Chapter 43

[220]The translation ofThe Banquetin Morley's "Universal Library" is very poor, but that of Miss Hillard (London, 1889) is good and is supplied with helpful notes.[221]See the close of the fourth canto of theInferno.[222]See above, pp.271–272.[223]Copies of theÆneid, of Horace'sSatires, of certain of Cicero'sOrations, of Ovid, Seneca, and a few other authors, were apparently by no means uncommon during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It seemed, however, to Petrarch, who had learned through the references of Cicero, St. Augustine, and others, something of the original extent of Latin literature, that treasures of inestimable value had been lost by the shameful indifference of the Middle Ages. "Each famous author of antiquity whom I recall," he indignantly exclaims, "places a new offense and another cause of dishonor to the charge of later generations, who, not satisfied with their own disgraceful barrenness, permitted the fruit of other minds and the writings that their ancestors had produced by toil and application, to perish through shameful neglect. Although they had nothing of their own to hand down to those who were to come after, they robbed posterity of its ancestral heritage."[224]Petrarch's own remarkable account of his life and studies, which he gives in his famous "Letter to Posterity," may be found in Robinson and Rolfe,Petrarch, pp. 59–76.[225]See above, pp.45–46.[226]Historians formerly supposed that it was only after Constantinople was captured by the Turks in 1453 that Greek scholars fled west and took with them the knowledge of their language and literature. The facts given above serve as a sufficient refutation of this oft-repeated error.[227]In Whitcomb,Source Book of the Italian Renaissance, pp. 70sqq., interesting accounts of these libraries may be found, written by Vespasiano, the most important book dealer of the time.[228]Manuscript,manu scriptum, means simply written by hand.[229]The closing lines (i.e., the so-calledcolophon) of the second edition of the Psalter which are here reproduced, are substantially the same as those of the first edition. They may be translated as follows: "The present volume of the Psalms, which is adorned with handsome capitals and is clearly divided by means of rubrics, was produced not by writing with a pen but by an ingenious invention of printed characters; and was completed to the glory of God and the honor of St. James by John Fust, a citizen of Mayence, and Peter Schoifher of Gernsheim, in the year of our Lord 1459, on the 29th of August."[230]Note the similarity in form of the letters in the accompanying illustration and those in the illuminated page which serves as the frontispiece of this volume. It is not easy at first sight to tell some early printed books from the best manuscripts. It may be observed that the Germans still adhere to a type something like that used by the first printers.[231]See above, pp.261–262.[232]See above, p.263.[233]With the appearance of the mendicant orders, preaching again became an important part of the church service, and pulpits were erected in the body of the church, where the people could gather around them. These pulpits offered a fine opportunity to the sculptor and were often very elaborate and beautiful.[234]The frescoes in Pompeii and other slight remnants of ancient painting were not discovered till much later.[235]In the church of Santa Croce in Florence and in that of St. Francis at Assisi.[236]Fra is an abbreviation offrate, brother.[237]See below, pp.361,363,364.[238]One of the most celebrated among the other Florentine painters of the period was Botticelli. He differs from most of his contemporaries in being at his best in easel pictures. His poetic conceptions, the graceful lines of his draperies, and the pensive charm of his faces have especially inspired a famous school of English painters in our own day—the Preraphaelites.[239]See below, pp.364,365.[240]Leonardo was an engineer and inventor as well.[241]Compare his Holy Family with the reproduction of one of Giotto's paintings, in order to realize the great change in art between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries.[242]See his portrait of Erasmus below, p.382.[243]For an example of the magnificent bronze work produced in Germany in the early sixteenth century, see the statues of Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, pp. 300, 301, above.[244]See his portrait of Charles I below, p.480.[245]Marco Polo's travels can easily be had in English; for example, inThe Story of Marco Polo, by Noah Brooks, Century Company, 1898. A certain Franciscan monk, William of Rubruk, visited the far East somewhat earlier than the Polo brothers. The account of his journey, as well as the experiences of other mediæval travelers, may be found inThe Travels of Sir John Mandeville, published by The Macmillan Company, 1900.