[Werewolves in China.]
In China also the faith in similar transformation is reflected in the following tale. A certain man in Sung-yang went into the mountains to gather fuel. Night fell and he was pursued by two tigers, but scrambled up a tree out of their reach. Then said the one tiger to the other tiger, "If we can find Chu-Tu-shi, we are sure to catch this man up the tree." So off went one of them to find Chu-Tu-shi, while the other kept watch at the foot of the tree. Soon after that another tiger, leaner and longer than the other two, appeared on the scene and made a grab at the man's coat. But fortunately the moon was shining, the man saw the paw, and with a stroke of his axe cut off one of its claws. The tigers roared and fled, one after the other, so the man climbed down the tree and went home. When he told his tale in the village, suspicion naturally fell on the said Chu-Tu-shi; next day some men went to see him in his house. Theywere told that they could not see him; for he had been out the night before and had hurt his hand, and he was now ill in bed. So they put two and two together and reported him to the police. The police arrived, surrounded the house, and set fire to it; but Chu-Tu-shi rose from his bed, turned into a tiger, charged right through the police, and escaped, and to this day nobody ever knew where he went to.762
[Werewolves among the Toradjas of Central Celebes.]
The Toradjas of Central Celebes stand in very great fear of werewolves, that is of men and women, who have the power of transforming their spirits into animals such as cats, crocodiles, wild pigs, apes, deer, and buffaloes, which roam about battening on human flesh, and especially on human livers, while the men and women in their own proper human form are sleeping quietly in their beds at home. Among them a man is either born a were-wolf or becomes one by infection; for mere contact with a were-wolf, or even with anything that has been touched by his spittle, is quite enough to turn the most innocent person into a were-wolf; nay even to lean your head against anything against which a were-wolf has leaned his head suffices to do it. The penalty for being a were-wolf is death; but the sentence is never passed until the accused has had a fair trial and his guilt has been clearly demonstrated by an ordeal, which consists in dipping the middle finger into boiling resin. If the finger is not burnt, the man is no were-wolf; but if it is burnt, a werewolf he most assuredly is, so they take him away to a quiet spot and hack him to bits. In cutting him up the executioners are naturally very careful not to be bespattered with his blood, for if that were to happen they would of course be turned into were-wolves themselves. Further, they place his severed head beside his hinder-quarters to prevent his soul from coming to life again and pursuing his depredations. So great is the horror of were-wolves among the Toradjas, and so great is their fear of contracting the deadly taint by infection, that many persons have assured a missionary that they would not spare their own child if they knew him to be a were-wolf.763Now these people,whose faith in were-wolves is not a mere dying or dead superstition but a living, dreadful conviction, tell stories of were-wolves which conform to the type which we are examining. They say that once upon a time a were-wolf came in human shape under the house of a neighbour, while his real body lay asleep as usual at home, and calling out softly to the man's wife made an assignation with her to meet him in the tobacco-field next day. But the husband was lying awake and he heard it all, but he said nothing to anybody. Next day chanced to be a busy one in the village, for a roof had to be put on a new house and all the men were lending a hand with the work, and among them to be sure was the were-wolf himself, I mean to say his own human self; there he was up on the roof working away as hard as anybody. But the woman went out to the tobacco-field, and behind went unseen her husband, slinking through the underwood. When they were come to the field, he saw the were-wolf make up to his wife, so out he rushed and struck at him with a stick. Quick as thought, the were-wolf turned himself into a leaf, but the man was as nimble, for he caught up the leaf, thrust it into the joint of bamboo, in which he kept his tobacco, and bunged it up tight. Then he walked back with his wife to the village, carrying the bamboo with the werewolf in it. When they came to the village, the human body of the were-wolf was still on the roof, working away with the rest. The man put the bamboo in a fire. At that the human were-wolf looked down from the roof and said, "Don't do that." The man drew the bamboo from the fire, but a moment afterwards he put it in the fire again, and again the human were-wolf on the roof looked down and cried, "Don't do that." But this time the man kept the bamboo in the fire, and when it blazed up, down fell the human were-wolf from the roof as dead as a stone.764Again, the following story went round among the Toradjas not so very many years ago. The thing happened at Soemara, on the Gulf of Tomori. It was evening and some men sat chatting with a certain Hadji Mohammad. When it had grown dark, one of the men went out of the house for something or other. A little while afterwards one of the companythought he saw a stag's antlers standing out sharp and clear against the bright evening sky. So Hadji Mohammad raised his gun and fired. A minute or two afterwards back comes the man who had gone out, and says he to Hadji Mohammad, "You shot at me and hit me. You must pay me a fine." They searched him but found no wound on him anywhere. Then they knew that he was a were-wolf who had turned himself into a stag and had healed the bullet-wound by licking it. However, the bullet had found its billet, for two days afterwards he was a dead man.765
[Were-wolves in the Egyptian Sudan.]
