In a moving-picture studioIn a moving-picture studioIn a portrait studioIn a portrait studioARTIFICIAL LIGHT IN PHOTOGRAPHY
In a moving-picture studioIn a moving-picture studio
In a moving-picture studio
In a portrait studioIn a portrait studio
In a portrait studio
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT IN PHOTOGRAPHY
Many other instances could be cited in which artificial light is very closely associated with the cost of living. Overseas shipment of fruit from the Canadian Northwest is responsible for a decided innovation in fruit-picking. In searching for a cause of rotting during shipment it was finally concluded that the temperature at the time of picking was the controlling factor. As a consequence, daytime was considered undesirable for picking and an electric company supplied electric lighting for the orchards in order that the picking might be done during the cool of night. This change is said to have remedied the situation. Cases of threshing and other agricultural operations being carried on at night are becoming more numerous. These are just the beginnings of artificial light in a new field or in a new relation to civilization. Its economic value has been demonstrated in the ordinary fields of lighting and these new applications are merely the initial skirmishes which precede the conquest of new territory. The modern illuminants have been developedso recently that the new possibilities have not yet been established. However, artificial light is already a factor on the side of the people in the struggle against the increasing cost of living, and its future in this direction is still more promising.
Some one in an early century was the first to notice that the sun's rays tanned the skin, and this unknown individual made the initial discovery in what is now an extensive branch of science known as photo-chemistry. The fading of dyes, the bleaching of textiles, the darkening of silver salts, the synthesis and decomposition of compounds are common examples of chemical reactions induced by light. There are thousands of other examples of the chemical effects of light some of which have been utilized by mankind. Others await the development of more efficient light-sources emitting greater quantities of active rays, and many still remain interesting scientific facts without any apparent practical applications at the present time. Visible and ultra-violet rays are the radiations almost entirely responsible for photochemical reactions, but the most active of these are the blue, violet, and ultra-violet rays. These are often designated chemical or actinic rays in order to distinguish the group as a whole from other groups such as ultra-violet, visible, and infra-red. Light is a unique agent in chemical reactions because it is not a material substance. It neither contaminates nor leaves a residue. Although much information pertaining to photochemistry has been available for years, the absence of powerful light-sourcesemitting so-called chemical rays in large quantities inhibited the practical development of the science of photochemistry. Even to-day, with vast applications of light in this manner, mankind is only beginning to utilize its chemical powers.
Swimming poolSwimming pool
Swimming pool
City waterworksCity waterworks
City waterworks
STERILIZING WATER WITH RADIANT ENERGY FROM QUARTZ MERCURY-ARCS
Although it appears that the chemical action of light was known to the ancients, the earliest photochemical investigations which could be considered scientific and systematic were those of K. W. Scheele in 1777 on silver salts. An extract from his own account is as follows:
I precipitated a solution of silver by sal-ammoniac; then I edulcorated (washed) it and dried the precipitate and exposed it to the beams of the sun for two weeks; after which I stirred the powder and repeated the same several times. Hereupon I poured some caustic spirit of sal-ammoniac (strong ammonia) on this, in all appearance, black powder, and set it by for digestion. This menstruum (solvent) dissolved a quantity of luna cornua (horn silver), though some black powder remained undissolved. The powder having been washed was, for the greater part, dissolved by a pure acid of nitre (nitric acid), which, by the operation, acquired volatility. This solution I precipitated again by means of sal-ammoniac into horn silver. Hence it follows that the blackness which the luna cornua acquires from the sun's light, and likewise the solution of silver poured on chalk, issilver by reduction. I mixed so much of distilled water with the well-washed horn silver as would just cover this powder. The half of this mixture I poured into a white crystal phial, exposed it to the beams of the sun, and shook it several times each day; the other half I set in a dark place. After having exposed the one mixture during the space of two weeks, I filtrated the water standing over the horn silver, grown already black; I let some of this water fall by drops in a solution of silver, which was immediately precipitated into horn silver.
I precipitated a solution of silver by sal-ammoniac; then I edulcorated (washed) it and dried the precipitate and exposed it to the beams of the sun for two weeks; after which I stirred the powder and repeated the same several times. Hereupon I poured some caustic spirit of sal-ammoniac (strong ammonia) on this, in all appearance, black powder, and set it by for digestion. This menstruum (solvent) dissolved a quantity of luna cornua (horn silver), though some black powder remained undissolved. The powder having been washed was, for the greater part, dissolved by a pure acid of nitre (nitric acid), which, by the operation, acquired volatility. This solution I precipitated again by means of sal-ammoniac into horn silver. Hence it follows that the blackness which the luna cornua acquires from the sun's light, and likewise the solution of silver poured on chalk, issilver by reduction. I mixed so much of distilled water with the well-washed horn silver as would just cover this powder. The half of this mixture I poured into a white crystal phial, exposed it to the beams of the sun, and shook it several times each day; the other half I set in a dark place. After having exposed the one mixture during the space of two weeks, I filtrated the water standing over the horn silver, grown already black; I let some of this water fall by drops in a solution of silver, which was immediately precipitated into horn silver.