[246]See map above, pp.242–243.[247]Reference,Cambridge Modern History, Chapter I.[248]Reference,Cambridge Modern History, Chapter II. Kingsley has described these mariners in hisWestward Ho. He derives his notions of them from the collection of voyages made by an English geographer, Hakluyt (died 1616). Some of these are published by Payne,Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen(Clarendon Press, 2 vols., $1.25 each).[249]See above, pp.85,151sq., and ChaptersXIII–XIV.[250]Rudolf, like many of his successors, was strictly speaking only king of the Romans, since he was never crowned emperor at Rome. See above, pp.152 n.,185.[251]From 1438 to 1806 only two emperors belonged to another family than the Hapsburgs.[252]See above, p.301.[253]See above, p.71.[254]See map above, following p.152.[255]No one can gaze upon the great castle and palace of the Alhambra, which was built for the Moorish kings, without realizing what a high degree of culture the Moors had attained. Its beautiful and impressive arcades, its magnificent courts, and the delicate tracery of its arches represent the highest achievement of Arabic architecture.[256]See above, pp.224–225.[257][258]It will be remembered that the popes, in their long struggle with Frederick II and the Hohenstaufens, finally called in Charles of Anjou, the brother of St. Louis, and gave to him both Naples and Sicily. See above, p. 185. Sicily revolted in 1282 and was united with the kingdom of Aragon, which still held it when Charles V came to the Spanish throne. The older branch of the house of Anjou died out in 1435 and Naples was conquered by the king of Aragon, and was still in his family when Charles VIII undertook his Italian expedition. The younger branch of the house of Anjou had never reigned in Naples, but its members were careful to retain their asserted title to it, and, upon the death of their last representative, this title was transferred to Louis XI. He, however, prudently refused to attempt to oust the Aragonese usurpers, as he had quite enough to do at home.[259]See above, p.327.[260]More important for France than the arrangements mentioned above was the so-calledConcordat, or agreement, between Francis and the pope in regard to the selection of the French prelates. Francis was given the privilege of appointing the archbishops, bishops, and abbots, and in this way it came about that he and his successors had many rich offices to grant to their courtiers and favorites. He agreed in return that the pope should receive a part of the first year's revenue from the more important offices in the Church of France. The pope was, moreover, thereafter to be regarded as superior to a council, a doctrine which had been denied by the French monarchs since the Council of Basel. The arrangements of the Concordat of 1516 were maintained down to the French Revolution.[261]See below, p.428–429.[262]The Catholic Church, on the other hand, held that certain important teachings, institutions, and ceremonies, although not expressly mentioned in the Bible, were nevertheless sanctioned by "tradition." That is, they had been handed down orally from Christ and his apostles as a sacred heritage to the Church, and like the Bible were to be received as from God. SeeReadings, Chapter XXIV.[263]For the origin of these and of the other ecclesiastical states of Germany, see above, p.156.[264]The manner in which the numerous and often important ecclesiastical states all disappeared in Napoleon's time will become clear later. See below,§ 244.[265]See above, pp.117sqq.For the German law permitting feuds, see Henderson,Historical Documents, p. 246. In 1467, the German diet ventured to forbid neighborhood war for five years. It was not, however, permanently prohibited until a generation later.[266]For example, in one of the books of instruction for the priest we find that he is warned, when he quotes the Bible, to say to the people that he is not translating it word for word from the Latin, for otherwise they are likely to go home and find a different wording from his in their particular version and then declare that the priest had made a mistake.[267]Some seventeen universities had been established by German rulers and towns in a little over one hundred years. The oldest of them was founded in 1348 at Prague. Several of these institutions, for example, Leipsic, Vienna, and Heidelberg, are still ranked among the leading universities of the world.[268]See above,§ 104.