In Sennar, a province of the Egyptian Sudan, the Hammeg and Fungi enjoy the reputation of being powerful magicians who can turn themselves into hyaenas and in that guise scour the country at night, howling and gorging themselves. But by day they are men again. It is very dangerous to shoot at such human hyaenas by night. On the Jebel Bela mountain a soldier once shot at a hyaena and hit it, but it dragged itself off, bleeding, in the darkness and escaped. Next morning he followed up the trail of blood and it led him straight to the hut of a man who was everywhere known for a wizard. Nothing of the hyaena was to be seen, but the man himself was laid up in the house with a fresh wound and died soon afterwards. And the soldier did not long survive him.766
[The were-wolf story in Petronius.]
But the classical example of these stories is an old Roman tale told by Petronius. It is put in the mouth of one Niceros. Late at night he left the town to visit a friend of his, a widow, who lived at a farm five miles down the road. Hewas accompanied by a soldier, who lodged in the same house, a man of Herculean build. When they set out it was near dawn, but the moon shone as bright as day. Passing through the outskirts of the town, they came amongst the tombs, which lined the highroad for some distance. There the soldier made an excuse for retiring behind a monument, and Niceros sat down to wait for him, humming a tune and counting the tombstones to pass the time. In a little he looked round for his companion, and saw a sight which froze him with horror. The soldier had stripped off his clothes to the last rag and laid them at the side of the highway. Then he performed a certain ceremony over them, and immediately was changed into a wolf, and ran howling into the forest. When Niceros had recovered himself a little, he went to pick up the clothes, but found that they were turned to stone. More dead than alive, he drew his sword, and, striking at every shadow cast by the tombstones on the moonlit road, he tottered to his friend's house. He entered it like a ghost, to the surprise of the widow, who wondered to see him abroad so late. "If you had only been here a little ago," said she, "you might have been of some use. For a wolf came tearing into the yard, scaring the cattle and bleeding them like a butcher. But he did not get off so easily, for the servant speared him in the neck." After hearing these words, Niceros felt that he could not close an eye, so he hurried away home again. It was now broad daylight, but when he came to the place where the clothes had been turned to stone, he found only a pool of blood. He reached home, and there lay the soldier in bed like an ox in the shambles, and the doctor was bandaging his neck. "Then I knew," said Niceros, "that the man was a were-wolf, and never again could I break bread with him, no, not if you had killed me for it."767
[Witches like were-wolves can temporarily transform themselves into animals.]
