CHAPTER V.

Fig. 246.Coin found in Buston Crannog.

Fig. 246.

Coin found in Buston Crannog.

Fig. 247.—For comparison, from Smith'sColl.vol. i. pl. xxii. 9.

Mr. Cochran-Patrick, M.P., to whom I immediately forwarded the different portions of this coin carefully arranged under a glass slide, as well as the glass tube containing remains of its core, submitted them to the consideration of J. Evans, Esq., F.R.S., F.S.A., so well known for his special knowledge of ancient British coins.

The following interesting remarks by Mr. Evans on the subject have been sent to me by Mr. Cochran-Patrick:—

"The two plates of gold seem originally to have formed the shell of an early forgery of a coin, the oxidised core of which forms the contents of the small tube. I thought at first that the substance might be resinous, but I think it issome salt of copper.[38]Some chemist could readily try this. The coin itself belongs to a class of trientes which have been found almost exclusively in England, and are probably of Saxon origin. Enclosed is an impression of one found near Dover. See Smith'sColl. Ant., vol. i. pl. xxii. 9. Others were in the Bagshot Heath or Crondale find. SeeNum. Chron., N. S., vol. x. 164, pl. xiii. 24 to 26;Num. Chron., vol. vi. They probably belong to the sixth or seventh century. The find is of value as helping to assign a date to the crannog." (Figs. 246 and 247.)

VI. Miscellaneous Objects.

1.Armlets.—Fragments of three armlets made of cannel coal, very similar to those found at Lochlee and Lochspouts.

2.Jet Ornament.—A small link-shaped ornament of jet, with two small holes for attachment in one side (Fig. 248). This object was found on the surface of a mound of débris long after it was wheeled out, and hence no dependence can be put on its antiquity.

Fig. 248.—Jet Ornament (1⁄1).Fig. 249.—Bead (1⁄1)

3.Beads, Vitreous Paste, etc.—A cylindrically-shaped bead, variegated with three different colours, red and yellow predominating over patches of transparent glass (Fig. 249).

Half of a tiny yellow bead, of a vitreous substance, only3⁄16of an inch in diameter.

A round object, of the size of a small marble, made of vitreous paste, variegated with blue and white, but without any aperture.

Another small flattened object, about the size of a shilling, made of a white compact vitreous substance. It is very smooth, rounded on one side, but flattened on the other. Looks like a drop of a semi-liquid that had fallen on a smooth floor. In the York Museum, case C, amongst some other Roman antiquities I observed several similar articles, which are referred to in the Handbook as "roundlets of coloured glass, probably to set in brooches, from the railway excavations, 1874-75."

One or two little round bits of a dark slag.

4.Glass.—Three fragments of thick bright-green glass, all irregularly shaped.

5.Leather.—Several strips and chippings of very thin leather.

Fig. 250.—Pottery (2⁄3).

6.Pottery.—A small fragment of Samian ware, only abouta square inch, with the glaze nearly worn off, but quite unmistakeable in its character.

Fig. 250 represents a fragment of a small dish with its outline. This vessel was made of a hard tinkling ware, black externally, and of a dull white inside, and measured 31⁄2inches across its mouth and 3 inches in depth.

Fig. 251.—Pottery (1⁄1).

Portion of a large vessel made of coarse materials, having a short spout just below its everted rim (Fig. 251). The outside is very black, and the inside has a reddish tinge. Another portion, apparently of the same vessel, shows the striation of the potter's wheel.

Fig. 252 represents a curious little knob of pottery. None of the pottery found here had any appearance of a glaze.

7. Portion of a small object like a button, made of a soft chalky substance, is represented in Fig. 253. It shows some lines as an ornament on its upper surface.

Fig. 252.—Pottery Knob (1⁄1).Fig. 253.—(?) Portion of Button (1⁄1).

8.Crucibles.—A small conical crucible, made of hardened clay arranged in two thin layers, the external of which looks coarser than the other. It has a triangularly-shaped mouth, and at one of its apices there is a slight indentation for facilitating the pouring out of the smelted material. Its depth is 11⁄2inch, and circumference of mouth 7 inches. It is cracked all over with heat, and a little dark slag forming a horizontal rim on its inner surface still remains to attest its purpose. This relic was found on the west side of the crannog, not far from the site of the second spiral ring, but outside the inner circle of piles (Fig. 254).

Fig. 254.—Clay Crucible (1⁄1).

A second crucible, neatly formed and quite whole, was found in the débris wheeled out from the lowest stratum of the refuse-heap. It is of the usual conical form, with a three-cornered mouth about 3 inches in circumference, and measures 1 inch in depth. Particles of a yellowish metal, like brass or bronze, are seen mixed with a kind of slag, near one of the corners. The outside has a glazed appearance, as if it had been subjected to great heat, and to the apex of the cone there is a small bit of cinder still adherent.

Portion of a third crucible, very similar to the last described, was also found at the crannog by a visitor, and publicly exhibited at a bazaar in Kilmarnock.[39]This crucible is interesting as furnishing undoubted evidence that it had been used for melting gold, there being several globules of this metal adhering to its sides, both inside and outside.

Report of Osseous Remains found at Buston.

(By Professor Cleland, M.D., F.R.S.)

The osteological specimens obtained from what appears to have been the kitchen-midden of the lake-dwelling at Buston consist in greater part of bones of the ox; while next in frequency are bones of the sheep and the pig. A calcaneum and astragali of the red-deer have been found, as also portions of large red-deer horns, and two portions of roe-deer skull with horns attached. In addition a radius and metacarpal of a goose were found.

The bones of the pig were both full-grown and young; the full-grown, with the teeth worn, being apparently mostabundant. They have belonged to an animal of small size, similar probably to that whose remains are found in other Ayrshire deposits.

The remains of the ox and the sheep I account more interesting on account of variety among them.

Ox.—Examining six portions of ox skull, I find one with the horn-core represented by a mere nodule; two specimens each with a portion of horn-core 2·8 inches in greatest diameter, one with a horn-core 2·2 inches diameter at base, and two others with horn-cores 1·8 inches in greatest diameter at base, and one with a horn-core 11⁄2inch diameter. All the horn-cores are fragmentary; but I judge that none of the last three could have exceeded 5 inches in length, while the first two must have been much longer. Only one of these specimens, that with the smallest horn, has the suture above the occipital bone open. The others must have been adult; and we may judge that we have not to deal with mere aboriginalBos longifrons, but with varieties of ox. The variation seems not to have been confined to the horns. Among a number of first phalanges the majority were slender and small, but there was considerable variety; and one specimen, contrasting strongly with the others by its stoutness, might have been from a small modern specimen. All the hoof-bones which I collected, about half a dozen, were very small. Three metacarpals were picked up, all measuring about 7 inches long and 1 inch in breadth at the narrowest part of the shaft; and these are all adult specimens. Two adult metatarsals measure, the one 8 inches in length and the other only 7·3, while in breadth they both measure only ·9 of an inch. A complete adult radius measures only 9 inches in length. A lower end of a humerus is only 2·5 inches broad. Among six calcanea the largest measured 5·5 inches, and the shortest 4·3. In one specimen the orbit is 2·4 inches diameter, and in another 2·8 inches, which is decidedly large.On the whole, the evidence is to the effect that while the prevalent variety had small horns, and was generally diminutive and slender-limbed, there was mixed with it a variety with larger horns and stouter limbs, whether of greater height or not I cannot say.