[269]For examples of theseLetters of Obscure Men, see Whitcomb,Source Book of the German Renaissance, pp. 67sq., andTranslations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6. The peculiar name of the satire is due to the fact that Reuchlin's sympathizers wrote him many letters of encouragement, which he published under the title,Letters of Celebrated Men to John Reuchlin. The humanists then pitched upon the modest title,Letters of Obscure Men, for the supposed correspondence of the admirers of the monks. The following is an example of the "obscure men's" poetry. One of them goes to Hagenau and meets a certain humanist, Wolfgang Angst, who, the writer complains, struck him in the eye with his staff.Et ivi hinc ad HagenauDa wurden mir die Augen blauPer te, Wolfgang Angst,Gott gib das du hangst,Quia me cum baculoPercusseras in oculo.[270]See below, pp.426–7.[271]This may be had in English, published by Scribner's Sons ($1.25) or Brentano ($1.25).[272]See above, pp.317–318.[273]See above, p.203.[274]The Augustinian order, to which Luther belonged, was organized in the thirteenth century, a little later than the Dominican and the Franciscan.[275]He writes exultingly to a friend: "Our kind of theology reigns supreme in the university; only one who lectures on the Bible, Augustine, or some real Church father, can reckon on any listeners; and Aristotle sinks lower and lower every day." In this way he sought to discredit Peter Lombard, Aquinas, and all the writers who were then most popular in the theological schools. Walker,The Reformation, pp. 77–91.[276]See above, p.211–212.[277]It is a common mistake of Protestants to suppose that the indulgence was forgiveness granted beforehand for sins to be committed in the future. There is absolutely no foundation for this idea. A person proposing to sin could not possibly be contrite in the eyes of the Church, and even if he secured an indulgence it would, according to the theologians, have been quite worthless.[278]See above, p.344.[279]The complete text of the theses may be found inTranslations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6.[280]See above, p.209, for the Church's doctrine of the "indelible character" which the priest received at ordination.[281]See above,§§ 81–82. The two great works of Luther, here mentioned, as well as hisFreedom of the Christian, in which he explains his own doctrine very simply, may be found translated in Wace and Buchheim,Luther's Primary Works.[282]It must be remembered that it was the emperor's business to execute the law, not to discuss its propriety with the accused. In the same way nowadays, should a man convicted, for example, of bigamy urge that he believed it Scriptural to have two wives, the court would refuse to listen to his arguments and would sentence him to the penalty imposed by law, in spite of the fact that the prisoner believed that he had committed no wrong.[283]The text of the Edict of Worms is published in English in theHistorical Leafletsissued by the Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Pa.[284]SeeReadings, Chapter XXVI.[285]See below,§ 167.[286]The "Twelve Articles" may be found inTranslations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6.[287]The Protest of Speyer is to be had in English in theHistorical Leafletspublished by the Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Pa.[288]For the successive wars between Charles and Francis and the terrible sack of Rome in 1527, see Johnson,Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 172–175 and 181–195.[289]It is still accepted as the creed of the Lutheran Church. Copies of it in English may be procured from the Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, for ten cents each.[290]Reference, Johnson,Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter V; Walker,The Reformation, pp. 188–216.[291]See above, p.300.[292]This condition has not changed; all Swiss laws are still proclaimed in three languages.[293]Switzerland had made a business, ever since the time when Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, of supplying troops of mercenaries to fight for others, especially for France and the pope. It was the Swiss who gained the battle of Marignano for Francis I, and Swiss guards may still be seen in the pope's palace.[294]So eloquent was the new preacher that one of his auditors reports that after a sermon he felt as if "he had been taken by the hair and turned inside out."[295]See above, pp.212–213.[296]For Zwingli's life and work see the scholarly biography by Samuel Macauley Jackson,Huldreich Zwingli(G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1901).[297]See below, p.452.[298]Calvin intrusted the management of church affairs to the ministers and the elders, orpresbyters, hence the name Presbyterian. For Calvin's work, see Johnson,Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 272–276.