These stories may help us to understand the custom of burning a bewitched animal, which has been observed in our own country down to recent times, if indeed it is even now extinct. For a close parallel may be traced in some respects between witches and were-wolves. Like were-wolves, witches are commonly supposed to be able to transform themselves temporarily into animals for the purpose of playing their mischievous pranks;768and like were-wolves they can in their animal disguise be compelled to unmask themselves to any one who succeeds in drawing their blood. In either case the animal-skin is conceived as a cloak thrown round the wicked enchanter; and if you can only pierce the skin, whether by the stab of a knife or the shot of a gun, you so rend the disguise that the man or woman inside of it stands revealed in his or her true colours. Strictly speaking, the stab should be given on the brow or between the eyes in the case both of a witch and of a were-wolf;769and it is vain to shoot at a were-wolf unless you have had the bullet blessed in a chapelof St. Hubert or happen to be carrying about you, without knowing it, a four-leaved clover; otherwise the bullet will merely rebound from the were-wolf like water from a duck's back.770However, in Armenia they say that the were-wolf, who in that country is usually a woman, can be killed neither by shot nor by steel; the only way of delivering the unhappy woman from her bondage is to get hold of her wolf's skin and burn it; for that naturally prevents her from turning into a wolf again. But it is not easy to find the skin, for she is cunning enough to hide it by day.771So with witches, it is not only useless but even dangerous to shoot at one of them when she has turned herself into a hare; if you do, the gun may burst in your hand or the shot come back and kill you. The only way to make quite sure of hitting a witch-animal is to put a silver sixpence or a silver button in your gun.772For example, it happened one evening that a native of the island of Tiree was going home with a new gun, when he saw a black sheep running towards him across the plain of Reef. Something about the creature excited his suspicion, so he put a silver sixpence in his gun and fired at it. Instantly the black sheep became a woman with a drugget coat wrapt round her head. The man knew her quite well, for she was a witch who had often persecuted him before in the shape of a cat.773
[Wounds inflicted on an animal into which a witch has transformed herself are inflicted on the witch herself.]
Again, the wounds inflicted on a witch-hare or a witch-cat are to be seen on the witch herself, just as the wounds inflicted on a were-wolf are to be seen on the man himself when he has doffed the wolfs skin. To take a few instances out of a multitude, a young man in the island of Lismore was out shooting. When he was near Balnagown loch, he starteda hare and fired at it. The animal gave an unearthly scream, and then for the first time it occurred to him that there were no real hares in Lismore. He threw away his gun in terror and fled home; and next day he heard that a notorious witch was laid up with a broken leg. A man need be no conjuror to guess how she came by that broken leg.774Again, at Thurso certain witches used to turn themselves into cats and in that shape to torment an honest man. One night he lost patience, whipped out his broadsword, and put them to flight. As they were scurrying away he struck at them and cut off a leg of one of the cats. To his astonishment it was a woman's leg, and next morning he found one of the witches short of the corresponding limb.775Glanvil tells a story of "an old woman in Cambridge-shire, whose astral spirit, coming into a man's house (as he was sitting alone at the fire) in the shape of an huge cat, and setting her self before the fire, not far from him, he stole a stroke at the back of it with a fire-fork, and seemed to break the back of it, but it scambled from him, and vanisht he knew not how. But such an old woman, a reputed witch, was found dead in her bed that very night, with her back broken, as I have heard some years ago credibly reported."776In Yorkshire during the latter half of the nineteenth century a parish clergyman was told a circumstantial story of an old witch named Nanny, who was hunted in the form of a hare for several miles over the Westerdale moors and kept well away from the dogs, till a black one joined the pack and succeeded in taking a bit out of one of the hare's legs. That was the end of the chase, and immediately afterwards the sportsmen found old Nanny laid up in bed with a sore leg. On examining the wounded limb they discovered that the hurt was precisely in that part of it which in the hare had been bitten by the black dog and, what was still more significant, the wound had all the appearance of having been inflicted by a dog's teeth. So they put two and two together.777The same sort of thingis often reported in Lincolnshire. "One night," said a servant from Kirton Lindsey, "my father and brother saw a cat in front of them. Father knew it was a witch, and took a stone and hammered it. Next day the witch had her face all tied up, and shortly afterwards died." Again, a Bardney bumpkin told how a witch in his neighbourhood could take all sorts of shapes. One night a man shot a hare, and when he went to the witch's house he found her plastering a wound just where he had shot the hare.778So in County Leitrim, in Ireland, they say that a hare pursued by dogs fled to a house near at hand, but just as it was bolting in at the door one of the dogs came up with it and nipped a piece out of its leg. The hunters entered the house and found no hare there but only an old woman, and her side was bleeding; so they knew what to think of her.779
[Wounded witches in the Vosges.]