Sheep.—Only one portion of horn-core was found with portion of the skull. The portion of horn-core is between 3 and 4 inches long, and at the base its largest diameter is 1·5 inch, its smallest 1 inch. At its inner margin starts at an angle of about 20° from the vertical plane; while I should say that in modern sheep that angle is always 45° at least. I apprehend that this is probably the so-called goat-horned sheep, scarcely now to be got in Shetland.

The following measurements of limb bones may be interesting, as indicating considerable variety in size as well as deviation from modern proportions, as indicated by comparison with the bones of the same sheep skeleton which I have used for comparison in previous communications.

One adult metatarsal measures 5·7 inches long and ·4 broad, and another 5·2 long and ·4 broad at the narrowest part of the shaft. In the modern specimen this bone is 4·8 long and ·5 broad.

Three specimens of adult radius have been gathered, measuring in length respectively 6·6, 6·, and 5·9; while in the modern specimen the corresponding bone is only 5·2.

Two complete humeri are among the specimens gathered. The largest, not quite adult, is 5·7 inches in greatest length; while the other, quite adult, is only 5 inches long, and in the modern specimen the humerus is 5·2 long. Four additional specimens of the lower end of the humerus have been obtained; and one of them is decidedly larger than the largest complete specimen, and another decidedly smaller than the smallest complete bone.

The sheep was therefore long and slender legged, likethose found on other Ayrshire deposits. But it is difficult to determine whether the differences in size depend on sex, or some other cause, such as cultivation.

PLAN OF BUISTON CRANNOG

PLATE IV.

No goat bones have been found in connection with this lake-dwelling.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE CLASSIFICATION, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, STRUCTURE, AND AGE OF ANCIENT SCOTTISH LAKE-DWELLINGS.

In the foregoing chapters I have recorded nearly all the facts hitherto derived from the explorations of Scottish Lake-Dwellings, together with a few meagre notices of their former existence supplied by historical research. Notwithstanding the variety and number of objects found in these remains, and the copiousness of details with which the investigations are described, it may still be doubted whether the time has arrived for applying to them the rigid principles of induction, with the view of materially enlarging our knowledge of the early inhabitants of this country. However much variety or novelty may add to the interest attached to antiquarian discoveries, it must never be forgotten that their scientific value is to be determined by the extent to which they can be made to enrich our knowledge of the past phases of human civilisation. While, therefore, fully conscious, on the one hand, of the danger of drawing a series of inferences from too limited an experience, on the other, I feel that to ignore altogether such oft-recurring questions as—When did these lake-dwellings flourish? For what purpose were they constructed? And what grade of civilisation characterised their occupiers?—would be tantalising, if notuncourteous, to general readers who have so far perused the mass of dry details here presented to them. In attempting, therefore, to deal with the scientific aspect of these discoveries, I do not for a moment profess such a minute acquaintance with the science of archæology as to entitle me even to attempt a full exposition of the inferences that may be derived from their careful study and comparison with other antiquarian remains; nor, indeed, do I believe that it is within the province of any one man to give a final decision, as it wereex cathedra, on a group or groups of remains that include such comprehensive materials as the products of the art, industry, culture, and social economy of a people existing during an undefined period of time, and lying, in a large measure, outside the pale of our historical records. My purpose therefore is, while endeavouring to gratify the laudable curiosity of general readers, to present archæologists with a rough skeleton, which they are invited, piecemeal fashion, to mould into a shapely figure by their combined and varied experience.

To accomplish this object there are certain historical and other collateral phenomena which, I think, help to circumscribe the general sphere of the problems at issue, and which, therefore, fall to be discussed alongside of the inductions derived from the actual materials now before us. In consequence of the diversity of the phenomena thus appealed to, I have grouped their details under the following sections, by means of which I hope to bring the general effect of their chronological bearing into greater prominence:—

1. Classification and geographical distribution of ancient Scottish lake-dwellings.

2. Historical and traditional phenomena associated with their area of distribution.

3. Mechanical skill displayed in the structure of the wooden islands.

4. Topographical changes in the lake-dwelling area during or subsequent to the period of their development.

5. Chronological, social, and other indications derived from the relics.

Section I.

Classification and Geographical Distribution of Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellings.

The notices of artificial islands in Chapter II. are confined to such as were found to be constructed on timber or surrounded by stockades. There are, however, many others still extant in several of our Scottish lakes, which appear to be entirely composed of stones and earth irregularly heaped together. In the absence of any historical knowledge as to their age there is noprima faciereason why some at least should not be contemporary with the former, as it cannot be assumed that the crannog-builders made wood asine qua nonin the structure of islands. There were, no doubt, certain stagnant marshes and small lochs in which a wooden foundation was essential for the formation of an island, owing to the softness and yielding nature of the mud; but, on the other hand, there were others with compact, rocky, or gravelly beds, in which any solid materials, as stones, earth, turf, etc., would be equally suitable. The outlets of the larger lakes, more especially of such as were formed in glacial and rock-cut basins, were more adapted for the latter, and as far as my observations have enabled me to form an opinion, these are the very situations in which the stone islands are now found to prevail. Some of them are mere shapeless cairns, without any indications of having been formerly inhabited, while on others are to be found some remains of stone buildings. As to wooden huts or houses,had such structures been erected over them, it is not likely that they could, for any length of time, have resisted the decaying tendencies of a Scottish climate, so that all traces of them would have disappeared long ago.

The social or military exigencies that led people to construct artificial islands would also lead them to take advantage of such natural ones as would be found most suitable, and we may reasonably infer that it is in the absence of the latter that the former would be resorted to. We have therefore noprima faciegrounds for dis-associating chronologically the artificially-formed islands of wood or stone, either from each other or from such natural islands as may furnish evidence of early occupancy. The great and primary object of the island-builder was the protection afforded by the surrounding lake or morass, the securing of which has continued to be a ruling principle in the erection of defensive works down to the Middle Ages, long after the wooden islands ceased to be constructed. The transition from an island fort to the massive mediæval castle, with its moat and drawbridge, is but another step in the progressive march of civilisation.

When the greater advantages of stone buildings became generally recognised, the old wooden refuges, so liable to decay, so easily destroyed by fire, and so unsuitable for supporting heavy buildings of masonry, would be gradually superseded. It would then be found easier and better to conduct the water to the stronghold than to construct the stronghold in a natural basin of water, however convenient its locality might be. To the transitional period preceding this great change, which culminated in the almost impregnable moated and mediæval castle, may be assigned many of the remains of stone forts, castles, etc., still abundantly found in bogs, drained marshes, and natural or, maybe, artificially built islands.

While it is therefore possible to assign the wooden islands to a fairly well-defined period, which, speaking generally, precedes that when stone and lime were used for building purposes in this country, the claims of all other island homes to great antiquity must be judged of by their special peculiarities.

The annexed tabular statement comprises not only all the known artificial islands, whether constructed of wood or other materials, but also some natural ones known to have been artificially strengthened or fortified, as well as a few examples of other structural remains, such as camps, castles, etc., now or formerly located in bogs or lakes. The first column of numbers in this table contains only the crannogs proper,i.e.islands constructed on wood and surrounded by piles; while the second includes all the remaining classes. The characteristic or differential features of all these examples, when not referred to in the text, will be found in the marginal notes or references, so that a mere glance gives a general idea of their number, character, and geographical distribution.