[299]See above, p.382.[300]An English translation of theUtopiais published by the Macmillan Company at 50 cents.[301]See above,§ 139.[302]The clergy only recognized the king as "Head of the Church and Clergy so far as the law of Christ will allow." They did not abjure the headship of the pope over the whole Church.[303]These were the sufficiency of the bread without the wine for the laity in partaking of the communion;[A] the celibacy of the clergy; the perpetual obligation of vows to remain unmarried; the propriety of private masses; and, lastly, of confession. The act was popularly known as "the whip with six strings."[A] The custom of the Church had long been that the priest alone should partake of the wine at communion. The Hussites, and later the Protestants, demanded that the laity should receive both the bread and the wine.[304]It was arranged that the son was to succeed to the throne. In case he died without heirs, Mary and then Elizabeth were to follow.[305]These may be found in any Book of Common Prayer of the English Church or of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States.[306]For an extract from the Bishop of Worcester's diary, recording these changes, seeReadings, Chapter XXVII.[307]The Catholics in their turn, it should be noted, suffered serious persecution under Elizabeth and James I, the Protestant successors of Mary. Death was the penalty fixed in many cases for those who obstinately refused to recognize the monarch as the rightful head of the English Church, and heavy fines were imposed for the failure to attend Protestant worship. Two hundred Catholic priests are said to have been executed under Elizabeth; others were tortured or perished miserably in prison. See below, p. 462, and Green,Short History, pp. 407–410.[308]There is an admirable account of the spirit of the conservative reformers in theCambridge Modern History, Vol. I, Chapter XVIII.[309]Protestant writers commonly call the reformation of the mediæval Catholic Church the "counter-reformation" or "Catholic reaction," as if Protestantism were entirely responsible for it. It is clear, however, that the conservative reform began some time before the Protestants revolted. Their secession from the Church only stimulated a movement already well under way. See Maurenbrecher,Geschichte der Katholischen Reformation.[310]They may be had in English,Decrees and Canons of the Council of Trent, translated by Rev. J. Waterworth, London and New York. See extracts from the acts of the council inTranslations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6.[311]SeeReadings, Chapter XXVIII.[312]Reference, Parkman's,Jesuits in North America, Vol. I, Chapters II and X.[313]Division of the Hapsburg Possessions between the Spanish and the German BranchesThe map of Europe in the sixteenth century (see above, p.372) indicates the vast extent of the combined possessions of the Spanish and German Hapsburgs.[314]Reference, Johnson,Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter VIII.[315]It is impossible in so brief an account to relate the heroic deeds of the Dutch, such, for example, as the famous defence of Leyden. The American historian Motley gives a vivid description of this in his well-knownRise of the Dutch Republic, Part IV, Chapter II. The most recent and authoritative account of the manner in which the Dutch won their independence is to be found in the third volume ofA History of the People of the Netherlands, by the Dutch scholar Blok, translated by Ruth Putnam (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 3 vols., $7.50). Miss Putnam's own charmingWilliam the Silent(G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2 vols., with many fine illustrations, $3.75) gives an impressive picture of the tremendous odds which he faced and of his marvellous patience and perseverance.[316]Reference, Johnson,Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 386–389.[317]SeeReadings, Chapter XXVIII.[318]See above, p.221.[319]The origin of this name is uncertain.[320]Reference for Henry IV, Wakeman,Europe from 1598–1715, Chapter I.[321]Reference, Schwill,History of Modern Europe, Chapter VI, or a somewhat fuller account in Johnson,Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter IX.[322]Reference, Green,Short History, pp. 370–376, 392–405.[323]For English mariners and their voyages and conflicts with Spain, see Froude'sEnglish Seamen in the Fifteenth Century. The account of Drake's voyage is on pp. 75–103. See also "The Famous Voyage of Sir Francis Drake," by one of Drake's gentlemen at arms, in E.J. Payne'sVoyages of Elizabethan Seamen to America, Vol. I, pp. 196–229, Oxford, 1893.

