[490]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vii. 129.[491]As the larvæ of Ephemeræ usually live in the submerged part of the banks of rivers, perhaps they may be regarded as following the economy of subterraneanterrestriallarvæ.[492]A caterpillar nearly answering to the description of that ofBombyx camelina, which I found upon the hazel, after a few days produced sixteen grubs of someIchneumon. At first these grubs were green, but they became gradually paler; and after a day or two became pupæ. But I mention this circumstance here for another reason: upon examining them after this last occurrence, I observed that they adhered to the lid of the box in which I kept the larva, arranged somewhat circularly; and at a little distance from the anus of each was a pea-green mass, consisting of about eight oval granules, which appeared like so many minute eggs. These were the excrement evacuated by each grub previously to its becoming a pupa. The appearance of this little group, with their verdant appendage, formed a curious spectacle: they are still pupæ, July 30, 1822.[493]Except some species ofPolyammatusLatr. (Thecla,ArgynnisF.),P. Argiolus,Corydon, &c., andHesperia Rubi,BetulæF., &c. Some of the larvæ of the former become pupæ within the stalk of some plant, or partly under the earth: those of the latter usually in a leaf to which the abdomen is fastened by various threads. These last are therouleusesof the butterfly-tribe, living, like some moths, in leaves that they have rolled up.N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.xxiv. 499.[494]PlateXXIII.Fig.1.a.[495]PlateXXIII.Fig.8.a.[496]Bonnet is of opinion that this twirling process is not with any view to get rid of the exuviæ, but is caused only by the irritation occasioned by the spines of the skin of the caterpillar when they touch that of the pupa.Œuv.ii. 109.[497]For the above account see Reaum. i.Mem.x. xi.[498]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vi. 291—.[499]De Bombyc.24.[500]i. 498.[501]De Bombyc.43.[502]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vi. 294.[503]Lesser. L. ii. 150, note 22. Boyle says an English lady found that the silk of a single cocoon would extend 300 English leagues or 900 miles. But this must be a mistake.[504]Reaum. i. 555—.[505]PlateXVII.Fig.5.b.[506]De Geer i.t.xxxii.f.3-6.[507]De Geer i. 463—.[508]Reaum. ii.Mem.xi. Comp. De Geer ii. 162. Reaum. ii. 424.[509]B. Catax—Pupa arcte folliculata.Fab.[510]Travels in Greece, 285.[511]See above,Vol.I. p.476—.[512]MerianSurinam.t.xv.[513]Reaum. ii.t.xxiii.f.5.[514]Sepp. iv.t.viii.f.5.[515]Reaum. i.t.xliv.f.2.[516]PlateXVII.Fig.7.[517]I have a black one from Mr. Francillon's cabinet.[518]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vi. 294.[519]See above,Vol.II. p.298—.[520]Reaum. ii. 436.[521]Reaum. i. 503.[522]Peck onLocust-tree Insects, 69.[523]Bonnet ii. 260.[524]Sepp. iv.t.ii.f.4.[525]Brahm.Ins. Kal.289.[526]PlateXVII.Fig.8.[527]The thick cocoons ofAttacus Paphia,Polyphemus, &c. are also thus fastened between leaves.[528]MerianEurop.ii.t.ix.[529]Reaum. ii. 284.[530]Ibid. i. 524.[531]Bonnet ii. 297.[532]Ibid. ix. 181.[533]Reaum. v. 102.[534]Ibid. iv. 269.[535]De Geer ii. 1084. Comp. RayHist. Ins.Præf. xi. It is the opinion of M. P. Huber, that in this case thenakedpupæ are deprived of their cocoons by the neuters: he states, indeed, that he has often seen them pulled off by them, and also by those ofF. canicularia; and he seems to think that these larvæ are never developed.Mœurs des Fourmis, 84. note 1.[536]II. viii. 16.[537]Linn. Trans.vii.t.ii.f.5, 6.[538]Wien. Verz.I possess a cocoon of this kind from New Holland, even now quite solid, and retaining its form. No silk appears to have been used in its composition.[539]Reaum. i. 579.[540]Ibid. vi. 368.[541]Ibid. i. 542.[542]Ibid. 543.[543]Linn. Trans.i. 196.[544]Reaum. i. 545—.[545]Pyral.8. 3.t.iii.f.16.[546]See above,Vol.I. p.172—.[547]Reaum. ii. 491.[548]Reaum i. 540.[549]See above,Vol.I.167—. II.264.[550]See above,Vol.I. p.67.[551]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.xvi. 269—. xxii. 76.