplishedis an adjective.

1. Bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives, having some of each subclass named in Sec. 143.2. Is the italicized word an adjective in this?—

1. Bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives, having some of each subclass named in Sec. 143.

2. Is the italicized word an adjective in this?—

The old sources of intellectual excitement seem to be well-nighexhausted.

145.Adjectives of quantity tellhow muchorhow many. They have these three subdivisions:—

How much.

(1) QUANTITY IN BULK: such words aslittle,much,some,no,any,considerable, sometimessmall, joined usually to singular nouns to express an indefinite measure of the thing spoken of.

The following examples are from Kingsley:—

So he parted withmuchweeping of the lady.Which we began to do withgreatlabor andlittleprofit.Because I hadsomeknowledge of surgery and blood-letting.But ever she looked on Mr. Oxenham, and seemed to takenocare as long as he was by.

Examples ofsmallan adjective of quantity:—

"The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and walked away with a laugh ofsmallsatisfaction.—Macdonald.'Tis midnight, butsmallthoughts have I of sleep.—Coleridge.It givessmallidea of Coleridge's way of talking.—Carlyle.

"The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and walked away with a laugh ofsmallsatisfaction.—Macdonald.

'Tis midnight, butsmallthoughts have I of sleep.—Coleridge.

It givessmallidea of Coleridge's way of talking.—Carlyle.

Whensome,any,no, are used with plural nouns, they come under the next division of adjectives.

How many.

(2) QUANTITY IN NUMBER, which may be expressed exactly by numbers or remotely designated by words expressing indefinite amounts. Hence the natural division into—

(a)Definite numerals; as, "oneblaze of musketry;" "He found in the pathwayfourteenSpaniards;" "I have lostonebrother, but I have gainedfourscore;" "a dozenvolunteers."

(b)Indefinite numerals, as the following from Kingsley: "We gaveseveralthousand pounds for it;" "In came some five and twenty more, andwith thema fewnegroes;" "Then we wandered formanydays;" "Amyas had evidentlymoreschemes in his head;" "He had lived by hunting forsomemonths;" "That light is far too red to be the reflection ofanybeams of hers."

Single ones of any number of changes.

(3) DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS, which occupy a place midway between the last two subdivisions of numeral adjectives; for they are indefinite in telling how many objects are spoken of, but definite in referring to the objects one at a time. Thus,—

Everytown had its fair;everyvillage, its wake.—Thackeray.An arrow was quivering ineachbody.—Kingsley.Few oneitherside but had their shrewd scratch to show.—Id.

Everytown had its fair;everyvillage, its wake.—Thackeray.

An arrow was quivering ineachbody.—Kingsley.

Few oneitherside but had their shrewd scratch to show.—Id.

Before I taught my tongue to woundMy conscience with a sinful sound,Or had the black art to dispenseAseveralsin toeverysense.—Vaughan.

Exercise.—Bring up sentences with ten adjectives of quantity.

Not primarily pronouns.

146.The words of this list are placed here instead of among pronominal adjectives, for the reason that they are felt to be primarily adjectives; their pronominal use being evidently a shortening, by which the words point out but stand for words omitted, instead of modifying them. Their natural and original use is to be joined to a noun following or in close connection.

The list.

Thedemonstrative adjectivesarethis,that, (pluralthese,those),yonder(oryon),former,latter;also the pairsone(orthe one)—the other,the former—the latter, used to refer to two things which have been already named in a sentence.

Examples.

The following sentences present some examples:—

The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance that wouldthoselooks reprove.—Goldsmith.These were thy charms...but allthesecharms are fled.—Id.Aboutthistime I met with an odd volume of the "Spectator."—B. Franklin.Yonderproud ships are not means of annoyance to you.—D. Webster.Yoncloud withthatlong purple cleft.—Wordsworth.I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic examples of early art, of equal skill; but inthe onecase, skill which was progressive—inthe other, skill which was at pause.—Ruskin.

The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance that wouldthoselooks reprove.—Goldsmith.

These were thy charms...but allthesecharms are fled.—Id.

Aboutthistime I met with an odd volume of the "Spectator."—B. Franklin.

Yonderproud ships are not means of annoyance to you.—D. Webster.

Yoncloud withthatlong purple cleft.—Wordsworth.

I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic examples of early art, of equal skill; but inthe onecase, skill which was progressive—inthe other, skill which was at pause.—Ruskin.

Exercise.—Find sentences with five demonstrative adjectives.

Ordinal numerals classed under demonstratives.

147.The class of numerals known asordinalsmust be placed here, as having the same function as demonstrative adjectives. They point out which thing is meant among a series of things mentioned. The following are examples:—

Thefirstregular provincial newspapers appear to have been created in the last decade of theseventeenthcentury, and by the middle of theeighteenthcentury almost every important provincial town had its local organ.—Bancroft.

These do not, like the other numerals, tellhow manythings are meant. When we speak of the seventeenth century, we imply nothing as to how many centuries there may be.