[220]The translation ofThe Banquetin Morley's "Universal Library" is very poor, but that of Miss Hillard (London, 1889) is good and is supplied with helpful notes.

[221]See the close of the fourth canto of theInferno.

[222]See above, pp.271–272.

[223]Copies of theÆneid, of Horace'sSatires, of certain of Cicero'sOrations, of Ovid, Seneca, and a few other authors, were apparently by no means uncommon during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It seemed, however, to Petrarch, who had learned through the references of Cicero, St. Augustine, and others, something of the original extent of Latin literature, that treasures of inestimable value had been lost by the shameful indifference of the Middle Ages. "Each famous author of antiquity whom I recall," he indignantly exclaims, "places a new offense and another cause of dishonor to the charge of later generations, who, not satisfied with their own disgraceful barrenness, permitted the fruit of other minds and the writings that their ancestors had produced by toil and application, to perish through shameful neglect. Although they had nothing of their own to hand down to those who were to come after, they robbed posterity of its ancestral heritage."

[224]Petrarch's own remarkable account of his life and studies, which he gives in his famous "Letter to Posterity," may be found in Robinson and Rolfe,Petrarch, pp. 59–76.

[225]See above, pp.45–46.

[226]Historians formerly supposed that it was only after Constantinople was captured by the Turks in 1453 that Greek scholars fled west and took with them the knowledge of their language and literature. The facts given above serve as a sufficient refutation of this oft-repeated error.

[227]In Whitcomb,Source Book of the Italian Renaissance, pp. 70sqq., interesting accounts of these libraries may be found, written by Vespasiano, the most important book dealer of the time.

[228]Manuscript,manu scriptum, means simply written by hand.

[229]The closing lines (i.e., the so-calledcolophon) of the second edition of the Psalter which are here reproduced, are substantially the same as those of the first edition. They may be translated as follows: "The present volume of the Psalms, which is adorned with handsome capitals and is clearly divided by means of rubrics, was produced not by writing with a pen but by an ingenious invention of printed characters; and was completed to the glory of God and the honor of St. James by John Fust, a citizen of Mayence, and Peter Schoifher of Gernsheim, in the year of our Lord 1459, on the 29th of August."

[230]Note the similarity in form of the letters in the accompanying illustration and those in the illuminated page which serves as the frontispiece of this volume. It is not easy at first sight to tell some early printed books from the best manuscripts. It may be observed that the Germans still adhere to a type something like that used by the first printers.

[231]See above, pp.261–262.

[232]See above, p.263.

[233]With the appearance of the mendicant orders, preaching again became an important part of the church service, and pulpits were erected in the body of the church, where the people could gather around them. These pulpits offered a fine opportunity to the sculptor and were often very elaborate and beautiful.

[234]The frescoes in Pompeii and other slight remnants of ancient painting were not discovered till much later.

[235]In the church of Santa Croce in Florence and in that of St. Francis at Assisi.

[236]Fra is an abbreviation offrate, brother.

[237]See below, pp.361,363,364.

[238]One of the most celebrated among the other Florentine painters of the period was Botticelli. He differs from most of his contemporaries in being at his best in easel pictures. His poetic conceptions, the graceful lines of his draperies, and the pensive charm of his faces have especially inspired a famous school of English painters in our own day—the Preraphaelites.

[239]See below, pp.364,365.

[240]Leonardo was an engineer and inventor as well.

[241]Compare his Holy Family with the reproduction of one of Giotto's paintings, in order to realize the great change in art between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries.

[242]See his portrait of Erasmus below, p.382.

[243]For an example of the magnificent bronze work produced in Germany in the early sixteenth century, see the statues of Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, pp. 300, 301, above.

[244]See his portrait of Charles I below, p.480.

[245]Marco Polo's travels can easily be had in English; for example, inThe Story of Marco Polo, by Noah Brooks, Century Company, 1898. A certain Franciscan monk, William of Rubruk, visited the far East somewhat earlier than the Polo brothers. The account of his journey, as well as the experiences of other mediæval travelers, may be found inThe Travels of Sir John Mandeville, published by The Macmillan Company, 1900.

[246]See map above, pp.242–243.

[247]Reference,Cambridge Modern History, Chapter I.

[248]Reference,Cambridge Modern History, Chapter II. Kingsley has described these mariners in hisWestward Ho. He derives his notions of them from the collection of voyages made by an English geographer, Hakluyt (died 1616). Some of these are published by Payne,Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen(Clarendon Press, 2 vols., $1.25 each).

[249]See above, pp.85,151sq., and ChaptersXIII–XIV.