TABLE showingGeographical Distribution of Lake-Dwellings, Artificial Islands, etc., in Scotland,with Notes and References. Those to which no reference is given will be found described in the text.

County.Name.Constructedwith wood,etc.Constructedwith stones,earth, etc.Ayrshire,Loch of Kilbirnie,1..."Lochlee,1..."Lochspouts,1..."Buston,1..."Loch Doon,[1]...1(Renfrewshire),Loch Winnoch (Pail),[2]...1Aberdeenshire,Loch Canmore,11"Banchory,1..."Federatt,[3]...1"Peel Bog,[4]...1Buteshire,Loch Quien,1..."Dhu Loch,1...Berwickshire,Battleknowes,[5]...1Argyllshire,Kielziebar1..."Loch na Mial (island of Mull),1..."Ledaig,1..."Lochnell,1..."Parish of Kilchoman,[6]...1"Fasnacloich (Appin),[7]...1Dumfriesshire,Lochmaben,1..."Black Loch of Sanquhar,1..."Friars' Carse,1..."Loch Orr,[8]...1"Lochwood,[9]...1"Closeburn,[10]...1"Corncockle (Applegarth),[11]1..."Morton (parish of),[12]...1Fifeshire,Collessie,[13]...1"Stravithy,[14]...1Forfarshire,Loch of Forfar,11"Loch of Rescobie,[15]...1Inverness-shire,Loch Lochy,1..."Loch in Croy (drained),1..."Loch Gynag,[16]...1"Loch Moy,[17]...1Kirkcudbrightshire,Lochrutton,1..."Loch Kinder,1..."Carlingwark,2..."Loch Lotus,1..."Barean,1..."Borgue (parish of),[18]...1"Loch Fergus,[19]...1Lanarkshire,Green Knowe,1...Linlithgowshire,Loch Cot,1...Moray, Nairn, andElgin,Lochindorb,11"Loch Spinie,[20]11"Loch of the Clans,1..."Loch Flemington,1..."Loch in Dunty,1..."Lake of Rothiemurchus,[21]...1"Mountblairy,[22]...1Perthshire,Loch Rannoch,1..."Loch Clunie,[23]...1"Loch Earn,[24]...2"Loch Ard,[25]...1"Loch Laggan, Kippen,[26]...1"Loch Morall,[27]...1"Loch Tummell,[28]...1"Loch Tay,[29]...3"Loch Freuchie,[30]...1"Lake in Blairgowrie,[31]...1"Moulin (drained),[32]...1"Loch Granech,[33]...1"Loch Fullah,[34]...1"Loch of Monivaird,[35]...1"Loch Achray,[36]...1"Loch Vennachar,[36]...1"Loch Kinnard,[36]...1Stirlingshire,Loch Lomond,1...Sutherlandshire,Loch Brora,[37]...1"Loch Shin,[36]...1"Loch Dolay,[36]...1Ross-shire,Loch of Kinellan,1..."Loch Achilty,1..."Loch Glass,[38]...1Roxburghshire,Castletown,[39]...1"Loch of Yetholm,[39]...1Wigtownshire,Dowalton,5..."Loch Inch Crindil,1..."Castle Loch,[40]1..."Barlockhart Loch,[41]1..."Sunonness Loch,[41]1..."Barneallzie Loch,[42]1..."Machermore Loch,[43]Several..."Barhapple Loch,1..."Loch Heron,[44]...2"Mochrum Loch,...1"Fell Loch,[45]...1"Merton Loch,1..."Eldrig Loch,[46]3 (?)...

Notes and References.

[1] Island, with castle of Saxon and Gothic architecture. Several canoes found near it in the loch.—New Stat. Account, vol. v. p. 337.[2] Old castle on an island, near Castle Semple (ibid.vol. xv. p. 69). Canoes also found in the loch.—New Stat. Account, Renfrew, p. 97.[3] Old castle surrounded by a fosse and morass, with access by a stone causeway and a drawbridge.—Old Stat. Account, vol. ix. p. 191.[4] Circular earthen mound, having formerly a wooden castle.—New Stat. Account, vol. xii. p. 1089.[5] Square camp 42 yards each side.—New Stat. Account, vol. ii. p. 171.[6] Small island strongly fortified.—Old Stat. Account, vol. xi. p. 281.[7] Artificial island formed of stones and earth.—Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. p. 175.[8] Small island with remains of stone walls.—Old Stat. Account, vol. ii. p. 342.[9] Strong castle in impassable bogs.—Ibid.vol. iv. p. 224.[10] Old castle formerly surrounded by a lake; canoe and bronze tripod found in bed of lake.—Phil. Trans.1756, p. 521; alsoAntiq. of Scotland, Grose, vol. i. p. 150.[11] Curious wooden structures in moss.—Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. p. 163.[12] Old castle, near which canoe was dug up; also a small copper camp kettle and copper teapot.—New Stat. Account, vol. iv. p. 96.[13] Castle in marshy ground.—Old Stat. Account, vol. ii. p. 418.[14] Regular fortalice situated in a bog, with ditch and drawbridge.—New Stat. Account, vol. ix. p. 365.

[1] Island, with castle of Saxon and Gothic architecture. Several canoes found near it in the loch.—New Stat. Account, vol. v. p. 337.

[2] Old castle on an island, near Castle Semple (ibid.vol. xv. p. 69). Canoes also found in the loch.—New Stat. Account, Renfrew, p. 97.

[3] Old castle surrounded by a fosse and morass, with access by a stone causeway and a drawbridge.—Old Stat. Account, vol. ix. p. 191.

[4] Circular earthen mound, having formerly a wooden castle.—New Stat. Account, vol. xii. p. 1089.

[5] Square camp 42 yards each side.—New Stat. Account, vol. ii. p. 171.

[6] Small island strongly fortified.—Old Stat. Account, vol. xi. p. 281.

[7] Artificial island formed of stones and earth.—Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. p. 175.

[8] Small island with remains of stone walls.—Old Stat. Account, vol. ii. p. 342.

[9] Strong castle in impassable bogs.—Ibid.vol. iv. p. 224.

[10] Old castle formerly surrounded by a lake; canoe and bronze tripod found in bed of lake.—Phil. Trans.1756, p. 521; alsoAntiq. of Scotland, Grose, vol. i. p. 150.

[11] Curious wooden structures in moss.—Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. p. 163.

[12] Old castle, near which canoe was dug up; also a small copper camp kettle and copper teapot.—New Stat. Account, vol. iv. p. 96.

[13] Castle in marshy ground.—Old Stat. Account, vol. ii. p. 418.

[14] Regular fortalice situated in a bog, with ditch and drawbridge.—New Stat. Account, vol. ix. p. 365.