[552]Reaum. iv. 32. The author here quoted asserts that the grub ofIchneumon LarvarumL. retains its skin, which, he says, is so transparent that the form of the nymph can be seen through it. Ibid. ii. 447. De Geer, however, found that this really did cast its skin, which is so transparent as to be scarcely visible, by pushing it gradually towards the anus, where it soon dries up and cannot then be discovered. De Geer ii. 893—. According to Rösel the same circumstance attends the transformation ofCoccinella renipustulataIllig. (C. CactiEnt. Brit.), which at first perplexed him not a little. It is probable that in this case the retention of the skin was accidental; for some of the grubs of aMycetophila, the transformation of which I observed, became pupæ within their last skin, while others wholly disengaged themselves from it. The cause of this variation, I conjectured, arose from the former being too weak to extricate themselves from the skin.[553]See above,Vol.I. p.238.Byrrhus Musæorumbelongs to this genus.[554]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.ii. 161.[555]Pezold.102.[556]De Geer i. 339—.[557]Reaum. ii. 423, and iii. 497.[558]Ibid. i. 605.[559]De Geer ii. 941.[560]BrahmInsek.72.[561]Reaum.ubi supra.[562]In theHemipterathe maleCocci(Reaum. iv. 32.) andAleyrodes(Ibid. ii. 311.) belong to the second division.[563]The termslarvaandpupa, applied to the insects of this subdivision, are perhaps not strictly proper.[564]The larvæ and pupæ of many of thehomopteroussection ofHemipteradiffer often from the imago, not only in their fore-legs (PlateXVI.Fig.4.), but also in other respects. I have the larva of aCentrotusfrom Canada, given me by Dr. Bigsby, which has a long anal process or tail.[565]See above, p.125—.[566]iii. 135.[567]The pupæ ofCassida,Imatidium, &c. seem to vary somewhat from this type, the upper part being neither membranous nor exhibiting distinctly the form of the inclosed imago.[568]The following arrangement of pupæ is perhaps in some respects better than that above given. But it is scarcely possible to propose one free from objections.Capable of eating and walking.Like the perfect insect, except in proportion and number of parts.Except in proportion (Lice,Poduræ,Mites,Spiders,Scorpions, &c).Except in proportion and number (Centipedes,Millepedes).With rudiments of the organs of flight.With oral organs resembling those of the perfect insect (Hemiptera).With oral organs differing from those of the perfect insect (LibellulaL.,EphemeraL.).Incapable of eating and walking.Incomplete pupæ.Obtected.Coarctate.Lamarck divides the pupæ of insects that undergo a metamorphosis into three kinds, which he names—Chrysalis,Mumia, andNympha.i.Chrysalis.Under this denomination he includes all inactive pupæ inclosed in an opaque puparium which entirely conceals them. These he further subdivides into two kinds.1.Chrysalis signata.This term is synonymous with thePupa obtectaof Linné, or theChrysalisofLepidopteraand someDiptera.2.Chrysalis dolioloides.Equivalent to thePupa coarctataLinn. peculiar to thoseDipterathat assume this state in the skin of the larva.ii.Mumia.All inactive pupæ which are covered by a transparent skin, through which all the parts of the inclosed imago may be seen, subdivided also into two.1.Mumia coarctata.Corresponding with thePupa incompletaLinn., which includes theColeopteraand most of theHymenoptera.2.Mumia pseudonympha, confined to the Pupa ofPhryganeaand some others. This might be namedPupa subincompleta.iii.Nympha.Under this denomination are included all insects that undergo only a partial metamorphosis, and are active in their pupa state, corresponding with thePupa semicompletaLinn. and alsosubsemicompletaMacLeay. SeeAnim. sans Vertebr.iii. 285—.M. Latreille has started an ingenious idea on this subject with regard to these kinds of metamorphosis, which comprehends both larva and pupa under a distinct denomination: as thus—DemilarveandDeminymph, synonymous with theSemicomplete Metamorphosis.LarveandNymph, answering toIncomplete Metamorphosis.CaterpillarandChrysalis, answering toObtected Metamorphosis.VermilarveandPupa, answering toCoarctate Metamorphosis.N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.xvi. 272.[569]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vii. 57.[570]De Geer ii. 105.[571]Reaum. ii. 428—.[572]Swamm.Bibl. Nat.Engl. Tr. ii. 32.t.xli.f.2. Comp. Reaum. iv.t.xxv.f.1.[573]Ibid.i. 144.[574]Reaum. i. 355.[575]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.ubi sup. 59.[576]PlateXVI.Fig.14.N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vii. 59.[577]Ins. Surinam.t.xliv.[578]De Geer v. 47.t.ii.f.29-31.[579]In the pupa ofHydrophilus piccus(Lesser L.t.ii.f.13, 14), the arrangement of the parts is nearly the same, but the tarsi are not reflexed.[580]Ibid.f.9, 10. De Geer ii.t.xxxii.f.5. Reaum. v.t.xxxvi.f.14.[581]Reaum.Ibid.t.ii.f.9.