[250]Rudolf, like many of his successors, was strictly speaking only king of the Romans, since he was never crowned emperor at Rome. See above, pp.152 n.,185.

[251]From 1438 to 1806 only two emperors belonged to another family than the Hapsburgs.

[252]See above, p.301.

[253]See above, p.71.

[254]See map above, following p.152.

[255]No one can gaze upon the great castle and palace of the Alhambra, which was built for the Moorish kings, without realizing what a high degree of culture the Moors had attained. Its beautiful and impressive arcades, its magnificent courts, and the delicate tracery of its arches represent the highest achievement of Arabic architecture.

[256]See above, pp.224–225.

[257]

[258]It will be remembered that the popes, in their long struggle with Frederick II and the Hohenstaufens, finally called in Charles of Anjou, the brother of St. Louis, and gave to him both Naples and Sicily. See above, p. 185. Sicily revolted in 1282 and was united with the kingdom of Aragon, which still held it when Charles V came to the Spanish throne. The older branch of the house of Anjou died out in 1435 and Naples was conquered by the king of Aragon, and was still in his family when Charles VIII undertook his Italian expedition. The younger branch of the house of Anjou had never reigned in Naples, but its members were careful to retain their asserted title to it, and, upon the death of their last representative, this title was transferred to Louis XI. He, however, prudently refused to attempt to oust the Aragonese usurpers, as he had quite enough to do at home.

[259]See above, p.327.

[260]More important for France than the arrangements mentioned above was the so-calledConcordat, or agreement, between Francis and the pope in regard to the selection of the French prelates. Francis was given the privilege of appointing the archbishops, bishops, and abbots, and in this way it came about that he and his successors had many rich offices to grant to their courtiers and favorites. He agreed in return that the pope should receive a part of the first year's revenue from the more important offices in the Church of France. The pope was, moreover, thereafter to be regarded as superior to a council, a doctrine which had been denied by the French monarchs since the Council of Basel. The arrangements of the Concordat of 1516 were maintained down to the French Revolution.

[261]See below, p.428–429.

[262]The Catholic Church, on the other hand, held that certain important teachings, institutions, and ceremonies, although not expressly mentioned in the Bible, were nevertheless sanctioned by "tradition." That is, they had been handed down orally from Christ and his apostles as a sacred heritage to the Church, and like the Bible were to be received as from God. SeeReadings, Chapter XXIV.

[263]For the origin of these and of the other ecclesiastical states of Germany, see above, p.156.

[264]The manner in which the numerous and often important ecclesiastical states all disappeared in Napoleon's time will become clear later. See below,§ 244.

[265]See above, pp.117sqq.For the German law permitting feuds, see Henderson,Historical Documents, p. 246. In 1467, the German diet ventured to forbid neighborhood war for five years. It was not, however, permanently prohibited until a generation later.

[266]For example, in one of the books of instruction for the priest we find that he is warned, when he quotes the Bible, to say to the people that he is not translating it word for word from the Latin, for otherwise they are likely to go home and find a different wording from his in their particular version and then declare that the priest had made a mistake.

[267]Some seventeen universities had been established by German rulers and towns in a little over one hundred years. The oldest of them was founded in 1348 at Prague. Several of these institutions, for example, Leipsic, Vienna, and Heidelberg, are still ranked among the leading universities of the world.

[268]See above,§ 104.

[269]For examples of theseLetters of Obscure Men, see Whitcomb,Source Book of the German Renaissance, pp. 67sq., andTranslations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6. The peculiar name of the satire is due to the fact that Reuchlin's sympathizers wrote him many letters of encouragement, which he published under the title,Letters of Celebrated Men to John Reuchlin. The humanists then pitched upon the modest title,Letters of Obscure Men, for the supposed correspondence of the admirers of the monks. The following is an example of the "obscure men's" poetry. One of them goes to Hagenau and meets a certain humanist, Wolfgang Angst, who, the writer complains, struck him in the eye with his staff.Et ivi hinc ad HagenauDa wurden mir die Augen blauPer te, Wolfgang Angst,Gott gib das du hangst,Quia me cum baculoPercusseras in oculo.