[15]Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. 176.][16] Small island, with traces of stone castle.—New Stat. Account, vol. xiv. p. 65.[17] In Loch Moy are two islands, on one of which stands the old residence of the family of Mackintosh. The other is merely a heap of stones, probably artificial, and was used by the Lairds of Mackintosh as a prison. It is calledEllan-na-glach.—Ibid.vol. xiv. p. 100.[18] Fort surrounded by water. In the drained lake fragments of spears and a silver coin found.—New Stat. Account, vol. iv. p. 54.[19] Artificial lake, with two islands, said to be seats of Fergus Lord of Galloway.—Old Stat. Account, vol. xi. p. 25.[20] On the north-west border of Loch Spinie there are standing on an artificial mound, surrounded by a fosse and drawbridge, the walls of a strong castle called Old Duffus.—Old Stat. Account, vol. viii. p. 395.[21] Contains an island said to be one of the strongholds of the Wolf of Badenoch; also called Loch-an-Eilean.—New Stat. Account, vol. xiii. p. 137.[22] Castle situated in a swamp.—Old Stat. Account, vol. iv. p. 399.[23] A small island, mostly artificial, with ruins of an old castle.—Old Stat. Account, vol. ix. p. 231.[24] Near each end there is a small artificial island with ruins.—Ibid.vol. xi. p. 180.[25] Small island, with ruins of castle.—Ibid.vol. x. p. 130.[26] Middle of loch a cairn of stones.—Ibid.vol. xviii. p. 327.[27]Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. p. 176.

[15]Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. 176.]

[16] Small island, with traces of stone castle.—New Stat. Account, vol. xiv. p. 65.

[17] In Loch Moy are two islands, on one of which stands the old residence of the family of Mackintosh. The other is merely a heap of stones, probably artificial, and was used by the Lairds of Mackintosh as a prison. It is calledEllan-na-glach.—Ibid.vol. xiv. p. 100.

[18] Fort surrounded by water. In the drained lake fragments of spears and a silver coin found.—New Stat. Account, vol. iv. p. 54.

[19] Artificial lake, with two islands, said to be seats of Fergus Lord of Galloway.—Old Stat. Account, vol. xi. p. 25.

[20] On the north-west border of Loch Spinie there are standing on an artificial mound, surrounded by a fosse and drawbridge, the walls of a strong castle called Old Duffus.—Old Stat. Account, vol. viii. p. 395.

[21] Contains an island said to be one of the strongholds of the Wolf of Badenoch; also called Loch-an-Eilean.—New Stat. Account, vol. xiii. p. 137.

[22] Castle situated in a swamp.—Old Stat. Account, vol. iv. p. 399.

[23] A small island, mostly artificial, with ruins of an old castle.—Old Stat. Account, vol. ix. p. 231.

[24] Near each end there is a small artificial island with ruins.—Ibid.vol. xi. p. 180.

[25] Small island, with ruins of castle.—Ibid.vol. x. p. 130.

[26] Middle of loch a cairn of stones.—Ibid.vol. xviii. p. 327.

[27]Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. p. 176.

[28] Island, partly artificial.—Old Stat. Account, vol. ii. p. 475.[29] Several islands.—Old Stat. Account, vol. xvii. p. 465, andProc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.pp. 173, 175, and 176; alsoNew Stat. Account, vol. x. p. 465.[30]Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. p. 173.[31] In the middle of one of the lakes is a small island, with the remains of an old building.—Old Stat. Account, vol. xvii. p. 195.[32] Castle stood in lake, now drained, with vestiges of a causeway.—Old Stat. Account, vol. v. p. 69.[33] Mr. Robertson's notes.—Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. p. 177.[34]Ibid.p. 172.[35] Castle anciently surrounded by water.—Old Stat. Account, vol. viii. p. 570.[36]Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. pp. 172 to 177.[37] Small island near the lower end artificially constructed of stones, with ruins.—Old Stat. Account, vol. x. p. 303, andNew Stat. Account, vol. xv. p. 151.[38] Small island near lower end artificially formed of stones.—Old Stat. Account, vol. i. p. 282.[39] Immense cairn of stones in the midst of an extensive and deep morass. Old castle of Yetholm Loch.—New Stat. Account, vol. iii. p. 164.[40] Contains an island of stones and oak stakes, and mossy bogs on south shore, and a peninsula at north-west, with a double row of stakes.—Rev. W. Wilson, Glenluce.[41] SeeProc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. x. pp. 737-8.[42]Ibid.vol. ix. p. 397.[43]Ibid.vol. ix. p. 368.[44] Mr. Faed examined its two islands and found them artificial.—Ibid.p. 378.[45] "On the east shore, opposite Fern Island, I found an oak in the peat, with an axe-mark. My companion waded to the island and reported the remains of a paved ford for 20 or 25 feet next the island."—Ibid.p. 378.[46] "Three crannogs, one with ford to one shore and annular stone heap, the others with a ford to each shore.—Rev. W. Wilson.

[28] Island, partly artificial.—Old Stat. Account, vol. ii. p. 475.

[29] Several islands.—Old Stat. Account, vol. xvii. p. 465, andProc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.pp. 173, 175, and 176; alsoNew Stat. Account, vol. x. p. 465.

[30]Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. p. 173.

[31] In the middle of one of the lakes is a small island, with the remains of an old building.—Old Stat. Account, vol. xvii. p. 195.

[32] Castle stood in lake, now drained, with vestiges of a causeway.—Old Stat. Account, vol. v. p. 69.

[33] Mr. Robertson's notes.—Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. p. 177.

[34]Ibid.p. 172.

[35] Castle anciently surrounded by water.—Old Stat. Account, vol. viii. p. 570.

[36]Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. vi. pp. 172 to 177.

[37] Small island near the lower end artificially constructed of stones, with ruins.—Old Stat. Account, vol. x. p. 303, andNew Stat. Account, vol. xv. p. 151.

[38] Small island near lower end artificially formed of stones.—Old Stat. Account, vol. i. p. 282.

[39] Immense cairn of stones in the midst of an extensive and deep morass. Old castle of Yetholm Loch.—New Stat. Account, vol. iii. p. 164.

[40] Contains an island of stones and oak stakes, and mossy bogs on south shore, and a peninsula at north-west, with a double row of stakes.—Rev. W. Wilson, Glenluce.

[41] SeeProc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.vol. x. pp. 737-8.

[42]Ibid.vol. ix. p. 397.

[43]Ibid.vol. ix. p. 368.

[44] Mr. Faed examined its two islands and found them artificial.—Ibid.p. 378.

[45] "On the east shore, opposite Fern Island, I found an oak in the peat, with an axe-mark. My companion waded to the island and reported the remains of a paved ford for 20 or 25 feet next the island."—Ibid.p. 378.

[46] "Three crannogs, one with ford to one shore and annular stone heap, the others with a ford to each shore.—Rev. W. Wilson.