[582]The legs ofTipula replicataL. are placed in a similar way. De Geer vi.t.xx.f.12.l.[583]Röst.81.[584]Ibid.t.95.[585]De Geer vi. 237.t.xiv.f.8.[586]Reaum. v.t.ii.f.7. The anal and ventral spines ofTipula replicataare also remarkable. De Geer vi.t.xx.f.14.[587]De GeerIbid.377.t.xxiii.f.8, 9.n.Reaum. v. 42.t.vi.f.9.m n.[588]The caterpillar consists of twelve segments (Lyonnett.i.f.4, 5), excluding the head; on each of which, except the 2d, 3d, and 12th, there is a pair of spiracles. The chrysalis usually exhibits an analogy to this structure, though the first, second, and last pair of spiracles are more or less obsolete in most.[589]De Geer ii. 847.t.xxix.f.7.a b.[590]Animaux sans Vertebres, iii. 287.[591]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vii. 57.[592]Sepp ii.t.i.f.4.t.ii.f.4.t.iv.f.5.[593]PlateXVI.Fig.12.[594]PlateXVI.Fig.10.[595]Ins. Surinam. t.lx. It is singular that the chrysalis of its congener,Morpho Teucer, which she figurest.xxiii., exhibits no such process. The larvæ also widely differ.[596]PlateXVI.Fig.11.[597]Sepp ii.t.iii.f.5.[598]Sepp i.t.vii.f.5.[599]De Insectis, ed. Lister.t.1.[600]Ins. Surinam. t.liii.[601]Sepp i.t.ii.f.6.[602]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vii. 60.[603]Ibid.57.[604]See above,Vol.I. p.131.[605]Reaum. ii. 158.t. viii.f. 4, 5.[606]Lesser L. i. 160. note.t.ii.f.19.[607]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.xxvi. 165. Reaum. i. 347. Rösel says this is present only in some individuals. I. ii. 47.[608]PlateXVI.Fig.13.a.[609]Ins. Surinam. t.iii.[610]De Geer ii. 433.t.viii.f.4.t.[611]See above,Vol.II. p.300.[612]This description was taken from apupariumin my own cabinet; it is similarly described by De Geer i. 490.t.vii.f.2.[613]PlateXXIII.Fig.8, 9.[614]Kliemann Beitrage, 304.[615]See above,Vol.I.464.[616]Von Scheven inNaturf.stk. xx. 64.t.ii.f.4.[617]PlateXVII.Fig.2. Lesser L.t.ii.f.26.[618]PlateXVII.Fig.1. Lesser L.t.ii.f.24, 25.[619]Whether M. Meigen has separated this fly generically from others, I am not aware: in my catalogue it stands under the name ofTyrophaga.[620]Reaum. iii. 376.t.xxxi.f.7.[621]Ibid. iv. 318.t.xxiii.f.1-4. xxv.f.1.[622]Ins. Surinam.t.xxix.[623]Ins. Surinam.t.xxxii. Lister imitated the gilding ofChrysalisesby putting a small piece of a black gall in a strong decoction of nettles: this produced a scum, which when left on cup-paper, he says, will exquisitely gild it.—Ray'sLetters, 87. 90.[624]Beitrage, 181.[625]Sepp. pt. ii.t.ii.f.4.[626]Rösel. I. i. 61. ii. 5.[627]Reaum. i. 383.[628]Lister'sGoedart. 122.[629]Reaum. ii. 10—.[630]Ibid. 24.[631]This is a legend of Virgil, of which an account is given inThe Lay of the Last Minstrel, Note xv. 12mo ed. 1822, p. 257.[632]HaworthLepidopt. Britann.i. 125. An instance is recorded in Scriba's Journal, in which a pupa was not disclosed until thefourthyear. B. i. st. iii. 222. Pezold. 170.[633]Marsham inLinn. Trans.x. 402.[634]Meinecken found, that of several pupæ ofSaturnia pavonia, some kept all winter in a room heated daily by a stove, and others in a cold chamber, some of both parcels appeared in March (none earlier), and some of both had not appeared in July, though evidently healthy.Naturf.viii. 143.[635]The exclusion of certain moths, &c. from the pupa is probably regulated by the time their eggs require to be hatched, and the appearance of the leaves that constitute their appropriate food.[636]Mr. Marsham makes a similar observation inLinn. Trans., ubi supr.[637]See above, p.245.[638]The appearance of them sometimes continues to near the end of the month: it began on the 19th, when Reaumur observed them. vi. 480. 488.[639]Bibl. Nat.E. Transl. i. 103—.[640]Reaum. vi. 486.[641]Brahm. 423. 421.[642]Naturf.xxi. 75.[643]Reaum. ii. 423.[644]De Geer ii. 370. It is not certain, however, that De Geer did not, in this instance, mistake the winter habitation of a larva for a cocoon intended to shelter the future chrysalis; since Lyonnet informs us that they spin a habitation to pass the winter in.Traité Anatomique, &c. 9.[645]De Geer i. 490.t.vii.f.3, 4.[646]Œuv.ii. 1.[647]De Geer v. 229.[648]Vol.II.300—.[649]Vol.II.298—.[650]I. iv. 101.[651]Reaum. vi. 407.[652]HaworthLepidopt. Britann.i. 127.[653]De Geer ii. 566.[654]Reaum. iii.t.xlv.f.12-14.[655]For this whole account, see Reaum. iv. Mem. viii.[656]Ibid. 472.[657]See above, p.255—. andVol.II. p.301—.[658]Bonnet,Œuv.ii. 169.[659]Bonnet,Œuvr.ii. 207.[660]Rös. I. iv. 209.t.lxiii. ccxii.[661]See above, p.217.[662]Bonnet,Œuvr.ii. 229.[663]De Geer ii. 477.[664]Sepp. iv.t.xi.f.8.