[269]

Et ivi hinc ad HagenauDa wurden mir die Augen blauPer te, Wolfgang Angst,Gott gib das du hangst,Quia me cum baculoPercusseras in oculo.

[270]See below, pp.426–7.

[271]This may be had in English, published by Scribner's Sons ($1.25) or Brentano ($1.25).

[272]See above, pp.317–318.

[273]See above, p.203.

[274]The Augustinian order, to which Luther belonged, was organized in the thirteenth century, a little later than the Dominican and the Franciscan.

[275]He writes exultingly to a friend: "Our kind of theology reigns supreme in the university; only one who lectures on the Bible, Augustine, or some real Church father, can reckon on any listeners; and Aristotle sinks lower and lower every day." In this way he sought to discredit Peter Lombard, Aquinas, and all the writers who were then most popular in the theological schools. Walker,The Reformation, pp. 77–91.

[276]See above, p.211–212.

[277]It is a common mistake of Protestants to suppose that the indulgence was forgiveness granted beforehand for sins to be committed in the future. There is absolutely no foundation for this idea. A person proposing to sin could not possibly be contrite in the eyes of the Church, and even if he secured an indulgence it would, according to the theologians, have been quite worthless.

[278]See above, p.344.

[279]The complete text of the theses may be found inTranslations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6.

[280]See above, p.209, for the Church's doctrine of the "indelible character" which the priest received at ordination.

[281]See above,§§ 81–82. The two great works of Luther, here mentioned, as well as hisFreedom of the Christian, in which he explains his own doctrine very simply, may be found translated in Wace and Buchheim,Luther's Primary Works.

[282]It must be remembered that it was the emperor's business to execute the law, not to discuss its propriety with the accused. In the same way nowadays, should a man convicted, for example, of bigamy urge that he believed it Scriptural to have two wives, the court would refuse to listen to his arguments and would sentence him to the penalty imposed by law, in spite of the fact that the prisoner believed that he had committed no wrong.

[283]The text of the Edict of Worms is published in English in theHistorical Leafletsissued by the Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Pa.

[284]SeeReadings, Chapter XXVI.

[285]See below,§ 167.

[286]The "Twelve Articles" may be found inTranslations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6.

[287]The Protest of Speyer is to be had in English in theHistorical Leafletspublished by the Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Pa.

[288]For the successive wars between Charles and Francis and the terrible sack of Rome in 1527, see Johnson,Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 172–175 and 181–195.

[289]It is still accepted as the creed of the Lutheran Church. Copies of it in English may be procured from the Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, for ten cents each.

[290]Reference, Johnson,Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter V; Walker,The Reformation, pp. 188–216.

[291]See above, p.300.

[292]This condition has not changed; all Swiss laws are still proclaimed in three languages.

[293]Switzerland had made a business, ever since the time when Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, of supplying troops of mercenaries to fight for others, especially for France and the pope. It was the Swiss who gained the battle of Marignano for Francis I, and Swiss guards may still be seen in the pope's palace.

[294]So eloquent was the new preacher that one of his auditors reports that after a sermon he felt as if "he had been taken by the hair and turned inside out."

[295]See above, pp.212–213.

[296]For Zwingli's life and work see the scholarly biography by Samuel Macauley Jackson,Huldreich Zwingli(G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1901).

[297]See below, p.452.

[298]Calvin intrusted the management of church affairs to the ministers and the elders, orpresbyters, hence the name Presbyterian. For Calvin's work, see Johnson,Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 272–276.

[299]See above, p.382.

[300]An English translation of theUtopiais published by the Macmillan Company at 50 cents.

[301]See above,§ 139.

[302]The clergy only recognized the king as "Head of the Church and Clergy so far as the law of Christ will allow." They did not abjure the headship of the pope over the whole Church.

[303]These were the sufficiency of the bread without the wine for the laity in partaking of the communion;[A] the celibacy of the clergy; the perpetual obligation of vows to remain unmarried; the propriety of private masses; and, lastly, of confession. The act was popularly known as "the whip with six strings."[A] The custom of the Church had long been that the priest alone should partake of the wine at communion. The Hussites, and later the Protestants, demanded that the laity should receive both the bread and the wine.