Again, in the Vosges Mountains a great big hare used to come out every evening to take the air at the foot of the Mont des Fourches. All the sportsmen of the neighbourhood tried their hands on that hare for a month, but not one of them could hit it. At last one marksman, more knowing than the rest, loaded his gun with some pellets of a consecrated wafer in addition to the usual pellets of lead. That did the trick. If puss was not killed outright, she was badly hurt, and limped away uttering shrieks and curses in a human voice. Later it transpired that she was no other than the witch of a neighbouring village who had the power of putting on the shape of any animal she pleased.780Again, a hunter of Travexin, in the Vosges, fired at a hare and almost shot away one of its hind legs. Nevertheless the creature contrived to escape into a cottage through the open door. Immediately a child's cries were heard to proceed from the cottage, and the hunter could distinguish these words, "Daddy, daddy, come quick! Poor mammy has her leg broken."781
[Wounded witches in Swabia.]
In Swabia the witches are liable to accidents of the same sort when they go about their business in the formof animals. For example, there was a soldier who was betrothed to a young woman and used to visit her every evening when he was off duty. But one evening the girl told him that he must not come to the house on Friday nights, because it was never convenient to her to see him then. This roused his suspicion, and the very next Friday night he set out to go to his sweetheart's house. On the way a white cat ran up to him in the street and dogged his steps, and when the animal would not make off he drew his sword and slashed off one of its paws. On that the cat bolted. The soldier walked on, but when he came to his sweetheart's house he found her in bed, and when he asked her what was the matter, she gave a very confused reply. Noticing stains of blood on the bed, he drew down the coverlet and saw that the girl was weltering in her gore, for one of her feet was lopped off. "So that's what's the matter with you, you witch!" said he, and turned on his heel and left her, and within three days she was dead.782Again, a farmer in the neighbourhood of Wiesensteig frequently found in his stable a horse over and above the four horses he actually owned. He did not know what to make of it and mentioned the matter to the smith. The smith said quietly, "The next time you see a fifth horse in the stable, just you send for me." Well, it was not long before the strange horse was there again, and the farmer at once sent for the smith. He came bringing four horse-shoes with him, and said, "I'm sure the nag has no shoes; I'll shoe her for you." No sooner said than done. However, the smith overreached himself; for next day when his friend the farmer paid him a visit he found the smith's own wife prancing about with horse-shoes nailed on her hands and feet. But it was the last time she ever appeared in the shape of a horse.783
[The miller's wife and the two grey cats.]
Once more, in Silesia they tell of a miller's apprentice, a sturdy and industrious young fellow, who set out on his travels. One day he came to a mill, and the miller toldhim that he wanted an apprentice but did not care to engage one, because hitherto all his apprentices had run away in the night, and when he came down in the morning the mill was at a stand. However, he liked the looks of the young chap and took him into his pay. But what the new apprentice heard about the mill and his predecessors was not encouraging; so the first night when it was his duty to watch in the mill he took care to provide himself with an axe and a prayer-book, and while he kept one eye on the whirring, humming wheels he kept the other on the good book, which he read by the flickering light of a candle set on a table. So the hours at first passed quietly with nothing to disturb him but the monotonous drone and click of the machinery. But on the stroke of twelve, as he was still reading with the axe lying on the table within reach, the door opened and in came two grey cats mewing, an old one and a young one. They sat down opposite him, but it was easy to see that they did not like his wakefulness and the prayer-book and the axe. Suddenly the old cat reached out a paw and made a grab at the axe, but the young chap was too quick for her and held it fast. Then the young cat tried to do the same for the prayer-book, but the apprentice gripped it tight. Thus balked, the two cats set up such a squalling that the young fellow could hardly say his prayers. Just before one o'clock the younger cat sprang on the table and fetched a blow with her right paw at the candle to put it out. But the apprentice struck at her with his axe and sliced the paw off, whereupon the two cats vanished with a frightful screech. The apprentice wrapped the paw up in paper to shew it to his master. Very glad the miller was next morning when he came down and found the mill going and the young chap at his post. The apprentice told him what had happened in the night and gave him the parcel containing the cat's paw. But when the miller opened it, what was the astonishment of the two to find in it no cat's paw but a woman's hand! At breakfast the miller's young wife did not as usual take her place at the table. She was ill in bed, and the doctor had to be called in to bind up her right arm, because in hewing wood, so they said, she had made a slip and cut off her own right hand. Butthe apprentice packed up his traps and turned his back on that mill before the sun had set.784
[The analogy of were-wolves confirms the view that the reason for burning bewitched animals is either to burn the witch or to compel her to appear.]