[665]PlateXVII.Fig.5. N.B. Sepp's figure represents theexteriorfunnel; and this, which exhibits the cocoon divided longitudinally, theinteriorone, or dome.[666]Rös. I. iv. 31.[667]Naturf.viii. 133.[668]De Bombyc.29.[669]Reaum. i. 624.[670]Trans. of the Society of Arts, vii. 131.[671]Reaum.ubi supr.[672]ii. 359.[673]Linn. Trans.vii. 35.[674]Pezold. 171.[675]Lyonnet 16.[676]Some Notice of the Insect which destroys the Locust-trees, 70. This Memoir is in some American periodical work, of which I have not the title.[677]HuberFourmis82.[678]Vol.I. p.467.[679]Vol.II. p.264.[680]De Geer ii. 519.[681]Reaum. iv. 610—.[682]Ibid. v. 30—.t.v.f.1-10. See above, p.153—.[683]See above,Vol.II. p.346.[684]Reaum. i.Mem. ult.De Geer i. 73. Swamm.Bibl. Nat.i. 184.[685]Swamm.Ibid.[686]JurineHymenopt.16.[687]iv. 342. Herold also attributes the rapid expansion of the wing to the flow of an aqueous fluid, which he callsblood, into the nervures, the orifices of which open into the breast.Entwickelungs. der Schmetterl.101. sect. 106.—M. Chabrier, in his admirableEssai sur le Vol des Insectes(Mém. du Mus.4ieme, ann. 325), having observed a fluid in the interior of the nervures of the wings of insects, thinks it probable that they can introduce it into them and withdraw it at their pleasure: the object of which, he conjectures, is either to strengthen them and facilitate their unfolding, or to vary the centre of gravity in flight, and increase the intensity of the centrifugal force.[688]Ibid.340.[689]Brahm.Insek.ii. 423.[690]Reaum. vi. 505—.t.xlvi.f.9. Comp. De Geer ii. 627—.[691]Reaum. iii. 378.[692]Ibid. 385.[693]Insects of the beetle tribe, especially such as undergo their metamorphosis under ground, in the trunks of trees, &c., are often a considerable time after quitting the puparium before their organs acquire the requisite hardness to enable them to make their way to the surface. Thus, the newly-disclosed imago ofCetonia aurataremains a fortnight under the earth, and that ofLucanus Cervus, according to Rösel, not less than three weeks.[694]See above,Vol.I. p.34—.[695]JurineHymenopt.9. Note 1.[696]Oliv. N. i.t.i.f.1.c. f.N. 3.t.iii.f.22.a b c.t.v.f.33.t.vi.f.5.t.xiii.f.124.a b.[697]Reaum. vi. 423.[698]Kirby Mon.Ap. Angl.ii.t.xvi.f.12, 13.t.xvii.f.10-12.[699]Reaum. iv. 393.[700]See above,Vol.I.473—.[701]De Geer vii. 304.[702]Reaum. iv. 30.[703]Ibid.t.iv.f.15.[704]See above,Vol.II.36.[705]De Geer iii. 25.[706]Linn. Trans.iv. 54—.[707]ix. 65.n.110.[708]vi. 423.[709]Entomologische, &c. 224.[710]De Geer ii. 847. 850. JurineHymenopt.100.[711]KirbyMon. Ap. Angl.ii. 296. 264.[712]Ibid.ii. 142—. 144, 147, 148, &c.[713]A remarkable anomalous exception to this rule sometimes occurs in the female ofD. marginalis, which has smooth elytra like the male (Gyll.Ins. Suec.i. 467-). I have this variety from the Rev. Mr. Dalton, of Copgrove, Yorkshire.[714]De Geer i.t.vii.f.11.[715]See above,Vol.II. 125, Note[135].[716]Melitta** c. KirbyMon. Ap. Angl.i. 140.[717]Ibid.t.iv.f.10.a. b. f.14.[718]Ibid.t.xiii.f.20.a.[719]KirbyMon. Ap. Angl.i.t.xi. Apis **. d. 2. α. β.f.18a. b. c. d.[720]CoquebertIllustr. Icon.i.t.vi.f.6.[721]KirbyMon. Ap. Angl.i.Apis**.c.1. α. **. c. 1. β. **. c. 2. α. **. c. 2. β. **. c. 2. γ. **. c. 2. δ.[722]Ibid.t.viii.f.28.f. g.[723]Christ.Hymenopt.t.iv.f.3.b.[724]KirbyMon. Ap. Angl.i.t.iv.Melitta**. c.f.1.a.[725]SchevenNaturfors.stk. xx. 65.t.ii.f.4. CompareIbid.x. 101.[726]Reaum. iii.t.xv.f.18, 19.[727]Oliv. no. 84.Brentus,t.i.f.1.b. c. t.ii.f.17.a. b.[728]Oliv. no. 3.Scarabæus,t.xviii.f.169.[729]Oliv.Scarabæus,t.xii.f.114.t.xv.f.138.a.[730]Ibid.t.v.f.33.[731]Ibid.t.xii.f.112.[732]Linn. Trans.vi.t.xix.f.12.t.xx.f.2.[733]Oliv. no. 57.Tenebrio,t.i.f.2.[734]Oliv.ubi supr.No. 3.t.i.f.1.[735]Oliv. no. 3.t.iii.f.20.a.[736]Ibid. no. 55.Diaperis,t.i.f.3.[737]Oliv.Scarabæus,t.xx.f.185.[738]AsDynastes Actæon,Elephas,Typhon, &c. differ fromD. Hercules, &c., not only in their general habits, horns, &c., but also in their maxillæ and labium,—the former inD. Actæonbeing simple, and inD. Herculestoothed, and the labium of the first bilobed at the apex, and in the last entire and acute,—according to the modern system they ought, therefore, to be considered as distinct genera. I would restrict the nameDynastestoD. Herculesand its affinities:D. Actæon, &c. I would callMegasoma.[739]Oliv.Scarabæus,t.xvii.f.156.[740]Ibid.t.viii.f.63.[741]This insect is beautifully figured in M. Latreille'sInsectes sacres des Egyptiens,f.11. See Luke xi. 15. Heb. בעלןבולDominus stercoris.