[A] The custom of the Church had long been that the priest alone should partake of the wine at communion. The Hussites, and later the Protestants, demanded that the laity should receive both the bread and the wine.

[304]It was arranged that the son was to succeed to the throne. In case he died without heirs, Mary and then Elizabeth were to follow.

[304]

It was arranged that the son was to succeed to the throne. In case he died without heirs, Mary and then Elizabeth were to follow.

[305]These may be found in any Book of Common Prayer of the English Church or of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States.

[306]For an extract from the Bishop of Worcester's diary, recording these changes, seeReadings, Chapter XXVII.

[307]The Catholics in their turn, it should be noted, suffered serious persecution under Elizabeth and James I, the Protestant successors of Mary. Death was the penalty fixed in many cases for those who obstinately refused to recognize the monarch as the rightful head of the English Church, and heavy fines were imposed for the failure to attend Protestant worship. Two hundred Catholic priests are said to have been executed under Elizabeth; others were tortured or perished miserably in prison. See below, p. 462, and Green,Short History, pp. 407–410.

[308]There is an admirable account of the spirit of the conservative reformers in theCambridge Modern History, Vol. I, Chapter XVIII.

[309]Protestant writers commonly call the reformation of the mediæval Catholic Church the "counter-reformation" or "Catholic reaction," as if Protestantism were entirely responsible for it. It is clear, however, that the conservative reform began some time before the Protestants revolted. Their secession from the Church only stimulated a movement already well under way. See Maurenbrecher,Geschichte der Katholischen Reformation.

[310]They may be had in English,Decrees and Canons of the Council of Trent, translated by Rev. J. Waterworth, London and New York. See extracts from the acts of the council inTranslations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6.

[311]SeeReadings, Chapter XXVIII.

[312]Reference, Parkman's,Jesuits in North America, Vol. I, Chapters II and X.

[313]Division of the Hapsburg Possessions between the Spanish and the German BranchesThe map of Europe in the sixteenth century (see above, p.372) indicates the vast extent of the combined possessions of the Spanish and German Hapsburgs.

[313]Division of the Hapsburg Possessions between the Spanish and the German Branches

The map of Europe in the sixteenth century (see above, p.372) indicates the vast extent of the combined possessions of the Spanish and German Hapsburgs.

[314]Reference, Johnson,Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter VIII.

[315]It is impossible in so brief an account to relate the heroic deeds of the Dutch, such, for example, as the famous defence of Leyden. The American historian Motley gives a vivid description of this in his well-knownRise of the Dutch Republic, Part IV, Chapter II. The most recent and authoritative account of the manner in which the Dutch won their independence is to be found in the third volume ofA History of the People of the Netherlands, by the Dutch scholar Blok, translated by Ruth Putnam (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 3 vols., $7.50). Miss Putnam's own charmingWilliam the Silent(G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2 vols., with many fine illustrations, $3.75) gives an impressive picture of the tremendous odds which he faced and of his marvellous patience and perseverance.

[316]Reference, Johnson,Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 386–389.

[317]SeeReadings, Chapter XXVIII.

[318]See above, p.221.

[319]The origin of this name is uncertain.

[320]Reference for Henry IV, Wakeman,Europe from 1598–1715, Chapter I.

[321]Reference, Schwill,History of Modern Europe, Chapter VI, or a somewhat fuller account in Johnson,Europe in the Sixteenth Century, Chapter IX.

[322]Reference, Green,Short History, pp. 370–376, 392–405.

[323]For English mariners and their voyages and conflicts with Spain, see Froude'sEnglish Seamen in the Fifteenth Century. The account of Drake's voyage is on pp. 75–103. See also "The Famous Voyage of Sir Francis Drake," by one of Drake's gentlemen at arms, in E.J. Payne'sVoyages of Elizabethan Seamen to America, Vol. I, pp. 196–229, Oxford, 1893.

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