It is manifest, however, that a table of this kind can have no permanent value, beyond giving a full and accurate statement of discoveries up to date, as further researches may not only change its numerical data, but give a totally different aspect to inferences based on the existence or absence of these remains in certain districts. Thus it is only within the last few years that Ayrshire could be included in the lake-dwelling area, so that, previously, the conflicting statement made by Chalmers,[40]that Galloway was colonised by the Irish about the eighth century, derived some countenance from the archæological discoveries in Loch Dowalton, and other lakes in the neighbourhood, when taken in conjunction with the prevalence of analogous remains in Ireland. Though we cannot, therefore, argue definitely from the present geographical distribution of Scottish Lake-Dwellings, the indications are so clearly suggestive of their having been peculiar to those districts formerly occupied by Celtic races that the significance of this generalisation cannot be overlooked. Thus, adopting Skene's division of the four kingdoms into which Scotland was ultimately divided by the contending nationalities of Picts, Scots, Angles, and Strathclyde Britons, after the final withdrawal of the Romans, we see that of all the crannogs proper, none have been found within the territories of the Angles;[41]ten and six are respectively withinthe confines of the Picts and Scots; while no less than twenty-eight are situated in the Scottish portion of the ancient kingdom of Strathclyde. Nor is this generalisation much affected by an extension of the list, so as to include those stony islets so frequently met with in the Highland lakes. On the other hand, that they have not been found in the south-eastern parts of Scotland may suggest the theory that these districts had been occupied by the Angles before Celtic civilisation—or rather the warlike necessities of the times—gave birth to the island dwellings. In that case we would suppose that their development dates back to the unsettled events which immediately followed the withdrawal of the Roman soldiers, to whose protection the Romano-British population in the south-west of Scotland had been so long accustomed. But this leads me to notice some of the historical phenomena associated with the localities thus referred to.

Section II.

Historical and Traditional Phenomena associated with their Area of Distribution.

(Compiled chiefly from Dr. Skene's works.)

In the yearA.D.79, Julius Agricola, with his legions, entered that portion of Britain afterwards known as the kingdom of Scotland by way of the Solway Firth, and, quickly subjugating the tribes occupying its northern shore, garrisoned the country as he advanced. The work of the following winter is thus described by Tacitus:—

"To introduce a system of new and wise regulations was the business of the following winter. A fierce and savage people, running wild in the woods, would be ever addicted to a life of warfare. To wean them from these habits, Agricola held forth the baits of pleasure, encouraged the natives, as well by public assistance, as by warm exhortations, to build temples, courts of justice, and commodious dwelling-houses. He bestowed encomiums on such as cheerfully obeyed; the slow and uncomplying were branded with reproach; and thus a spirit of emulation diffused itself, operating like a sense of duty. To establish a plan of education, and give the sons of the leading chiefs a tincture of letters, was part of his policy. By way of encouragement he praised their talents, and already saw them, by the force of their natural genius, rising superior to the attainments of the Gauls. The consequence was, that they, who had always disdained the Roman language, began to cultivate its beauties. The Roman apparel was seen without prejudice, and the toga became a fashionable part of dress. By degrees the charms of vice gained admission to their hearts; baths, and porticos, and elegant banquets grew into vogue; and the new manners, which, in fact, served only to sweeten slavery, were by the unsuspecting Britons called the arts of polished humanity."—(Vit. Agric.chap. 21.)

During the following summer,A.D.80, Agricola pursued his journey northwards and entered on a country hitherto unknown to the Romans, and described by Tacitus as occupied bynew nations, which he laid waste as far as the Firth of Tay. During the six following years this general was engaged in bringing the wild Caledonians under subjection. In the year 81 he erected a chain of forts between the Firths of Forth and Clyde. Subsequently he visited Argyll and Kintyre, as well as the eastern counties, and explored the interior as far as the Grampian range of mountains. At thesame time, the fleet, sailing northwards along the east coast, circumnavigated the island and returned by the straits of Dover to its former station. These exploits roused the warlike spirit of the Caledonians, and all the northern tribes combined to resist the progress of the invaders, the result of which was the famous battle of Mons Grampius (A.D.86), in which 30,000 Caledonians were totally routed. Tacitus in his description of the battle states that the Caledonians were arranged in lines along the slopes of the rising ground, having their charioteers and cavalry in front, and that their weapons were arrows, long pointless swords, and small targets; whereas the Romans used large shields and short pointed swords, which gave them the advantage at close quarters. As soon as the battle was known at Rome, Agricola was recalled through the jealousy of the Emperor Domitian, so that no advantage was taken of the campaign, and the result was that the northern tribes beyond the Tay retained their independence.

From the recall of Agricola till the accession of the Emperor Hadrian,A.D.117, nothing is known of the condition of this part of the island. Hadrian visited Britain in the year 120, and appears to have put down a threatened insurrection by giving up Agricola's line of forts, and limiting the frontier of the province to a line right across the territory of the Brigantes from the Solway Firth to the river Tyne. Along this line he constructed an immense barrier consisting of, first, on the north side, a ditch, then a stone wall, and then an earthen rampart. Between the two latter were roads for the transmission of troops, with stations, castles, and watch-towers. But this barrier did not act for a long time as a check to the independent section of the Brigantes, who, early in the reign of Antoninus, crossed the wall and overran portions of the Roman Province. But Lollius Urbicus, who was sent to Britain, quickly subdued thesehostile tribes (A.D.139), and again extended the Province to its former limit, viz., the line between the Firths of Forth and Clyde, where he constructed an earthen rampart—"Alio muro cespiticio submotis barbaris ducto."

InA.D.162 an attempt on the Province by the northern tribes was quelled by Calphurnius Agricola.

Twenty years later they made another formidable irruption into the Province, but were repelled by Marcellus Ulpius.

InA.D.208 the Emperor Severus found it necessary to come in person to repel these frequent and formidable attacks of the northern barbarians, whom we now find under the names of Mæatæ and Caledonii. The former occupied the lower lands next the wall, and the latter the mountainous regions beyond, but notwithstanding the difference in name, they appear to have been virtually the same people.

"The manners of the two nations are described as the same, and they are viewed by the historians in these respects as if they were but one people. They are said to have neither walls nor cities, as the Romans regarded such, and to have neglected the cultivation of the ground. They lived by pasturage, the chase, and the natural fruits of the earth. The great characteristics of the tribes believed to be indigenous were found to exist among them. They fought in chariots, and to their arms of the sword and shield, as described by Tacitus, they had now added a short spear of peculiar construction, having a brazen knob at the end of the shaft, which they shook to terrify their enemies, and likewise a dagger. They are said to have had community of women, and the whole of their progeny were reared as the joint offspring of each small community. And the third great characteristic, the custom of painting the body, attracted particular notice. They are described as puncturing their bodies, so as, by a process of tattooing, to produce the representation of animals, and to have refrained from clothing, in order that what they considered an ornament should not be hidden."—(Skene,Celtic Scotland, vol. i. p. 83.)

Severus opened up the country by cutting down woods,throwing bridges across the rivers, clearing the jungles, and making roads in various directions, and in this manner, after great loss of human life, but without fighting a single battle, he penetrated as far north as the shores of the Moray Firth. Returning through the heart of the Highlands he concluded a peace with the Caledonians, from whom he received hostages. He then rebuilt the wall between the Clyde and the Forth and returned to York. Soon afterwards the Mæatæ and Caledonii again revolted, and thus a second time drew forth the ire of the aged Emperor, but, while he was preparing a severe revenge, death overtook him.

Little is known of the subsequent relative positions of the Romans and Caledonians tillA.D.306, when Constantius Chlorus is said to have penetrated into the low country beyond the wall, and defeated the Picts.