It would no doubt be easy to multiply instances, all equally well attested and authentic, of the transformation of witches into animals and of the damage which the women themselves have sustained through injuries inflicted on the animals.785But the foregoing evidence may suffice to establish the complete parallelism between witches and were-wolves in these respects. The analogy appears to confirm the view that the reason for burning a bewitched animal alive is a belief that the witch herself is in the animal, and that by burning it you either destroy the witch completely or at least unmask her and compel her to reassume her proper human shape, in which she is naturally far less potent for mischief than when she is careering about the country in the likeness of a cat, a hare, a horse, or what not. This principle is still indeed clearly recognized by people in Oldenburg, though, as might be expected, they do not now carry out the principle to its logical conclusion by burning the bewitched animal or person alive; instead they resort to a feeble and, it must be added, perfectly futile subterfuge dictated by a mistaken humanity or a fear of the police. "When anything living is bewitched in a house, for example, children or animals, they burn or boil the nobler inwards of animals, especially the hearts, but also the lungs or the liver. If animals have died, they take the inwards of one of them or of an animal of the same kind slaughtered for the purpose; but if that is not possible they take the inwards of a cock, by preference a black one. Theheart, lung, or liver is stuck all over with needles, or marked with a cross cut, or placed on the fire in a tightly closed vessel, strict silence being observed and doors and windows well shut. When the heart boils or is reduced to ashes, the witch must appear, for during the boiling she feels the burning pain. She either begs to be released or seeks to borrow something, for example, salt or a coal of fire, or she takes the lid off the pot, or tries to induce the person whose spell is on her to speak. They say, too, that a woman comes with a spinning-wheel. If it is a sheep that has died, you proceed in the same way with a tripe from its stomach and prick it with needles while it is on the boil. Instead of boiling it, some people nail the heart to the highest rafter of the house, or lay it on the edge of the hearth, in order that it may dry up, no doubt because the same thing happens to the witch. We may conjecture that other sympathetic means of destruction are employed against witchcraft. The following is expressly reported: the heart of a calf that has died is stuck all over with needles, enclosed in a bag, and thrown into flowing water before sunset."786
[There is the same reason for burning bewitched things; similarly by burning alive a person whose form a witch has assumed, you compel the witch to disclose herself.]
And the same thing holds good also of inanimate objects on which a witch has cast her spell. In Wales they say that "if a thing is bewitched, burn it, and immediately afterwards the witch will come to borrow something of you. If you give what she asks, she will go free; if you refuse it, she will burn, and a mark will be on her body the next day."787So, too, in Oldenburg, "the burning of things that are bewitched or that have been received from witches is another way of breaking the spell. It is often said that the burning should take place at a cross-road, and in several places cross-roads are shewn where the burning used to be performed.... As a rule, while the things are burning, the guilty witches appear, though not always in their own shape. At the burning of bewitched butter they often appear as cockchafers and can be killed with impunity. Victuals received from witches may be safely consumed if only youfirst burn a portion of them."788For example, a young man in Oldenburg was wooing a girl, and she gave him two fine apples as a gift. Not feeling any appetite at the time, he put the apples in his pocket, and when he came home he laid them by in a chest. Two or three days afterwards he remembered the apples and went to the chest to fetch them. But when he would have put his hand on them, what was his horror to find in their stead two fat ugly toads in the chest. He hastened to a wise man and asked him what he should do with the toads. The man told him to boil the toads alive, but while he was doing so he must be sure on no account to lend anything out of the house. Well, just as he had the toads in a pot on the fire and the water began to grow nicely warm, who should come to the door but the girl who had given him the apples, and she wished to borrow something; but he refused to give her anything, rated her as a witch, and drove her out of the house. A little afterwards in came the girl's mother and begged with tears in her eyes for something or other; but he turned her out also. The last word she said to him was that he should at least spare her daughter's life; but he paid no heed to her and let the toads boil till they fell to bits. Next day word came that the girl was dead.789Can any reasonable man doubt that the witch herself was boiled alive in the person of the toads?