This extract shows that Scheele dealt with the reducing action of light. He found that silver chloride was decomposed by light and that there was a liberation of chlorine. However, it was learned later that dried silver chloride sealed in a tube from which the air was exhausted is not discolored by light and that substances must be present to absorb the chlorine. Scheele's work aroused much interest in photochemical effects and many investigations followed. In many of these the superiority of blue, violet, and ultra-violet rays was demonstrated. In 1802 the first photograph was made by Wedgwood, who copied paintings upon glass and made profiles by casting shadows upon a sensitive chemical compound. However, he was not able to fix the image. Much study and experimentation were expended upon photochemical effects, especially with silver compounds, before Niepce developed a method of producing pictures which were subsequently unaffected by light. Later Daguerre became associated with Niepce and the famous daguerreotype was the result. Apparently the latter was chiefly responsible for the development of this first commercial process, the products of which are still to be found in the family album. A century has elapsed since this earliest period of commercial photography, and during each year progress has been made, until at the present time photography is thoroughly woven into the activities of civilized mankind.
In those earliest years a person was obliged to sit motionless in the sun for minutes in order to have his picture taken. The development of a century is exemplified in the "snapshot" of the present time. Photographic exposures outdoors at present are commonly one thousandth of a second, and indoors under modern artificial light miles of "moving-picture" film are made daily in which the individual exposures are very small fractions of a second. Artificial light is playing a great part in this branch of photochemistry, and the development of artificial light for the various photographic needs is best emphasized by reminding the reader that the sources must be generally comparable with the sun in actinic or chemical power. The intensity of illumination due to sunlight on a clear day when the sun is near the zenith is commonly 10,000 foot-candles on a surface perpendicular to the direct rays. This is equivalent to the illumination due to a source 90,000 candle-power at a distance of three feet. The sun delivers about 200,000,000,000 horse-power to the earth continuously, which is estimated to be about one million times the amount of power generated artificially on the earth. Of this inconceivable quantity of energy a small part is absorbed by vegetation, some is reflected and radiated back into space, and the balance heats the earth. To store some of this energy so that it may be utilized at will in any desired form is one of the dreams of science. However, artificial light-sources are depended upon at present in many photographic and other chemical processes.
Although two illuminants may be of the same luminous intensity, they may differ widely in actinic value.It is impossible to rate the different illuminants in a general manner as to actinic value because the various photochemical reactions are not affected to the same extent by rays of a given wave-length. Nearly all human eyes see visible rays in approximately the same manner, but the multitude of chemical reactions show a wide variation in sensitivity to the various rays. For example, one photographic emulsion may be sensitive only to ultra-violet, violet, and blue rays and another to all these rays and also to the green, yellow, and red. Therefore, one illuminant may be superior to another for one photochemical reaction, while the reverse may be true in the case of another reaction. In general, it may be said that the arc-lamps including the mercury-arcs provide the most active illuminants for photochemical processes; however, a large number of electric incandescent filament lamps are used in photographic work.
The photo-engraver has been independent of sunlight since the practical development of his art. In fact, the printer could not depend upon sunlight for making the engravings which are used to illustrate the magazines and newspapers. The newspaper photographer may make a "flashlight" exposure, develop his negative, and make a print from it under artificial light. He may turn this over to the photo-engraver who carries out his work by means of powerful arc-lamps and in an hour or two after the original exposure was made the newspaper containing the illustration is being sold on the streets.
The moving-picture studio is independent of daylight in indoor settings and there is a tendency towardthe exclusive use of artificial light. In this field mercury-vapor lamps, arc-lamps, and tungsten photographic lamps are used. Similarly, in the portrait studio there is a tendency for the photographer to leave the skylighted upper floors and to utilize artificial light. In this field the tungsten photographic lamp is gaining in popularity, owing to its simplicity and to other advantages. Artificial light in general is more satisfactory than natural light for many kinds of photographic work because through the ease of controlling it a greater variety of more artistic effects may be obtained. In ordinary photographic printing tungsten lamps are widely used, but in blue-printing the white flame-arc and the mercury-vapor lamp are generally employed. Not many years ago the blue-printer waited for the sun to appear in order to make his prints, but to-day large machines operate continuously under the light of powerful artificial sources. How many realize that the blue-print is almost universally at the foundation of everything at the present time? Not only are products made from blue-prints but the machinery which makes the products is built from blue-prints. Even the building which houses the machinery is first constructed from blue-prints. They form an endless chain in the activities of present civilization.
Artificial light has been a great factor in the practical development of photography and it is looked upon for aid in many other directions. Although there is a multitude of reactions in photographic processes which are brought about by exposure to light, these represent relatively few of the photochemical reactions. In general, it may be stated that light is capable of causing nearly every type of reaction. The chemical compounds which are photo-sensitive are very numerous. Many of the compounds of silver, gold, platinum, mercury, iron, copper, manganese, lead, nickel, and tin are photo-sensitive and these have been widely investigated. Light and oxygen cause many oxidation reactions and, on the other hand, light reduces many compounds such as silver salts, even to the extent of liberating the metal. Oxygen is converted partially into ozone under the influence of certain rays and there are many examples of polymerization caused by light.
Various allotropic changes of the elements are due to the influence of light; for example, a sulphur soluble in carbon disulphide is converted into sulphur which is insoluble, and the rate of change of yellow phosphorus into the red variety is greatly accelerated by light. Hydrogen and chlorine combine under the action of light with explosive rapidity to form hydrochloric acid and there are many other examples of the synthesizing action of light. Carbon monoxide and chlorine combine to form phosgene and the combination of chlorine, bromine, and iodine, with organic compounds, is much hastened by exposing the mixture to light. In a similar manner many decompositions are due to light; for example, hydrogen peroxide is decomposed into water and oxygen. This suggests the reason for the use of brown bottles as containers for many chemical compounds. Such glass does not transmit appreciably the so-called actinic or chemical rays.