For upwards of fifty years there is again a complete silence as to the conduct of the natives beyond the Roman boundary, and it is not tillA.D.360 that they reappear on the historic field. Then the comparative security and prosperity enjoyed by the provincial Britons during the last 150 years was broken, and the inroads of the barbarians into the province became so formidable that they appeared to be deliberate attempts to drive the Romans entirely out of Britain. The Picts were now joined by a new nation which emerged from Ireland, and became known to the Romans under the name Scoti. The effect of this combination of hostile tribes is thus described by Mr. Skene:—

"We learn from the account given by the historian of their eventual recovery, that the districts ravaged by the Picts were those extending from the territories of the independent tribes to the wall of Hadrian between the Tyne and the Solway, and that the districts occupied by the Scots were in a different direction. They lay on the western frontier, and consisted of part of the mountain region of Wales on the coast opposite to Ierne, or the island of Ireland, from whence they came.... Duringfour years the invading tribes retained possession of the districts they had occupied, and were with difficulty prevented from overrunning the province; but in the fourth year a more formidable irruption took place. To the two nations of the Picts and the Scots were now added two other invading tribes—the Saxons, who had already made themselves known and dreaded by their piratical incursions on the coast; and the Attacotti, who, we shall afterwards find, were a part of the inhabitants of the territory on the north of Hadrian's wall, from which the Romans had been driven out on its seizure by the independent tribes. They now joined the Picts in invading the province from the north, while the attack of the Saxons must have been directed against the south-eastern shore; and thus assailing the provinces on three sides—the Saxons making incursions on the coast between the Wash and Portsmouth, afterwards termed the Saxon Shore, where they appear to have slain Nectarides, the Count of the maritime tract, the Picts and Attacotts on the north placing Fallofandus, the Dux Britanniarum, whose duty it was to guard the northern frontier, in extreme peril, and the Scots penetrating through the mountains of Wales—the invading tribes penetrated so far into the interior, and the extent and character of their ravages so greatly threatened the very existence of the Roman government, that the Emperor (Julian) became roused to the imminence of the danger, and, after various officers had been sent without effect, the most eminent commander of the day, Theodosius the elder, was despatched to the assistance of the Britons. He found the province in the possession of the Picts, the Scots, and the Attacotts, who were ravaging it and plundering the inhabitants in different directions. The Picts, we are told, were then divided into two nations, the 'Dicalidonæ' and the 'Vecturiones,' a division evidently corresponding to the twofold division of the hostile tribes in the time of Severus, the 'Caledonii' and the 'Mæatæ.' The similarity of name and situation sufficiently identifies the first-mentioned people in each of the twofold divisions. The Mæatæ had been obliged to cede a part of their territory to the Romans, so that part of the nation had passed under their rule, and a part only remaining independent probably gave rise to the new name of 'Vecturiones.' The 'Attacotti,' we are told, were a warlike nation of the Britons, and the epithet applied to the 'Scoti' of ranging here and thereshows that their attacks must have been made on different parts of the coast."—(Skene,Celtic Scotland, vol. i. pp. 98-100.)

Theodosius, with a powerful army, soon drove back the invaders, and restored the province to its former integrity; but his success was without any permanent result. During the next forty years, till the final withdrawal of the Roman troops inA.D.410, the provincial Britons, especially those inhabiting the district between the two walls, became a prey to the surrounding hostile nations as often as the increasing demands on the military resources of the Empire at home caused a temporary retirement of its troops. Thus, during the short period here referred to, the portion of the Province was overrun and desolated no less than three different times, and as often restored by the Roman legions. At length, however, a time came when these were destined never to return, and the semi-Romanised Britons were allowed to struggle with the northern barbarians as best they could. What took place in North Britain after this great event, or how the contending nationalities settled the country among them, can only be gleaned by the uncertain voice of tradition; nor was the veil of darkness which thus fell on the country removed till a new source of historical records sprung up by means of the civilising influence of the early Christian Church and her learned emissaries.

"When the page of history once more opens to its annals, we find that the barbaric nations whom we left harassing the Roman province till the Romans abandoned the island, had now effected fixed settlements within the island, and formed permanent kingdoms within its limits. South of the Firths of Forth and Clyde we find her containing a Saxon organisation, and tribes of Teutonic descent, hitherto known by the general name of Saxons, in full possession of her most valuable and fertile districts, and the Romans of the old British provincials confined to the mountains of Wales and Cumbria, the western districts extending from the Solway to the Clyde, and the peninsula ofCornwall. North of the Firths we find the barbarian tribes of the Picts and Scots, which had so often harassed the Roman province from the north and west, formed into settled kingdoms with definite limits; while Hibernia or Ireland now appears under the additional designation of Scotia."—(Skene,Celtic Scotland, vol. i. p. 115.)

The settlements of these four nationalities were as follows:—The Angles occupied the south-eastern district, and ultimately formed the kingdom of Northumbria, which extended from the Firth of Forth to the river Humber. The provincial Britons were divided into several petty states, which originally belonged to two varieties of the British race. Those in the northern districts, corresponding to the Damnonii of Ptolemy, and occupying the modern shires of Lanark, Renfrew, and Ayr, are said to have belonged to the Cornish variety; while the Cymric branch extended as far north as Dumfriesshire. The battle of Ardderyd[42](Arthuret, west side of the Esk near Carlisle), inA.D.573, which ended in the defeat of the Angles, consolidated these petty states into the kingdom of Cumbria or Strathclyde under Rhydderch with the fortress of Alclyde (Dumbarton) as its capital. (573-601 Rodercus filius Totail regnavit in Petra Cloithe.—Adamnan.)

The counties of Wigtown and Kirkcudbright were occupied in the second century by the Novantæ, having two towns called Rerigonium and Leucopibia. The ancient Celtic name of the district was in Irish Gallgaidhel (i.e. foreign Gael), and in Welsh Galwydel, and hence in LatinGallovidia, Galloweithia, now Galloway. Its inhabitants were called by Bede "Niduari Picti," and they were known as the Galloway Picts as late as the twelfth century. The most puzzling statement about this district is that of Chalmers (Caledonia, i. p. 358), who states that Gallowaywas colonised in the eighth century by the Cruithne from Ireland. Cruithne is the Irish equivalent to Picti, and a people known by this name occupied the larger portion of Ulster. According to Skene, however, Chalmers's statement is not supported by any evidence.

The Scots forming the kingdom of Dalriada occupied that portion of the west of Scotland corresponding to Argyllshire, and had the fortress of Dunadd as their chief stronghold.

The rest of Scotland, with the exception of a portion of the low country near the Roman wall, which became a debatable territory, and often the theatre of wars amongst the four surrounding nations, constituted the so-called Pictish kingdom.

Christianity was introduced into Scotland from two different sources. The Southern Picts were converted to the Faith by St. Ninian, who derived his teaching direct from Rome, and founded a church at Candida Casa (Whithorn) as early asA.D.397; while St. Columba, the Apostle of the Northern Picts, came from Ireland inA.D.563, and developed the Columban branch of the Church, having its headquarters at Iona. The more important of the subsequent events of these four kingdoms are here briefly arranged in chronological order:—

A.D.573. Battle of Ardderyd.A.D.575. Aidan becomes king of the Scots.A.D.603. Angles of Bernicia defeat a combined army of Britons and Scots under the command of Aidan at Degsastane, now Dawstone, in Liddesdale.A.D.606. Death of Aidan, king of Dalriada; Aedilfrid conquers Deira and expels Aeduin.A.D.617. Aeduin regains the kingdom of Northumbria, and eleven years afterwards he and his people are converted to Christianity by Paulinus.