[The burning alive of a supposed witch in Ireland in 1895.]
Moreover, just as a witch can assume the form of an animal, so she can assume the form of some other human being, and the likeness is sometimes so good that it is difficult to detect the fraud. However, by burning alive the person whose shape the witch has put on, you force the witch to disclose herself, just as by burning alive the bewitched animal you in like manner oblige the witch to appear. This principle may perhaps be unknown to science, falsely so called, but it is well understood in Ireland and has been acted on within recent years. In March 1895 a peasant named Michael Cleary, residing at Ballyvadlea, a remote and lonely district in the county of Tipperary, burned his wifeBridget Cleary alive over a slow fire on the kitchen hearth in the presence of and with the active assistance of some neighbours, including the woman's own father and several of her cousins. They thought that she was not Bridget Cleary at all, but a witch, and that when they held her down on the fire she would vanish up the chimney; so they cried, while she was burning, "Away she goes! Away she goes!" Even when she lay quite dead on the kitchen floor (for contrary to the general expectation she did not disappear up the chimney), her husband still believed that the woman lying there was a witch, and that his own dear wife had gone with the fairies to the oldrathor fort on the hill of Kylenagranagh, where he would see her at night riding a grey horse and roped to the saddle, and that he would cut the ropes, and that she would stay with him ever afterwards. So he went with some friends to the fort night after night, taking a big table-knife with him to cut the ropes. But he never saw his wife again. He and the men who had held the woman on the fire were arrested and tried at Clonmel for wilful murder in July 1895; they were all found guilty of manslaughter and sentenced to various terms of penal servitude and imprisonment; the sentence passed on Michael Cleary was twenty years' penal servitude.790
[Sometimes bewitched animals are buried alive instead of being burned.]
However, our British peasants, it must be confessed, have not always acted up to the strict logical theory which seems to call for death by fire as the proper treatment both of bewitched animals and of witches. Sometimes, perhaps in moments of weakness, they have merely buried the bewitched animals alive instead of burning them. For example, in the year 1643, "many cattle having died, John Brughe and Neane Nikclerith, also one of the initiated, conjoined their mutual skill for the safety of the herd. The surviving animals were drove past a tub of water containing two enchanted stones: and each was sprinkled from the liquid contents in its course. One, however, being unable to walk, 'was by force drawin out at the byre dure;and the said Johnne with Nikclerith smelling the nois thereof said it wald not leive, caused are hoill to be maid in Maw Greane, quhilk was put quick in the hole and maid all the rest of the cattell theireftir to go over that place: and in that devillische maner, be charmeing,' they were cured."791Again, during the prevalence of a murrain about the year 1629, certain persons proposed to stay the plague with the help of a celebrated "cureing stane" of which the laird of Lee was the fortunate owner. But from this they were dissuaded by one who "had sene bestiall curet be taking are quik seik ox, and making are deip pitt, and bureing him therin, and be calling the oxin and bestiall over that place." Indeed Issobell Young, the mother of these persons, had herself endeavoured to check the progress of the distemper by taking "ane quik ox with ane catt, and ane grit quantitie of salt," and proceeding "to burie the ox and catt quik with the salt, in ane deip hoill in the grund, as ane sacrifice to the devill, that the rest of the guidis might be fred of the seiknes or diseases."792Writing towards the end of the eighteenth century, John Ramsay of Ochtertyre tells us that "the violent death even of a brute is in some cases held to be of great avail. There is a disease called theblack spauld, which sometimes rages like a pestilence among black cattle, the symptoms of which are a mortification in the legs and a corruption of the mass of blood. Among the other engines of superstition that are directed against this fatal malady, the first cow seized with it is commonly buried alive, and the other cattle are forced to pass backwards and forwards over the pit. At other times the heart is taken