There is a large number of reactions due to light inorganic chemistry and one of fundamental importance to mankind is the effect of light on the chlorophyll, the green coloring matter in vegetation. No permanent change takes place in the chlorophyll, but by the action of light it enables the plant to absorb oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water and to use these to build up the complex organic substances which are found in plants. Radiant energy or light is absorbed and converted into chemical energy. This use of radiant energy occurs only in those parts of the plant in which chlorophyll is present, that is, in the leaves and stems. These parts absorb the radiant energy and take carbon dioxide from the air through breathing openings. They convert the radiant energy into chemical energy and use this energy in decomposing the carbon dioxide. The oxygen is exhausted and the carbon enters into the structure of the plant. The energy of plant life thus comes from radiant energy and with this aid the simple compounds, such as the carbon dioxide of the air and the phosphates and nitrates of the soil, are built into complex structures. Thus plants are constructive and synthetic in operation. It is interesting to note that the animal organism converts complex compounds into mechanical and heat energy. The animal organism depends upon the synthetic work of plants, consuming as food the complex structures built by them under the action of light. For example, plants inhale carbon dioxide, liberate the oxygen, and store the carbon in complex compounds, while the animal uses oxygen to burn up the complex compounds derived from plants and exhales carbon dioxide. It is a beautiful cycle, which shows that ultimately all life onearth depends upon light and other radiant energy associated with it. Contrary to most photochemical reactions, it appears that plant life utilize yellow, red, and infra-red energy more than the blue, violet, and ultra-violet.
In general, great intensities of blue light and of the closely associated rays are necessary for most photochemical reactions with which man is industrially interested. It has been found that the white flame-arc excels other artificial light-sources in hastening the chlorination of natural gas in the production of chloroform. One advantage of the radiation from this light-source is that it does not extend far into the ultra-violet, for the ultra-violet rays of short wave-lengths decompose some compounds. In other words, it is necessary to choose radiation which is effective but which does not have rays associated with it that destroy the desired products of the reaction. By the use of a shunt across the arc the light can be gradually varied over a considerable range of intensity. Another advantage of the flame-arc in photochemistry is the ease with which the quality or spectral character of the radiant energy may be altered by varying the chemical salts used in the carbons. For example, strontium fluoride is used in the red flame-arc whose radiant energy is rich in red and yellow. Calcium fluoride is used in the carbons of the yellow flame-arc which emits excessive red and green rays causing by visual synthesis the yellow color. The radiant energy emitted by the snow-white flame-arc is a close approximation to average daylight both as to visible and to ultra-violet rays. Its carbons contain rare-earths. The uses of the flame-arcs arecontinually being extended because they are of high intensity and efficiency and they afford a variety of color or spectral quality. A million white flame-carbons are being used annually in this country for various photochemical processes.
Of the hundreds of dyes and pigments available many are not permanent and until recent years sunlight was depended upon for testing the permanency of coloring materials. As a consequence such tests could not be carried out very systematically until a powerful artificial source of light resembling daylight was available. It appears that the white flame-arc is quite satisfactory in this field, for tests indicate that the chemical effect of this arc in causing dye-fading is four or five times as great as that of the best June sunlight if the materials are placed within ten inches of a 28-ampere arc. It has been computed that in several days of continuous operation of this arc the same fading results can be obtained as in a year's exposure to daylight in the northern part of this country. Inasmuch as the fastness of colors in daylight is usually of interest, the artificial illuminant used for color-fading should be spectrally similar to daylight. Apparently the white flame-arc fulfils this requirement as well as being a powerful source.
Lithopone, a white pigment consisting of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate, sometimes exhibits the peculiar property of darkening on exposure to sunlight. This property is due to an impurity and apparently cannot be predicted by chemical analysis. During the cloudy days and winter months when powerful sunlight is unavailable, the manufacturer is in doubt as to thequality of his product and he needs an artificial light-source for testing it. In such a case the white flame-arc is serving satisfactorily, but it is not difficult to obtain effects with other light-sources in a short time if an image of the light-source is focused upon the material by means of a lens. In fact, a darkening of lithopone may be obtained in a minute by focusing upon it the image of a quartz mercury-arc by means of a quartz lens. In special cases of this sort the use of a focused image is far superior to the ordinary illumination from the light-source, but, of course, this is impracticable when testing a large number of samples simultaneously. Incidentally, lithopone which turns gray or nearly black in the sunlight regains its whiteness during the night.
An amusing incident is told of a young man who painted his boat one night with a white paint in which lithopone was the pigment. On returning home the next afternoon after the boat had been exposed to sunlight all day, he was astonished to see that it was black. Being very much perturbed, he telephoned to the paint store, but the proprietor escaped a scathing lecture by having closed his shop at the usual hour. The young man telephoned in the morning and told the proprietor what had happened, but on being asked to make certain of the facts he went to the window and looked at his boat and behold! it was white. It had regained whiteness during the night but would turn black again during the day. Although pigments and dyes are not generally as peculiar as lithopone, much uncertainty is eliminated by systematic tests under constant, continuous, and controllable artificial light.