[490]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vii. 129.
[491]As the larvæ of Ephemeræ usually live in the submerged part of the banks of rivers, perhaps they may be regarded as following the economy of subterraneanterrestriallarvæ.
[492]A caterpillar nearly answering to the description of that ofBombyx camelina, which I found upon the hazel, after a few days produced sixteen grubs of someIchneumon. At first these grubs were green, but they became gradually paler; and after a day or two became pupæ. But I mention this circumstance here for another reason: upon examining them after this last occurrence, I observed that they adhered to the lid of the box in which I kept the larva, arranged somewhat circularly; and at a little distance from the anus of each was a pea-green mass, consisting of about eight oval granules, which appeared like so many minute eggs. These were the excrement evacuated by each grub previously to its becoming a pupa. The appearance of this little group, with their verdant appendage, formed a curious spectacle: they are still pupæ, July 30, 1822.
[493]Except some species ofPolyammatusLatr. (Thecla,ArgynnisF.),P. Argiolus,Corydon, &c., andHesperia Rubi,BetulæF., &c. Some of the larvæ of the former become pupæ within the stalk of some plant, or partly under the earth: those of the latter usually in a leaf to which the abdomen is fastened by various threads. These last are therouleusesof the butterfly-tribe, living, like some moths, in leaves that they have rolled up.N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.xxiv. 499.
[494]PlateXXIII.Fig.1.a.
[495]PlateXXIII.Fig.8.a.
[496]Bonnet is of opinion that this twirling process is not with any view to get rid of the exuviæ, but is caused only by the irritation occasioned by the spines of the skin of the caterpillar when they touch that of the pupa.Œuv.ii. 109.
[497]For the above account see Reaum. i.Mem.x. xi.
[498]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vi. 291—.
[499]De Bombyc.24.
[500]i. 498.
[501]De Bombyc.43.
[502]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vi. 294.
[503]Lesser. L. ii. 150, note 22. Boyle says an English lady found that the silk of a single cocoon would extend 300 English leagues or 900 miles. But this must be a mistake.
[504]Reaum. i. 555—.
[505]PlateXVII.Fig.5.b.
[506]De Geer i.t.xxxii.f.3-6.
[507]De Geer i. 463—.
[508]Reaum. ii.Mem.xi. Comp. De Geer ii. 162. Reaum. ii. 424.
[509]B. Catax—Pupa arcte folliculata.Fab.
[510]Travels in Greece, 285.
[511]See above,Vol.I. p.476—.
[512]MerianSurinam.t.xv.
[513]Reaum. ii.t.xxiii.f.5.
[514]Sepp. iv.t.viii.f.5.
[515]Reaum. i.t.xliv.f.2.
[516]PlateXVII.Fig.7.
[517]I have a black one from Mr. Francillon's cabinet.
[518]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vi. 294.
[519]See above,Vol.II. p.298—.
[520]Reaum. ii. 436.
[521]Reaum. i. 503.
[522]Peck onLocust-tree Insects, 69.
[523]Bonnet ii. 260.
[524]Sepp. iv.t.ii.f.4.
[525]Brahm.Ins. Kal.289.
[526]PlateXVII.Fig.8.
[527]The thick cocoons ofAttacus Paphia,Polyphemus, &c. are also thus fastened between leaves.
[528]MerianEurop.ii.t.ix.
[529]Reaum. ii. 284.
[530]Ibid. i. 524.
[531]Bonnet ii. 297.
[532]Ibid. ix. 181.
[533]Reaum. v. 102.
[534]Ibid. iv. 269.
[535]De Geer ii. 1084. Comp. RayHist. Ins.Præf. xi. It is the opinion of M. P. Huber, that in this case thenakedpupæ are deprived of their cocoons by the neuters: he states, indeed, that he has often seen them pulled off by them, and also by those ofF. canicularia; and he seems to think that these larvæ are never developed.Mœurs des Fourmis, 84. note 1.
[536]II. viii. 16.
[537]Linn. Trans.vii.t.ii.f.5, 6.
[538]Wien. Verz.I possess a cocoon of this kind from New Holland, even now quite solid, and retaining its form. No silk appears to have been used in its composition.
[539]Reaum. i. 579.
[540]Ibid. vi. 368.
[541]Ibid. i. 542.
[542]Ibid. 543.
[543]Linn. Trans.i. 196.
[544]Reaum. i. 545—.
[545]Pyral.8. 3.t.iii.f.16.
[546]See above,Vol.I. p.172—.
[547]Reaum. ii. 491.
[548]Reaum i. 540.
[549]See above,Vol.I.167—. II.264.
[550]See above,Vol.I. p.67.
[551]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.xvi. 269—. xxii. 76.
[552]Reaum. iv. 32. The author here quoted asserts that the grub ofIchneumon LarvarumL. retains its skin, which, he says, is so transparent that the form of the nymph can be seen through it. Ibid. ii. 447. De Geer, however, found that this really did cast its skin, which is so transparent as to be scarcely visible, by pushing it gradually towards the anus, where it soon dries up and cannot then be discovered. De Geer ii. 893—. According to Rösel the same circumstance attends the transformation ofCoccinella renipustulataIllig. (C. CactiEnt. Brit.), which at first perplexed him not a little. It is probable that in this case the retention of the skin was accidental; for some of the grubs of aMycetophila, the transformation of which I observed, became pupæ within their last skin, while others wholly disengaged themselves from it. The cause of this variation, I conjectured, arose from the former being too weak to extricate themselves from the skin.