Definition.

148.As has been said,pronominal adjectivesare primarily pronouns; but, when theymodifywords instead of referring to them as antecedents, they are changed to adjectives. They are of two kinds,—RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE,—and are used to join sentences or to ask questions, just as the corresponding pronouns do.

Modify names of persons or things.

149.The RELATIVE ADJECTIVES arewhichandwhat; for example,—

It matters notwhatrank he has,whatrevenues or garnitures.—Carlyle.The silver and laughing Xenil, carelesswhatlord should possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting course.—Bulwer.The taking ofwhichbark. I verily believe, was the ruin of every mother's son of us.—Kingsley.Inwhichevil strait Mr. Oxenham fought desperately.—Id.

It matters notwhatrank he has,whatrevenues or garnitures.—Carlyle.

The silver and laughing Xenil, carelesswhatlord should possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting course.—Bulwer.

The taking ofwhichbark. I verily believe, was the ruin of every mother's son of us.—Kingsley.

Inwhichevil strait Mr. Oxenham fought desperately.—Id.

Indefinite relative adjectives.

150.The INDEFINITE RELATIVE adjectives arewhat,whatever,whatsoever,whichever,whichsoever. Examples of their use are,—

He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, makewhatsour mouths he would for pretense, proved not altogether displeasing to him.—Lamb.Whatevercorrection of our popular views from insight, nature will be sure to bear us out in.—Emerson.Whatsoeverkind of man he is, you at least give him full authority over your son.—Ruskin.Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow moving along with his deformity,whicheverway he turned himself?—Hawthorne.

He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, makewhatsour mouths he would for pretense, proved not altogether displeasing to him.—Lamb.

Whatevercorrection of our popular views from insight, nature will be sure to bear us out in.—Emerson.

Whatsoeverkind of man he is, you at least give him full authority over your son.—Ruskin.

Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow moving along with his deformity,whicheverway he turned himself?—Hawthorne.

New torments I behold, and new tormentedAround me,whichsoeverway I move,Andwhichsoeverway I turn, and gaze.—Longfellow (From Dante).

151.The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES arewhichandwhat. They may be used in direct and indirect questions. As in the pronouns,whichis selective among what is known;whatinquires about things or persons not known.

In direct questions.

Sentences withwhichandwhatin direct questions:—

Whichdebt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the debt to the poor?—Emerson.But when the Trojan war comes,whichside will you take?—Thackeray.Butwhatbooks in the circulating library circulate?—Lowell.

Whichdebt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the debt to the poor?—Emerson.

But when the Trojan war comes,whichside will you take?—Thackeray.

Butwhatbooks in the circulating library circulate?—Lowell.

Whatbeckoning ghost along the moonlight shadeInvites my steps, and points to yonder glade?—Pope.

In indirect questions.

Sentences withwhichandwhatin indirect questions:—

His head...looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle neck to tellwhichway the wind blew.—Irving.A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fixwhichside of the garden walk would suit him best.—Carlyle.He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was uncertainwhatgame you would catch, or whether any.—Id.Atwhatrate these materials would be distributed and precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to determine.—Agassiz.

His head...looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle neck to tellwhichway the wind blew.—Irving.

A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fixwhichside of the garden walk would suit him best.—Carlyle.

He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was uncertainwhatgame you would catch, or whether any.—Id.

Atwhatrate these materials would be distributed and precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to determine.—Agassiz.

Adjectivewhatin exclamations.

152.In exclamatory expressions,what(orwhat a) has a force somewhat like a descriptive adjective. It is neither relative nor interrogative,but might be called an EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE; as,—

Oh,what arevolution! andwhat aheart must I have, to contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall!—Burke.What apiece of work is man!—Shakespeare.And yet, alas, the making of it right,what abusiness for long time to come!—CarlyleThroughwhathardships it may attain to bear a sweet fruit!—Thoreau.

Oh,what arevolution! andwhat aheart must I have, to contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall!—Burke.

What apiece of work is man!—Shakespeare.

And yet, alas, the making of it right,what abusiness for long time to come!—Carlyle

Throughwhathardships it may attain to bear a sweet fruit!—Thoreau.

Exercise.—Find ten sentences containing pronominal adjectives.

153.Adjectives have two inflections,—numberandcomparison.

NUMBER.—This,That.

History ofthis—theseandthat—those.

154.The only adjectives having a plural form arethisandthat(pluralthese,those).

Thisis the old demonstrative;thatbeing borrowed from the forms of the definite article, which was fully inflected in Old English. The articlethatwas used with neuter nouns.

In Middle English the plural ofthiswasthisorthise, which changed its spelling to the modern formthese.

Thoseborrowed fromthis.

Butthishad also another plural,thās(modernthose). The old plural ofthatwastha(Middle Englishthoorthow): consequentlytho(plural ofthat) andthose(plural ofthis) became confused, and it was forgotten thatthosewas really the plural ofthis; and in Modern English we speak oftheseas the plural ofthis, andthoseas the plural ofthat.