The sources of so-called chemical rays are numerous for laboratory work, but there is a need for highly efficient powerful producers of this kind of energy. In general the flame-arcs perhaps are foremost sources at the present time, with other kinds of carbon arcs and the quartz mercury-arc ranking next. One advantage of the mercury-arc is its constancy. Furthermore, for work with a single wave-length it is easy to isolate one of the spectral lines. The regular glass-tube mercury-arc is an efficient producer of the actinic rays and as a consequence has been extensively used in photographic work and in other photochemical processes. An excellent source for experimental work can be made easily by producing an arc between two small iron rods. The electric spark has served in much experimental work, but the total radiant energy from it is small. By varying the metals used for electrodes a considerable variety in the radiant energy is possible. This is also true of the electric arcs, and the flame-arcs may be varied widely by using different chemical compounds in the carbons.
There are other effects of light which have found applications but not in chemical reactions. For example, selenium changes its electrical resistance under the influence of light and many applications of this phenomenon have been made. Another group of light-effects forms a branch of science known as photo-electricity. If a spark-gap is illuminated by ultra-violet rays, the resistance of the gap is diminished. If an insulated zinc plate is illuminated by ultra-violet or violet rays, it will gradually become positively charged. These effects are due to the emission of electrons from themetal. Violet and ultra-violet rays will cause a colorless glass containing manganese to assume a pinkish color. The latter is the color which manganese imparts to glass and under the influence of these rays the color is augmented. Certain ultra-violet rays also ionize the air and cause the formation of ozone. This can be detected near a quartz mercury-arc, for example, by the characteristic odor.
The foregoing are only a few of the multitude of photochemical reactions and other effects of radiant energy. The development of this field awaits to some extent the production of so-called actinic rays more efficiently and in greater quantities, but there are now many practical applications of artificial light for these purposes. In the extensive fields of photography various artificial light-sources have served for many years and they are constantly finding more applications. Artificial light is now used to a considerable extent in the industries in connection with chemical processes, but little information is available, owing to the secrecy attending these new developments in industrial processes. However, this brief chapter has been introduced in order to indicate another field of activity in which artificial light is serving. It is agreed by scientists that photochemistry has a promising future. Mankind harnesses nature's forces and produces light and this light is put to work to exert its influence for the further benefit of mankind. Science has been at work systematically for only a century, but the accomplishments have been so wonderful that the imagination dares not attempt to prophesy the achievements of the next century.
The human being evolved without clothing and the body was bathed with light throughout the day, but civilization has gone to the other extreme of covering the body with clothing which keeps most of it in darkness. Inasmuch as light and the invisible radiant energy which is associated with it are known to be very influential agencies in a multitude of ways, the question arises: Has this shielding of the body had any marked influence upon the human organism? Although there is a vast literature upon the subject of light-therapy, the question remains unanswered, owing to the conflicting results and the absence of standardization of experimental details. In fact, most investigations are subject to the criticism that the data are inadequate. Throughout many centuries light has been credited with various influences upon physiological processes and upon the mind. But most of the early applications had no foundation of scientific facts. Unfortunately, many of the claims pertaining to the physiological and psychological effects of light at the present time are conflicting and they do not rest upon an established scientific foundation. Furthermore some of them are at variance with the possibilities and an unprejudiced observer must conclude that much systematic work must be done before order may arise from the present chaos. This does not mean that manyof the effects are not real, for radiant energy is known to cause certain effects, and viewing the subject broadly it appears that light is already serving humanity in this field and that its future is promising.
The present lack of definite data pertaining to the effects of radiation is due to the failure of most investigators to determine accurately the quantities and wave-lengths of the rays involved. For example, it is easy to err by attributing an effect to visible rays when the effect may be caused by accompanying invisible rays. Furthermore, it may be possible that certain rays counteract or aid the effective rays without being effective alone. In other words, the physical measurements have been neglected notwithstanding the fact that they are generally more easily made than the determinations of curative effects or of germicidal action. Radiant energy of all kinds and wave-lengths has played a part in therapeutics, so it is of interest to indicate them according to wave-length or frequency. These groups vary in range of wave-length, but the actual intervals are not particularly of interest here. Beginning with radiant energy of highest frequencies of vibration and shortest wave-lengths, the following groups and subgroups are given in their order of increasing wave-length:
Röntgen or X-rays, which pass readily through many substances opaque to ordinary light-rays.Ultra-violet rays, which are divided empirically into three groups, designated as "extreme," "middle," and "near" in accordance with their location in respect to the visible region.Visible rays producing various sensations of color, such as violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.Infra-red or the invisible rays bordering on the red rays.An unknown, unmeasured, or unfilled region between the infra-red and the "electric" waves.Electric waves, which include a class of electromagnetic radiant energy of long wave-length. Of these the Herzian waves are of the shortest wave-length and these are followed by "wireless" waves. Electric waves of still greater wave-length are due to the slower oscillations in certain electric circuits caused by lightning discharges, etc.
Röntgen or X-rays, which pass readily through many substances opaque to ordinary light-rays.
Ultra-violet rays, which are divided empirically into three groups, designated as "extreme," "middle," and "near" in accordance with their location in respect to the visible region.
Visible rays producing various sensations of color, such as violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.
Infra-red or the invisible rays bordering on the red rays.
An unknown, unmeasured, or unfilled region between the infra-red and the "electric" waves.
Electric waves, which include a class of electromagnetic radiant energy of long wave-length. Of these the Herzian waves are of the shortest wave-length and these are followed by "wireless" waves. Electric waves of still greater wave-length are due to the slower oscillations in certain electric circuits caused by lightning discharges, etc.