[553]See above,Vol.I. p.238.Byrrhus Musæorumbelongs to this genus.
[554]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.ii. 161.
[555]Pezold.102.
[556]De Geer i. 339—.
[557]Reaum. ii. 423, and iii. 497.
[558]Ibid. i. 605.
[559]De Geer ii. 941.
[560]BrahmInsek.72.
[561]Reaum.ubi supra.
[562]In theHemipterathe maleCocci(Reaum. iv. 32.) andAleyrodes(Ibid. ii. 311.) belong to the second division.
[563]The termslarvaandpupa, applied to the insects of this subdivision, are perhaps not strictly proper.
[564]The larvæ and pupæ of many of thehomopteroussection ofHemipteradiffer often from the imago, not only in their fore-legs (PlateXVI.Fig.4.), but also in other respects. I have the larva of aCentrotusfrom Canada, given me by Dr. Bigsby, which has a long anal process or tail.
[565]See above, p.125—.
[566]iii. 135.
[567]The pupæ ofCassida,Imatidium, &c. seem to vary somewhat from this type, the upper part being neither membranous nor exhibiting distinctly the form of the inclosed imago.
[568]The following arrangement of pupæ is perhaps in some respects better than that above given. But it is scarcely possible to propose one free from objections.
Lamarck divides the pupæ of insects that undergo a metamorphosis into three kinds, which he names—Chrysalis,Mumia, andNympha.
i.Chrysalis.Under this denomination he includes all inactive pupæ inclosed in an opaque puparium which entirely conceals them. These he further subdivides into two kinds.
1.Chrysalis signata.This term is synonymous with thePupa obtectaof Linné, or theChrysalisofLepidopteraand someDiptera.
2.Chrysalis dolioloides.Equivalent to thePupa coarctataLinn. peculiar to thoseDipterathat assume this state in the skin of the larva.
ii.Mumia.All inactive pupæ which are covered by a transparent skin, through which all the parts of the inclosed imago may be seen, subdivided also into two.
1.Mumia coarctata.Corresponding with thePupa incompletaLinn., which includes theColeopteraand most of theHymenoptera.
2.Mumia pseudonympha, confined to the Pupa ofPhryganeaand some others. This might be namedPupa subincompleta.
iii.Nympha.Under this denomination are included all insects that undergo only a partial metamorphosis, and are active in their pupa state, corresponding with thePupa semicompletaLinn. and alsosubsemicompletaMacLeay. SeeAnim. sans Vertebr.iii. 285—.
M. Latreille has started an ingenious idea on this subject with regard to these kinds of metamorphosis, which comprehends both larva and pupa under a distinct denomination: as thus—
[569]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vii. 57.
[570]De Geer ii. 105.
[571]Reaum. ii. 428—.
[572]Swamm.Bibl. Nat.Engl. Tr. ii. 32.t.xli.f.2. Comp. Reaum. iv.t.xxv.f.1.
[573]Ibid.i. 144.
[574]Reaum. i. 355.
[575]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.ubi sup. 59.
[576]PlateXVI.Fig.14.N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vii. 59.
[577]Ins. Surinam.t.xliv.
[578]De Geer v. 47.t.ii.f.29-31.
[579]In the pupa ofHydrophilus piccus(Lesser L.t.ii.f.13, 14), the arrangement of the parts is nearly the same, but the tarsi are not reflexed.
[580]Ibid.f.9, 10. De Geer ii.t.xxxii.f.5. Reaum. v.t.xxxvi.f.14.
[581]Reaum.Ibid.t.ii.f.9.
[582]The legs ofTipula replicataL. are placed in a similar way. De Geer vi.t.xx.f.12.l.
[583]Röst.81.
[584]Ibid.t.95.
[585]De Geer vi. 237.t.xiv.f.8.
[586]Reaum. v.t.ii.f.7. The anal and ventral spines ofTipula replicataare also remarkable. De Geer vi.t.xx.f.14.
[587]De GeerIbid.377.t.xxiii.f.8, 9.n.Reaum. v. 42.t.vi.f.9.m n.
[588]The caterpillar consists of twelve segments (Lyonnett.i.f.4, 5), excluding the head; on each of which, except the 2d, 3d, and 12th, there is a pair of spiracles. The chrysalis usually exhibits an analogy to this structure, though the first, second, and last pair of spiracles are more or less obsolete in most.
[589]De Geer ii. 847.t.xxix.f.7.a b.
[590]Animaux sans Vertebres, iii. 287.
[591]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vii. 57.
[592]Sepp ii.t.i.f.4.t.ii.f.4.t.iv.f.5.
[593]PlateXVI.Fig.12.
[594]PlateXVI.Fig.10.
[595]Ins. Surinam. t.lx. It is singular that the chrysalis of its congener,Morpho Teucer, which she figurest.xxiii., exhibits no such process. The larvæ also widely differ.
[596]PlateXVI.Fig.11.
[597]Sepp ii.t.iii.f.5.
[598]Sepp i.t.vii.f.5.
[599]De Insectis, ed. Lister.t.1.
[600]Ins. Surinam. t.liii.
[601]Sepp i.t.ii.f.6.
[602]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.vii. 60.
[603]Ibid.57.