A.D.573. Battle of Ardderyd.

A.D.575. Aidan becomes king of the Scots.

A.D.603. Angles of Bernicia defeat a combined army of Britons and Scots under the command of Aidan at Degsastane, now Dawstone, in Liddesdale.

A.D.606. Death of Aidan, king of Dalriada; Aedilfrid conquers Deira and expels Aeduin.

A.D.617. Aeduin regains the kingdom of Northumbria, and eleven years afterwards he and his people are converted to Christianity by Paulinus.

A.D.642-670. Angles, under King Oswy, subdue and make tributary to him the Britons of Strathclyde, as well as the greater portion of the Picts and Scots.A.D.672. Unsuccessful attempt of the Picts to throw off the yoke of the Angles.A.D.684. Ecgfrid, king of Northumbria, sends an army to Ireland, and lays waste part of that country. In the following year he invades the kingdom of the Picts, but is defeated and slain at Dunnichen. The Picts, Scots, and Britons of Strathclyde, etc., now regain their freedom, but the Angles still retain possession of Galloway.A.D.740. Alpin, king of the Scots of Dalriada, invades Galloway, but is slain near Kirkcudbright.A.D.744. Battle between Angus, king of the Picts, and the Britons of Strathclyde. Soon afterwards the former is joined by Eadberct of Northumbria, and a combined attack on the kingdom of Strathclyde is made, with the result that the latter adds the whole of Ayrshire to his Galloway possessions. (Eadbertus campum Cyil cum aliis regionibus suo regno addidit.—Bede,Chron.)A.D.795. First appearance of Norwegian and Danish pirates in the western seas.A.D.802. Iona burned by Norsemen.A.D.806. Iona again plundered by Norsemen, and sixty-eight men of the monastery slain.A.D.844. Kenneth mac Alpin, king of the Scots, becomes also king of the Picts.A.D.853. Arrival of Olaf the White in Ireland. He seizes Dublin, and establishes himself there as king, after which he makes an expedition into Scotland, besieges, and takes Alclyde after a siege of four months.A.D. 946. Kingdom of Cumbria ceded to Malcolm, king of the Scots. (Strat Clut vastata est a Saxonibus.—Hist. Brit.)

A.D.642-670. Angles, under King Oswy, subdue and make tributary to him the Britons of Strathclyde, as well as the greater portion of the Picts and Scots.

A.D.672. Unsuccessful attempt of the Picts to throw off the yoke of the Angles.

A.D.684. Ecgfrid, king of Northumbria, sends an army to Ireland, and lays waste part of that country. In the following year he invades the kingdom of the Picts, but is defeated and slain at Dunnichen. The Picts, Scots, and Britons of Strathclyde, etc., now regain their freedom, but the Angles still retain possession of Galloway.

A.D.740. Alpin, king of the Scots of Dalriada, invades Galloway, but is slain near Kirkcudbright.

A.D.744. Battle between Angus, king of the Picts, and the Britons of Strathclyde. Soon afterwards the former is joined by Eadberct of Northumbria, and a combined attack on the kingdom of Strathclyde is made, with the result that the latter adds the whole of Ayrshire to his Galloway possessions. (Eadbertus campum Cyil cum aliis regionibus suo regno addidit.—Bede,Chron.)

A.D.795. First appearance of Norwegian and Danish pirates in the western seas.

A.D.802. Iona burned by Norsemen.

A.D.806. Iona again plundered by Norsemen, and sixty-eight men of the monastery slain.

A.D.844. Kenneth mac Alpin, king of the Scots, becomes also king of the Picts.

A.D.853. Arrival of Olaf the White in Ireland. He seizes Dublin, and establishes himself there as king, after which he makes an expedition into Scotland, besieges, and takes Alclyde after a siege of four months.

A.D. 946. Kingdom of Cumbria ceded to Malcolm, king of the Scots. (Strat Clut vastata est a Saxonibus.—Hist. Brit.)

Section III.

Structure of the Wooden Islands.

In my Introductory Chapter I have remarked that none of the Irish writers appear to have paid much attention to the mechanical principles on which the wooden islands were constructed. A similar remark is equally applicable to the writers on Scottish crannogs. Dr. Stuart had got hold of the general idea that the mortised transverses were used for the purpose of steadying the uprights, and that the outer structures were adapted to resist the action of the surrounding water. The following are his words: "Of the first class, or the crannog proper, the ordinary construction was by logs of wood in the bed of the lake supporting a structure of earth or stones, or of a mixture of both, the mass being surrounded by piles of young oak-trees in the bed of the lake, the inner row of which kept the island in shape, and the external rows acted as defences and breakwaters."[43]But these views convey only a partial notion of a more comprehensive system, the meaning of which I was only able to perceive after my experience at Buston. Notwithstanding that I made the structural arrangements of the Lochlee crannog a particular point of study, I failed to adduce a satisfactory theory for the details recorded; and, beyond showing that the two inner circles of uprights, with their radial and circumferential transverses which immediately surrounded the log pavement, formed a kind of breastwork or wall some 3 feet high, I made no advance on Dr. Stuart's theory. I could offer no explanation of the other large mortised beams found external to this circle, nor of the network of oakbeams—some with mortised holes, and others with tenons to fit into continuous beams—which became manifest on making the deep shaft, and appeared to permeate the whole structure of the island. The advantage of carefully recording every fact, however trivial or obscure, has never been better illustrated than in this very article (that on the Lochlee crannog), as, with the more recent light thrown upon the subject, there can be no doubt that these structures, as well as the mortised beams (one of which contained three holes) lying on the western margin of the crannog, were some of the radial beams of an encircling girdle, stillin situ, which surrounded and knit together the island in a precisely similar manner to that at Buston, as described at page 197. At Buston also, the inner circle, as evidenced by its mural remains, formed part of the enclosure surrounding the log pavement, and thus corresponded with, and served the same purpose as, the breastwork at Lochlee. Again, on the south side of both crannogs, the circles were more numerous, and occupied a larger area than on the north side, but with this difference,—that at Lochlee the midden covered the greater portion of this space, which at Buston was converted into an open and partially paved promenade.

In the incidental notices of these islands, given in Chapter II., the narrators sometimes describe them as having been built on a framework of oak, as at Lochrutton, Loch Kinder, etc. At other times the only evidence of a crannog consists in fishing up oak beams from the bottom of a lake, or their discovery under its surface inextricably mortised into others, as at Loch Lomond, Lochmaben, Loch Lochy, etc., while in drained lakes and morasses the chief indications are the tops of upright piles surrounding a flat mound. But all these accounts, as well as the more recent notices of crannogs, are characterised by two prominent structural features, viz., (1) upright piles in the form of one or more circles; and (2) theremains of flat beams containing large square-cut holes at their extremities.