The Röntgen rays were discovered by Röntgen in 1896 and they have been studied and applied very widely ever since. Their great use has been in X-ray photography, but they are also being used in therapeutics. The extreme ultra-violet rays are not available in sunlight and are available only near a source rich in ultra-violet rays, such as the arc-lamps. They are absorbed by air, so that they are studied in a vacuum. These are the rays which convert oxygen into ozone because the former strongly absorbs them. The middle ultra-violet rays are not found in sunlight, because they are absorbed by the atmosphere. They are also absorbed by ordinary glass but are freely transmitted by quartz. The nearer ultra-violet rays are found in sunlight and in most artificial illuminants and are transmitted by ordinary glass. Next to this region is the visible spectrum with the various colors, from violet to red, induced by radiant energy of increasing wave-length. The infra-red rays are sometimes called heat-rays, but all radiant energy may be converted into heat. Various substances transmit and absorb these rays in general quite differently from the visible rays. Water is opaque to most of the infra-redrays. Next there is a region of wave-lengths or frequencies for which no radiant energy has been found. The so-called electric waves vary in wave-length over a great range and they include those employed in wireless telegraphy. All these radiations are of the same general character, consisting of electromagnetic energy, but differing in wave-length or frequency of vibration and also in their effects. In effect they may overlap in many cases and the whole is a chaos if the physical details of quantity and wave-length are not specified in experimental work.
In art workIn art work
In art work
In a haberdasheryIn a haberdashery
In a haberdashery
JUDGING COLOR UNDER ARTIFICIAL DAYLIGHT
It has been conclusively shown that radiant energy kills bacteria. The early experiments were made with sunlight and the destruction of micro-organisms is generally attributed to the so-called chemical rays, namely, the blue, violet, and ultra-violet rays. It appears in general that the middle ultra-violet rays are the most powerful destroyers. It is certainly established that sunlight sterilizes water, for example, and the quartz mercury-lamp is in daily use for this purpose on a practicable scale. However, there still appears to be a difference of opinion as to the destructive effect of radiant energy upon bacteria in living tissue. It has been shown that the middle ultra-violet rays destroy animal tissue and, for example, cause eye-cataracts. It appears possible from some experiments that ultra-violet rays destroy bacteria in water and on culture plates more effectively in the absence of visible rays than when these attend the ultra-violet rays as in the case of sunlight. This is one of the reasons for the use of blue glass in light-therapy, which isolates the blue, violet, and near ultra-violet rays from the other visiblerays. If the infra-red rays are not desired they can be readily eliminated by the use of a water-cell.
In an underground tunnelIn an underground tunnel
In an underground tunnel
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In an art gallery
ARTIFICIAL DAYLIGHT
There is a vast amount of testimony which proves the bactericidal action of light. Bacteria on the surface of the body are destroyed by ultra-violet rays. Typhus and tubercle bacilli are destroyed equally well by the direct rays from the sun and from the electric arcs. Cultures of diphtheria develop in diffused daylight but are destroyed by direct sunlight. Lower organisms in water are readily killed by the radiation from any light-source emitting ultra-violet rays comparable with those in direct sunlight. From the great amount of data available it appears reasonable to conclude that radiant energy is a powerful bactericidal agency but that the action is due chiefly to ultra-violet rays. It appears also that no bacteria can resist these rays if they are intense enough and are permitted to play upon the bacteria long enough. The destruction of these organisms appears to be a phenomenon of oxidation, for the presence of oxygen appears to be necessary.
The foregoing remarks about the bactericidal action of radiant energy apply only to bacteria in water, in cultures, and on the surface of the body. There is much uncertainty as to the ability of radiant energy to destroy bacteria within living tissue. The active rays cannot penetrate appreciably into such tissue and many authorities are convinced that no direct destruction takes place. In fact, it has been stated that the so-called chemical rays are more destructive to the tissue cells than to bacteria. Finsen, a pioneer in the use of radiant energy in the treatment of disease, effectedmany wonderful cures and believed that the bacteria were directly destroyed by the ultra-violet rays. However, many have since come to the conclusion that the beneficent action of the rays is due to the irritation which causes an outflow of serum, thus bringing more antibodies in contact with the bacilli, and causing the destruction of the latter. Hot applications appear to work in the same manner.
Primitive beings of the tropics are known to treat open wounds by exposing them to the direct rays of the sun without dressings of any kind. These wounds are usually infected and the sun's rays render them aseptic and they heal readily. Many cases of sores and surgical wounds have been quickly healed by exposure to sunlight. Even red light has been effective, so it has been concluded by some that rays of almost any wave-length, if intense enough, will effect a cure of this character by causing an effusion of serum. It has also been stated that the chemical rays have anæsthetic powers and have been used in this rôle for many minor operations.
It is said that the Chinese have used red light for centuries in the treatment of smallpox and throughout the Middle Ages this practice was not uncommon. In the oldest book on medicine written in English there is an account of a successful treatment of the son of Edward I for smallpox by means of red light. It is also stated that this treatment was administered throughout the reigns of Elizabeth and of Charles II. Another account states that a few soldiers confined in dark dungeons recovered from smallpox without pitting. Finsen also obtained excellent results in thetreatment of this disease by means of red light. However, in this case it appears that the exclusion of the so-called chemical rays favors healing of the postules of smallpox and that the use of red light is therefore a negative application of light-therapy. In other words, the red light plays no part except in furnishing a light which does not inhibit healing.