[604]See above,Vol.I. p.131.
[605]Reaum. ii. 158.t. viii.f. 4, 5.
[606]Lesser L. i. 160. note.t.ii.f.19.
[607]N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat.xxvi. 165. Reaum. i. 347. Rösel says this is present only in some individuals. I. ii. 47.
[608]PlateXVI.Fig.13.a.
[609]Ins. Surinam. t.iii.
[610]De Geer ii. 433.t.viii.f.4.t.
[611]See above,Vol.II. p.300.
[612]This description was taken from apupariumin my own cabinet; it is similarly described by De Geer i. 490.t.vii.f.2.
[613]PlateXXIII.Fig.8, 9.
[614]Kliemann Beitrage, 304.
[615]See above,Vol.I.464.
[616]Von Scheven inNaturf.stk. xx. 64.t.ii.f.4.
[617]PlateXVII.Fig.2. Lesser L.t.ii.f.26.
[618]PlateXVII.Fig.1. Lesser L.t.ii.f.24, 25.
[619]Whether M. Meigen has separated this fly generically from others, I am not aware: in my catalogue it stands under the name ofTyrophaga.
[620]Reaum. iii. 376.t.xxxi.f.7.
[621]Ibid. iv. 318.t.xxiii.f.1-4. xxv.f.1.
[622]Ins. Surinam.t.xxix.
[623]Ins. Surinam.t.xxxii. Lister imitated the gilding ofChrysalisesby putting a small piece of a black gall in a strong decoction of nettles: this produced a scum, which when left on cup-paper, he says, will exquisitely gild it.—Ray'sLetters, 87. 90.
[624]Beitrage, 181.
[625]Sepp. pt. ii.t.ii.f.4.
[626]Rösel. I. i. 61. ii. 5.
[627]Reaum. i. 383.
[628]Lister'sGoedart. 122.
[629]Reaum. ii. 10—.
[630]Ibid. 24.
[631]This is a legend of Virgil, of which an account is given inThe Lay of the Last Minstrel, Note xv. 12mo ed. 1822, p. 257.
[632]HaworthLepidopt. Britann.i. 125. An instance is recorded in Scriba's Journal, in which a pupa was not disclosed until thefourthyear. B. i. st. iii. 222. Pezold. 170.
[633]Marsham inLinn. Trans.x. 402.
[634]Meinecken found, that of several pupæ ofSaturnia pavonia, some kept all winter in a room heated daily by a stove, and others in a cold chamber, some of both parcels appeared in March (none earlier), and some of both had not appeared in July, though evidently healthy.Naturf.viii. 143.
[635]The exclusion of certain moths, &c. from the pupa is probably regulated by the time their eggs require to be hatched, and the appearance of the leaves that constitute their appropriate food.
[636]Mr. Marsham makes a similar observation inLinn. Trans., ubi supr.
[637]See above, p.245.
[638]The appearance of them sometimes continues to near the end of the month: it began on the 19th, when Reaumur observed them. vi. 480. 488.
[639]Bibl. Nat.E. Transl. i. 103—.
[640]Reaum. vi. 486.
[641]Brahm. 423. 421.
[642]Naturf.xxi. 75.
[643]Reaum. ii. 423.
[644]De Geer ii. 370. It is not certain, however, that De Geer did not, in this instance, mistake the winter habitation of a larva for a cocoon intended to shelter the future chrysalis; since Lyonnet informs us that they spin a habitation to pass the winter in.Traité Anatomique, &c. 9.
[645]De Geer i. 490.t.vii.f.3, 4.
[646]Œuv.ii. 1.
[647]De Geer v. 229.
[648]Vol.II.300—.
[649]Vol.II.298—.
[650]I. iv. 101.
[651]Reaum. vi. 407.
[652]HaworthLepidopt. Britann.i. 127.
[653]De Geer ii. 566.
[654]Reaum. iii.t.xlv.f.12-14.
[655]For this whole account, see Reaum. iv. Mem. viii.
[656]Ibid. 472.
[657]See above, p.255—. andVol.II. p.301—.
[658]Bonnet,Œuv.ii. 169.
[659]Bonnet,Œuvr.ii. 207.
[660]Rös. I. iv. 209.t.lxiii. ccxii.
[661]See above, p.217.
[662]Bonnet,Œuvr.ii. 229.
[663]De Geer ii. 477.
[664]Sepp. iv.t.xi.f.8.
[665]PlateXVII.Fig.5. N.B. Sepp's figure represents theexteriorfunnel; and this, which exhibits the cocoon divided longitudinally, theinteriorone, or dome.
[666]Rös. I. iv. 31.
[667]Naturf.viii. 133.
[668]De Bombyc.29.
[669]Reaum. i. 624.
[670]Trans. of the Society of Arts, vii. 131.
[671]Reaum.ubi supr.
[672]ii. 359.
[673]Linn. Trans.vii. 35.
[674]Pezold. 171.
[675]Lyonnet 16.
[676]Some Notice of the Insect which destroys the Locust-trees, 70. This Memoir is in some American periodical work, of which I have not the title.
[677]HuberFourmis82.
[678]Vol.I. p.467.
[679]Vol.II. p.264.
[680]De Geer ii. 519.
[681]Reaum. iv. 610—.
[682]Ibid. v. 30—.t.v.f.1-10. See above, p.153—.
[683]See above,Vol.II. p.346.