The quotations from the Irish writers, given at pp. 6-11, will also show that the same structural features characterise many of the descriptive notices of the crannogs of Ireland. Dr. Stuart also draws particular attention to similar beams at Dowalton, some of which were of "great size and length (one of them 12 feet long), with three mortised holes in the length, 7 inches square." These indications, as well as a careful study of the structural details recorded in my reports of the explorations made at Lochlee, Lochspouts, and Buston, have led me to believe that all the wooden islands were constructed after one uniform plan, and that this plan was actually the outcome of the highest mechanical principles that the circumstances could admit of. Indeed, I am prepared to maintain that were the same problem submitted to modern engineers, they could make no improvement either on the principle or mechanism displayed in these singular structures. Let me therefore, in the first place, note the conditions that called forth such high mechanical and engineering qualities. For defence and protection, which, I presume, no one will doubt were the primary objects of these islands, a small mossy lake, with its margin overgrown with reeds and grasses, and situated in a secluded locality amidst the thick meshes of the primeval forests of those days, would present the most desirable topographical conditions. Having fixed on such a locality, the next consideration would be the selection of materials for building the island. In a lake containing the soft and yielding sediment due to decomposed vegetable matter, it is manifest that any heavy substances, as stones and earth, would be totally inadmissible owing to their weight, so that solid logs of wood, provided there was an abundant supply at hand, would be the best and cheapest material that could be used. To construct in 10 or 12 feetof water, virtually floating over an unfathomable quagmire, a solid compact island, with a circular area of 100 feet or more, and capable of enduring for centuries as a retreat for men and animals, would, I daresay, be the means of eliciting from many an engineer of the present day a more frequent manifestation of the proverbial symptom of a puzzled Scotchman than from these early brothers of the craft—the crannog-builders.

This is how they worked:—

(1.) Immediately over the chosen site a circular raft of trunks of trees, laid above branches and brushwood, was formed, and above it additional layers of logs, together with stones, gravel, etc., were heaped up till the whole mass grounded.(2.) As this process went on, upright piles, made of oak, and of the required length, were inserted into prepared holes in the structure, and probably also a few were inserted into the bed of the lake.(3.) The rough logs forming the horizontal layers were made of various kinds of wood, generally birch, it being the most abundant. These were occasionally pinned together by thick oak pegs, and here and there at various levels oak-beams mortised into one another stretched across the substance of the island, and joined the surrounding piles.(4.) When a sufficient height above the water-line was attained, a prepared pavement of oak-beams was constructed, and mortised beams were laid over the tops of the encircling piles which bound them firmly together as already described. The margin of the island was also slantingly shaped by an intricate arrangement of beams and stones, constituting in some cases, according to Dr. Stuart, a well-formed breakwater.(5.) When the skeleton of the island was thus finished, probably turf would be laid over its margin where the pointed piles protruded, and a superficial barrier of hurdles, or some such fence, erected close to the edge of the water.(6.) Frequently a wooden gangway, probably submerged, stretched to the shore, by means of which secret access to the crannog could be obtained without the use of a canoe. (For the mode of structure of gangway, see page 101.)

(2.) As this process went on, upright piles, made of oak, and of the required length, were inserted into prepared holes in the structure, and probably also a few were inserted into the bed of the lake.

(3.) The rough logs forming the horizontal layers were made of various kinds of wood, generally birch, it being the most abundant. These were occasionally pinned together by thick oak pegs, and here and there at various levels oak-beams mortised into one another stretched across the substance of the island, and joined the surrounding piles.

(4.) When a sufficient height above the water-line was attained, a prepared pavement of oak-beams was constructed, and mortised beams were laid over the tops of the encircling piles which bound them firmly together as already described. The margin of the island was also slantingly shaped by an intricate arrangement of beams and stones, constituting in some cases, according to Dr. Stuart, a well-formed breakwater.

(5.) When the skeleton of the island was thus finished, probably turf would be laid over its margin where the pointed piles protruded, and a superficial barrier of hurdles, or some such fence, erected close to the edge of the water.

(6.) Frequently a wooden gangway, probably submerged, stretched to the shore, by means of which secret access to the crannog could be obtained without the use of a canoe. (For the mode of structure of gangway, see page 101.)

Bearing in mind that all these structures were solidly put together without nails or bolts, and that the gangways, which have remained permanently fixed to the present time, had neither joint nor mortise, we may fearlessly challenge modern science to produce better results under these, or indeed any, circumstances.

That future discoveries may show slight deviations from the exactness of these details I am quite prepared to believe, as the mechanical knowledge of the age was too thorough not to be readily adapted to varied circumstances. What I do however maintain is, that the general principles of structure here laid down, being the outcome of a sound knowledge of mechanics, varied during the whole period of their practical application as little as the essential laws of architecture do in the structure of different styles of our modern houses.

Not only do these wooden islands evince much mechanical and technical skill on the part of their founders, but, what is still more singular, their area of distribution appears to have been co-extensive with the districts formerly occupied by Celtic races. Hence we have here another proof of the extraordinary vigour, intense individuality, and plastic character of early Celtic civilisation, in thus developing, from its own inherent resources, a unique form of stronghold, simplein structure, but yet admirably adapted to the unsettled conditions of life and military requirements of the period.

Section IV.

Topographical Changes in the Lake-Dwelling Area during or subsequent to the Period of their Development.

Supposed Change in Climate, and its effects.—The arguments in support of the theory that a material deterioration has taken place in the climate of Britain since the Roman period are generally based on the following considerations:—

(1.)Historical Statements.

Roman historians agree in representing the climate as humid, but so mild that the natives went about in a semi-nude condition, favourable to luxuriant vegetation, and not so cold as that of Gaul. Thus Cæsar expressly states that all kinds of trees grew in Britain, except thefirand thebeech, and that the climate was more temperate than in Gaul. Tacitus describes the climate as always damp with rains, and overcast with clouds, without, however, intense cold being even felt. In the speech attributed to Galgacus, previous to the battle of Mons Grampius, he says that their "bodies and limbs were worn out by cutting down woods, draining bogs, stripes, and outrages;" and the same historian, in describing the result of a previous engagement in Fifeshire, in which the Caledonians were beaten, states that "had not the woods and marshes favoured their retreat, this victory in all probability would have put an end to the war." Another writer (Dion Cassius) describes the Caledonians as dwelling in tents, naked, and without shoes; enduring hunger, cold, and all manner of hardships with wonderful patience; and capable of remaining in bogs for many days immersed up to the neck, and without food. In the woods they lived on the bark of trees and roots, and had a certain sort of food always ready, of which, if they took but the quantity of a bean, they would neither be hungry nor dry for a long time after. Herodian also describes them as going about partially naked to prevent the beautiful figures painted on their bodies from being hidden.According to him, they used iron as other barbarians did gold, both as an ornament and sign of wealth. They wore neither coat of mail nor helmet to prevent being encumbered in their marches through bogs and mosses, whence such a quantity of vapours was exhaled that the air was always thick and cloudy.

(2.)The numerous remains of forest trees found in bogs and mosses in localities where, at the present time, no such trees are found to grow.

As indicating the kind of evidence brought forward in support of this argument, the following extracts will suffice:—

"Of old, in the parish of Croy, Inverness-shire, and before the records of the kingdom, there were extensive forests of oak, birch, fir, and hazel, which have been converted into moss, in some places upwards of 20 feet deep. In a moss 400 feet above the level of the sea, oaks of extraordinary size are dug up, some of them measuring from 50 to 60 feet, and of proportional thickness; and even at the height of 800 feet, where the parish joins the Strathdearn hills, large blocks of fir are found, where now, from cold and storm, the dwarf willow can scarcely raise its downy and lowly head."—(New Stat. Account, vol. xiv. p. 449.)

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