Although the so-called actinic rays have curative value in certain cases, there are some instances where light-baths are claimed to be harmful. It is said that sun-baths to the naked body are not so popular as they were formerly, except for obesity, gout, rheumatism, and sluggish metabolism, because it is felt that the shorter ultra-violet rays may be harmful. These rays are said to increase the pulse, respiration, temperature, and blood-pressure and may even start hemorrhages and in excessive amounts cause headache, palpitation, insomnia, and anemia. These same authorities condemn sun-baths to the naked body of the tuberculous, claiming that any cures effected are consummated despite the injury done by the energy of short wave-length. There is no doubt that these rays are beneficial in local lesions, but it is believed that the cure is due to the irritation caused by the rays and the consequent bactericidal action of the increased flow of serum, and not to any direct beneficial result on the tissue-cells. Others claim to cure tuberculosis by means of powerful quartz mercury-arcs equipped with a glass which absorbs the ultra-violet rays of shorter wave-lengths. These conclusions by a few authorities are submitted for what they are worth and to show that this phase of light-therapy is also unsettled.
Any one who has been in touch with light-therapy in a scientific rôle is bound to note that much ignorance is displayed in the use of light in this manner. In fact, it appears safe to state that light-therapy often smacks of quackery. Very mysterious effects are sometimes attributed to radiant energy, which occasionally border upon superstition. Nevertheless, this kind of energy has value, and notwithstanding the chaos which still exists, it is of interest to note some of the equipment which has been used. Some practitioners have great confidence in the electric bath, and elaborate light-baths have been devised. In the earlier years of this kind of treatment the electric arc was conspicuous. Electrodes of carbon, carbon and iron, and iron have been used when intense ultra-violet rays were desired. The quartz mercury-arc of later years supplies this need admirably. Dr. Cleaves, after many years of experience with the electric-arc bath, has stated:
From the administration of an electric-arc bath there is obtained an action upon the skin, the patient experiences a pleasant and slightly prickly sensation. There is produced, even from a short exposure, upon the skin of some patients a slight erythema, while with others there is but little such effect even from long exposures. The face assumes a normal rosy coloring and an appearance of refreshment and repose on emerging from the bath is always observed. From the administration of the electric-arc bath there is also noted the establishment of circulatory changes with a uniform regulation of the heart's action, as evidenced by improved volume and slower pulse rate, the augmentation of the temperature, increased activity of the skin, fuller and slower respiration, gradually increased respiratory capacity, and diminished irritability ofthe mucous membrane in tubercular, bronchitic, or asthmatic patients. There is also lessened discharge in those patients suffering from catarrhal conditions of the nasal passages. In diseases of the respiratory system, a soothing effect upon the mucous membranes is always experienced, while cough and expectoration are diminished.
From the administration of an electric-arc bath there is obtained an action upon the skin, the patient experiences a pleasant and slightly prickly sensation. There is produced, even from a short exposure, upon the skin of some patients a slight erythema, while with others there is but little such effect even from long exposures. The face assumes a normal rosy coloring and an appearance of refreshment and repose on emerging from the bath is always observed. From the administration of the electric-arc bath there is also noted the establishment of circulatory changes with a uniform regulation of the heart's action, as evidenced by improved volume and slower pulse rate, the augmentation of the temperature, increased activity of the skin, fuller and slower respiration, gradually increased respiratory capacity, and diminished irritability ofthe mucous membrane in tubercular, bronchitic, or asthmatic patients. There is also lessened discharge in those patients suffering from catarrhal conditions of the nasal passages. In diseases of the respiratory system, a soothing effect upon the mucous membranes is always experienced, while cough and expectoration are diminished.
The cabinet used by Dr. Cleaves was large enough to contain a cot upon which the patient reclined. An arc-lamp was suspended at each of the two ends of the cabinet and a flood of light was obtained directly and by reflection from the white inside surfaces of the cabinet. By means of mirrors the light from the arcs could be concentrated upon any desired part of the patient.
Finsen, who in 1895 published his observations upon the stimulating action of light, is considered the pioneer in the use of so-called chemical rays in the treatment of disease. He had a circular room about thirty-seven feet in diameter, in which two powerful 100-ampere arc-lamps about six feet from the floor were suspended from the ceiling. Low partitions extended radially from the center, so that a number of patients could be treated simultaneously. The temperature of the room was normal, so that the treatment was essentially by radiant energy and not by heat. The chemical action upon the skin was said to be quite as strong as under sunlight. The exposures varied from ten minutes to an hour.
Light-baths containing incandescent filament lamps are also used. In some cases the lamp, sometimes having a blue bulb, is merely contained as a reflector andthe light is applied locally as desired. Light-cabinets are also used, but in these there is considerable effect due to heat. The ultra-violet rays emitted by the small electric filament lamps used in these cabinets are of very low intensity and the bactericidal action of the light must be feeble. The glass bulbs do not transmit the extreme ultra-violet rays responsible for the production of ozone, or the middle ultra-violet rays which are effective in destroying animal tissue. The cabinets contain from twenty to one hundred incandescent filament lamps of the ordinary sizes, from 25 to 60 watts. In the days of the carbon filament lamp the 16-candle-power lamp was used. Certainly the heating effect has advantages in some cases over other methods of heating. The light-rays penetrate the tissue and are absorbed and transformed into heat. Other methods involve conduction of heat from the hot air or other hot applications. Of course, it is also contended that the light-rays are directly beneficial.