[684]Reaum. i.Mem. ult.De Geer i. 73. Swamm.Bibl. Nat.i. 184.
[685]Swamm.Ibid.
[686]JurineHymenopt.16.
[687]iv. 342. Herold also attributes the rapid expansion of the wing to the flow of an aqueous fluid, which he callsblood, into the nervures, the orifices of which open into the breast.Entwickelungs. der Schmetterl.101. sect. 106.—M. Chabrier, in his admirableEssai sur le Vol des Insectes(Mém. du Mus.4ieme, ann. 325), having observed a fluid in the interior of the nervures of the wings of insects, thinks it probable that they can introduce it into them and withdraw it at their pleasure: the object of which, he conjectures, is either to strengthen them and facilitate their unfolding, or to vary the centre of gravity in flight, and increase the intensity of the centrifugal force.
[688]Ibid.340.
[689]Brahm.Insek.ii. 423.
[690]Reaum. vi. 505—.t.xlvi.f.9. Comp. De Geer ii. 627—.
[691]Reaum. iii. 378.
[692]Ibid. 385.
[693]Insects of the beetle tribe, especially such as undergo their metamorphosis under ground, in the trunks of trees, &c., are often a considerable time after quitting the puparium before their organs acquire the requisite hardness to enable them to make their way to the surface. Thus, the newly-disclosed imago ofCetonia aurataremains a fortnight under the earth, and that ofLucanus Cervus, according to Rösel, not less than three weeks.
[694]See above,Vol.I. p.34—.
[695]JurineHymenopt.9. Note 1.
[696]Oliv. N. i.t.i.f.1.c. f.N. 3.t.iii.f.22.a b c.t.v.f.33.t.vi.f.5.t.xiii.f.124.a b.
[697]Reaum. vi. 423.
[698]Kirby Mon.Ap. Angl.ii.t.xvi.f.12, 13.t.xvii.f.10-12.
[699]Reaum. iv. 393.
[700]See above,Vol.I.473—.
[701]De Geer vii. 304.
[702]Reaum. iv. 30.
[703]Ibid.t.iv.f.15.
[704]See above,Vol.II.36.
[705]De Geer iii. 25.
[706]Linn. Trans.iv. 54—.
[707]ix. 65.n.110.
[708]vi. 423.
[709]Entomologische, &c. 224.
[710]De Geer ii. 847. 850. JurineHymenopt.100.
[711]KirbyMon. Ap. Angl.ii. 296. 264.
[712]Ibid.ii. 142—. 144, 147, 148, &c.
[713]A remarkable anomalous exception to this rule sometimes occurs in the female ofD. marginalis, which has smooth elytra like the male (Gyll.Ins. Suec.i. 467-). I have this variety from the Rev. Mr. Dalton, of Copgrove, Yorkshire.
[714]De Geer i.t.vii.f.11.
[715]See above,Vol.II. 125, Note[135].
[716]Melitta** c. KirbyMon. Ap. Angl.i. 140.
[717]Ibid.t.iv.f.10.a. b. f.14.
[718]Ibid.t.xiii.f.20.a.
[719]KirbyMon. Ap. Angl.i.t.xi. Apis **. d. 2. α. β.f.18a. b. c. d.
[720]CoquebertIllustr. Icon.i.t.vi.f.6.
[721]KirbyMon. Ap. Angl.i.Apis**.c.1. α. **. c. 1. β. **. c. 2. α. **. c. 2. β. **. c. 2. γ. **. c. 2. δ.
[722]Ibid.t.viii.f.28.f. g.
[723]Christ.Hymenopt.t.iv.f.3.b.
[724]KirbyMon. Ap. Angl.i.t.iv.Melitta**. c.f.1.a.
[725]SchevenNaturfors.stk. xx. 65.t.ii.f.4. CompareIbid.x. 101.
[726]Reaum. iii.t.xv.f.18, 19.
[727]Oliv. no. 84.Brentus,t.i.f.1.b. c. t.ii.f.17.a. b.
[728]Oliv. no. 3.Scarabæus,t.xviii.f.169.
[729]Oliv.Scarabæus,t.xii.f.114.t.xv.f.138.a.
[730]Ibid.t.v.f.33.
[731]Ibid.t.xii.f.112.
[732]Linn. Trans.vi.t.xix.f.12.t.xx.f.2.
[733]Oliv. no. 57.Tenebrio,t.i.f.2.
[734]Oliv.ubi supr.No. 3.t.i.f.1.
[735]Oliv. no. 3.t.iii.f.20.a.
[736]Ibid. no. 55.Diaperis,t.i.f.3.
[737]Oliv.Scarabæus,t.xx.f.185.
[738]AsDynastes Actæon,Elephas,Typhon, &c. differ fromD. Hercules, &c., not only in their general habits, horns, &c., but also in their maxillæ and labium,—the former inD. Actæonbeing simple, and inD. Herculestoothed, and the labium of the first bilobed at the apex, and in the last entire and acute,—according to the modern system they ought, therefore, to be considered as distinct genera. I would restrict the nameDynastestoD. Herculesand its affinities:D. Actæon, &c. I would callMegasoma.
[739]Oliv.Scarabæus,t.xvii.f.156.
[740]Ibid.t.viii.f.63.
[741]This insect is beautifully figured in M. Latreille'sInsectes sacres des Egyptiens,f.11. See Luke xi. 15. Heb. בעלןבולDominus stercoris.