155.Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and pronouns: it belongs to adjectives and adverbs.

Meaning of comparison.

When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences between them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it is said that a cow islargerthan a sheep, gold isheavierthan iron, a sapphire isbluerthan the sky. All these have certain qualities; and when we compare the objects, we do so by means of their qualities,—cow and sheep by the quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by the quality of heaviness, or weight, etc.,—but not the same degree, or amount, of the quality.

The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or conceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed thought, great, giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler valor;" "the largest soul."

Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more matter, with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred."

Words that cannot be compared.

156.There are some descriptive words whose meaning is such as not to admit of comparison; for example,—

His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of arms, whosefavoritepupil he was.—Thackeray.Amaindifference betwixt men is, whether they attend their own affair or not.—EmersonIt was his business to administer the law in itsfinaland closest application to the offender—Hawthorne.Freedom is aperpetual, organic, universalinstitution, in harmony with the Constitution of the United States.—Seward.

His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of arms, whosefavoritepupil he was.—Thackeray.

Amaindifference betwixt men is, whether they attend their own affair or not.—Emerson

It was his business to administer the law in itsfinaland closest application to the offender—Hawthorne.

Freedom is aperpetual, organic, universalinstitution, in harmony with the Constitution of the United States.—Seward.

So with the wordssole,sufficient,infinite,immemorial,indefatigable,indomitable,supreme, and many others.

It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to them, but, strictly considered, they are not compared.

Definition.

157.Comparisonmeans the changes that words undergo to express degrees in quality, or amounts in quantity.

The two forms.

158.There are two forms for this inflection: thecomparative, expressing a greater degree of quality; and thesuperlative, expressing the greatest degree of quality.

These are calleddegrees of comparison.

These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected form is usually called thepositive degree.

159.The comparative is formed by adding-er, and the superlative by adding-est, to the simple form; as,red,redder,reddest;blue,bluer,bluest;easy,easier,easiest.

Substitute for inflection in comparison.

160.Side by side with these inflected forms are found comparative and superlative expressions making use of the adverbsmoreandmost. These are often useful as alternative with the inflected forms, but in most cases are used before adjectives that are never inflected.

They came into use about the thirteenth century, but were not common until a century later.

Which rule,— -erand-estormoreandmost?

161.The English is somewhat capricious in choosing between the inflected forms and those withmoreandmost, so that no inflexible rule can be given as to the formation of the comparative and the superlative.

The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced words of two syllables add-erand-est; and other words are preceded bymoreandmost.

But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound and for variety of expression.

To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be given, examine the following taken at random:—

From Thackeray: "Thehandsomestwives;" "theimmensestquantity of thrashing;" "thewonderfulestlittle shoes;" "more odd, strange, and yet familiar;" "more austereandholy."

From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, andpatientestfusing;" "distantestrelationships;" "sorrowfulestspectacles."

Carlyle usesbeautifulest,mournfulest,honestest,admirablest,indisputablest,peaceablest,most small, etc.

These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, butmoreandmostare frequently used with monosyllables.

162.Expressions are often met with in which a superlative form does not carry the superlativemeaning. These are equivalent usually toverywith the positive degree; as,—

To this the Count offers amost wordydeclaration of the benefits conferred by Spain.—The Nation, No 1507In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be amost genuinesubstance.—CarlyleA gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, wasmost finished,polished,witty,easy,quiet.—ThackerayHe had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which hung behind in thequeerestway.—Id."So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on his knees, and kissing the hand of hisdearestmistress.—Id.

To this the Count offers amost wordydeclaration of the benefits conferred by Spain.—The Nation, No 1507

In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be amost genuinesubstance.—Carlyle

A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, wasmost finished,polished,witty,easy,quiet.—Thackeray

He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which hung behind in thequeerestway.—Id.

"So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on his knees, and kissing the hand of hisdearestmistress.—Id.

Adjectives irregularly compared.

163.Among the variously derived adjectives now in our language there are some which may always be recognized as native English. These are adjectivesirregularly compared.

Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar words, but they are essentially the same forms that have lived for so many centuries.

The following lists include the majority of them:—

List I.

164.(1) The word good has no comparative or superlative, but takes the place of a positive tobetterandbest. There was an old comparativebet, which has gone out of use; as in the sentence (14th century), "Ich singebetthan thu dest" (I sing better than thou dost). The superlative I form wasbetst, which has softened to the modernbest.

(2) In Old English,evilwas the positive toworse,worst; but laterbadandillwere borrowed from the Norse, and used as positives to the same comparative and superlative.Worserwas once used, a double comparative; as in Shakespeare,—

O, throw away theworserpart of it.—Hamlet.

(3)Littleis used as positive toless,least, though from a different root. A double comparative,lesser, is often used; as,—

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