Light is also concentrated upon the body by means of lenses and mirrors. For this purpose the sun, the arc, the quartz mercury-arc, and the incandescent lamp have been used. Besides these, vacuum-tube discharges and sparks have been utilized as sources for radiant energy and "electrical" treatment. Röntgen rays and radium have also figured in recent years in the treatment of disease.
The quartz mercury-arc has been extensively used in the past decade for the treatment of skin diseases and there appears to be less uncertainty about the efficacy of radiant energy for the treatment of surface diseases than of others. Herod related that the Egyptians treated patients by exposure to direct sunlight and throughout the centuries and among all types of civilization sunlight has been recognized as having certain valuable healing or purifying properties. Finsen in his early experiments cured a case of lupus, a tuberculous skin disease, by means of the visible and near ultra-violet rays in sunlight. He demonstrated that these were the effective rays by using only the radiant energy which passed through a water-cell made by using a convex lens for each end of the cell and filling the intervening space with water. This was really a lens made of glass and water. The glass absorbed the ultra-violet rays of shorter wave-length and the water absorbed the infra-red rays. Thus he was able to concentrate upon the diseased skin radiant energy consisting of visible and near ultra-violet rays.
The encouraging results which Finsen obtained in the treatment of skin diseases led him to become independent of sunlight by equipping a special arc-lamp with quartz lenses. This gave him a powerful source of so-called chemical rays, which could be concentrated wherever desired. However, when science contributed the mercury-vapor arc, developments were immediately begun which aimed to utilize this artificial source of steady powerful ultra-violet rays in light-therapy. As a consequence, there are now available very compact quartz mercury-arcs designed especially for this purpose. Apparently their use has been very effective in curing many skin diseases. Certainly if radiant energy is effective, it has a great advantage over drugs. An authority has stated in regard to skin diseases that,
treatment with the ultra-violet rays, especially in conjunctionwith the Röntgen rays, radium and mesothorium is that treatment which in most instances holds rank as the first, and in many as the only and often enough the most effective mode of handling the disease.
treatment with the ultra-violet rays, especially in conjunctionwith the Röntgen rays, radium and mesothorium is that treatment which in most instances holds rank as the first, and in many as the only and often enough the most effective mode of handling the disease.
Sterilization by means of the radiation from the quartz mercury-arc has been practised successfully for several years. Compact apparatus is in use for the sterilization of water for drinking, for surgical purposes, and for swimming-pools, and the claims made by the manufacturers of the apparatus apparently are substantiated. One type of apparatus withstands a pressure of one hundred pounds per square inch and may be connected in series with the water-main. The water supplied to the sterilizer should be clear and free of suspended matter, in order that the radiant energy may be effective. Such apparatus is capable of sterilizing any quantity of water up to a thousand gallons an hour, and the lamp is kept burning only when the water is flowing. It is especially useful in hotels, stores, factories, on ships, and in many industries where sterile water is needed.
Water is a vital necessity in every-day life, whether for drinking, cooking, or industrial purposes. It is recognized as a carrier of disease and the purification of water-supply in large cities is an important problem. Chlorination processes are in use which render the treated water disagreeable to the taste and filtration alone is looked upon with suspicion. The use of chemicals requires constant analysis, but it is contended that the bactericidal action of ultra-violet rays is so certainand complete that there is never any doubt as to the sterilization of the water if it is clear, or if it has been properly filtered before treating. The system of sterilization by ultra-violet rays is the natural way, for the sun's rays perform this function in nature. Apparatus for sterilization of water by means of ultra-violet rays is built for public plants in capacities up to ten million gallons per day and these units may be multiplied to meet the needs of the largest cities. Large mechanical filters are used in conjunction with these sterilizers, and thus mankind copies nature's way, for natural supplies of pure water have been filtered through sand and have been exposed to the rays of the sun which free it from germ life.
Some sterilizers of this character are used at the place where a supply of pure water is desired or at a point where water is bottled for use in various parts of a factory, hospital, store, or office building. These were used in some American hospitals during the recent war, where they supplied sterilized water for drinking and for the antiseptic bathing of wounds. In warfare the water supply is exceedingly important. For example, the Japanese in their campaign in Manchuria boiled the water to be used for drinking purposes. The mortality of armies in many previous wars was often much greater from preventable diseases than from bullets, but the Japanese in their war with Russia reversed the mortality statistics. Of a total mortality of 81,000 more than 60,000 died of casualties in battle.
The sterilization of water for swimming-pools is coming into vogue. Heretofore it was the common practice to circulate the water through a filter, in orderto remove the impurities imparted to it by the bathers and to return it to the pool. It is insisted by the adherents of sterilization that filtration of this sort is likely to leave harmful bacteria in the water. Sterilizers in which ultra-violet rays are the active rays are now in use for this purpose, being connected beyond the outflow from the filter. The effectiveness of the apparatus has been established by the usual method of counting the bacteria. Near the outlet of the ordinary filter a count revealed many thousand bacteria per cubic inch of water and among these there were bacteria of intestinal origin. Then a sterilizer was installed in which the effective elements were two quartz mercury-lamps which consumed 2.2 amperes each at 220 volts. A count of bacteria in the water leaving the sterilizer showed that these organisms had been reduced to 5 per cent. and finally to a smaller percentage of their original value, and that all those of intestinal origin had been destroyed. In fact, the water which was returned to the pool was better than that which most persons drink. Radiant energy possesses advantages which are unequaled by other bactericidal agents, in that it does not contaminate or change the properties of the water in any way. It does its work of destroying bacteria and leaves the water otherwise unchanged.
These glimpses of the use of the radiant energy as a means of regaining and retaining good health suggest greater possibilities when the facts become thoroughly established and correlated. The sun is of primary importance to mankind, but it serves in so many ways that it is naturally a compromise. It cannot supplyjust the desired radiant energy for one purpose and at the same time serve for another purpose in the best manner. It is obscured on cloudy days and disappears nightly. These absences are beneficial to some processes, but man in the highly organized activity of present civilization desires radiant energy of various qualities available at any time. In this respect artificial light is superior to the sun and is being improved continually.
In a single century science has converted the dimly lighted nights with their feeble flickering flames into artificial daytime. In this brief span of years the production of light has advanced far from the primitive flames in use at the beginning of the nineteenth century, but, as has been noted in another chapter, great improvements in light-production are still possible. Nevertheless, the wonderful developments in the last four decades, which created the arc-lamps, the gas-mantle, the mercury-vapor lamps, and the series of electric incandescent-filament lamps, have contributed much to the efficiency, safety, health, and happiness of mankind.
A hundred years ago civilization was more easily satisfied and an improvement which furnished more light at the same cost was all that could be desired. To-day light alone is not sufficient. Certain kinds of radiant energy are required for photography and other photochemical processes and a vast array of colored light is demanded for displays and for effects upon the stage. Man now desires lights of various colors for their expressive effects. He is no longer satisfied with mere light in adequate quantities; he desires certain qualities. Furthermore, he no longer finds it sufficient to be independent of daylight merely in quantity of light. In fact, he has demanded artificial daylight.
Doubtless the future will see the production of efficient light of many qualities or colors, but to-day many of the demands must be met by modifying the artificial illuminants which are available. Vision is accomplished entirely by the distinction of brightness and color. An image of any scene or any object is focused upon the retina as a miniature map in light, shade, and color. Although the distinction of brightness is a more important function in vision than the ability to distinguish colors, color-vision is far more important in daily life than is ordinarily appreciated. One may go through life color-blind without suffering any great inconvenience, but the divine gift of color-vision casts a magical drapery over all creation. Relatively few are conscious of the wonderful drapery of color, except for occasional moments when the display is unusual. Nevertheless a study of vision in nearly all crafts reveals the fact that the distinction of colors plays an important part.
In the purchase of food and wearing-apparel, in the decoration of homes and throughout the arts and industries, mankind depends a great deal upon the appearance of colors. He depends upon daylight in this respect and unconsciously often, when daylight fails, ceases work which depends upon the accurate distinction of colors. His color-vision evolved under daylight; arts and industries developed under daylight; and all his associations of color are based primarily upon daylight. For these reasons, adequate artificial illumination does not make mankind independent of daylight in the practice of arts and crafts and in many minor activities. In quality or spectral character, theunmodified illuminants used for general lighting purposes differ from daylight and therefore do not fully replace it. Noon sunlight contains all the spectral colors in approximately the same proportions, but this is not true of these artificial illuminants. For these reasons there is a demand for artificial daylight.
The "vacuum" tube affords a possibility of an extensive variety of illuminants differing widely in spectral character or color. Every gas when excited to luminescence by an electric discharge in the "vacuum" tube (containing the gas at a low pressure) emits light of a characteristic quality or color. By varying the gas a variety of illuminants can be obtained, but this means of light-production has not been developed to a sufficiently practicable state to be satisfactory for general lighting. Nitrogen yields a pinkish light and the nitrogen tube as developed by Dr. Moore was installed to some extent a few years ago. Neon yields an orange light and has been used in a few cases for displays. Carbon dioxide furnishes a white light similar to daylight and small tubes containing this gas are in use to-day where accurate discrimination of color is essential.
The flame-arcs afford a means of obtaining a variety of illuminants differing in spectral character or color. By impregnating the carbons with various chemical compounds the color of the flame can be widely altered. The white flame-arc obtained by the use of rare-earth compounds in the carbons provides an illuminant closely approximating average daylight. By using various substances besides carbon for theelectrodes, illuminants differing in spectral character can be obtained. These are usually rich in ultra-violet rays and therefore have their best applications in processes demanding this kind of radiant energy. The arc-lamp is limited in its application by its unsteadiness, its bulkiness, and the impracticability of subdividing it into light-sources of a great range of luminous intensities.
The most extensive applications of artificial daylight have been made by means of the electric incandescent filament lamp, equipped with a colored glass which alters the light to the same quality as daylight. The light from the electric filament lamp is richer in yellow, orange, and red rays than daylight, and by knowing the spectral character of the two illuminants and the spectral characteristics of colored glasses in which various chemicals have been incorporated, it is possible to develop a colored glass which will filter out of the excess of yellow, orange, and red rays so that the transmitted light is of the same spectral character as daylight. Thousands of such artificial daylight units are now in use in the industries, in stores, in laboratories, in dye-works, in print-shops, and in many other places. Currency and Liberty Bonds have been made under artificial daylight and such units are in use in banks for the detection of counterfeit currency. The diamond expert detects the color of jewels and the microscopist is certain of the colors of his stains under artificial daylight. The dyer mixes his dyes for the coloring of tons of valuable silk and the artist paints under this artificial light. These areonly a few of a vast number of applications of artificial daylight, but they illustrate that mankind is independent of natural light in another respect.