out of the beast alive, and then the carcass is buried. It is remarkable that the leg affected is cut off, and hung up in some part of the house or byre, where it remains suspended, notwithstanding the seeming danger of infection. There is hardly a house in Mull where these may not be seen. This practice seems to have taken its rise antecedent to Christianity, as it reminds us of the pagan custom ofhanging up offerings in their temples. In Breadalbane, when a cow is observed to have symptoms of madness, there is recourse had to a peculiar process. They tie the legs of the mad creature, and throw her into a pit dug at the door of the fold. After covering the hole with earth, a large fire is kindled upon it; and the rest of the cattle are driven out, and forced to pass through the fire one by one."793In this latter custom we may suspect that the fire kindled on the grave of the buried cow was originally made by the friction of wood, in other words, that it was a need-fire. Again, writing in the year 1862, Sir Arthur Mitchell tells us that "for the cure of the murrain in cattle, one of the herd is still sacrificed for the good of the whole. This is done by burying it alive. I am assured that within the last ten years such a barbarism occurred in the county of Moray."794
[Calves killed and buried to save the rest of the herd.]
Sometimes, however, the animal has not even been buried alive, it has been merely killed and then buried. In this emasculated form the sacrifice, we may say with confidence, is absolutely useless for the purpose of stopping a murrain. Nevertheless, it has been tried. Thus in Lincolnshire, when the cattle plague was so prevalent in 1866, there was, I believe, not a single cowshed in Marshland but had its wicken cross over the door; and other charms more powerful than this were in some cases resorted to. I never heard of the use of the needfire in the Marsh, though it was, I believe, used on the wolds not many miles off. But I knew of at least one case in which a calf was killed and solemnly buried feet pointing upwards at the threshold of the cowshed. When our garthman told me of this, I pointed out to him that the charm had failed, for the disease had not spared that shed. But he promptly replied, "Yis, but owd Edwards were a soight too cliver; he were that mean he slew nobbutt a wankling cauf as were bound to deny anny road; if he had nobbutt tekken his best cauf it wud hev worked reight enuff; 'tain'tin reason that owd skrat 'ud be hanselled wi' wankling draffle."795
Notes:
Footnote 262:(return)See Jacob Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4(Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 502, 510, 516.
See Jacob Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4(Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 502, 510, 516.
Footnote 263:(return)W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme(Berlin, 1875), pp. 518sq.
W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme(Berlin, 1875), pp. 518sq.
Footnote 264:(return)In the following survey of these fire-customs I follow chiefly W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, kap. vi. pp. 497sqq.Compare also J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 500sqq.; Walter E. Kelly,Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore(London, 1863), pp. 46sqq.; F. Vogt, "Scheibentreiben und Frühlingsfeuer,"Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, iii. (1893) pp. 349-369;ibid.iv. (1894) pp. 195-197.
In the following survey of these fire-customs I follow chiefly W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, kap. vi. pp. 497sqq.Compare also J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 500sqq.; Walter E. Kelly,Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore(London, 1863), pp. 46sqq.; F. Vogt, "Scheibentreiben und Frühlingsfeuer,"Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, iii. (1893) pp. 349-369;ibid.iv. (1894) pp. 195-197.
Footnote 265:(return)The Scapegoat, pp. 316sqq.
The Scapegoat, pp. 316sqq.
Footnote 266:(return)The first Sunday in Lent is known asInvocavitfrom the first word of the mass for the day (O. Frh. von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, p. 67).
The first Sunday in Lent is known asInvocavitfrom the first word of the mass for the day (O. Frh. von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, p. 67).
Footnote 267:(return)Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,Calendrier Belge(Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 141-143; E. Monseur,Le Folklore Wallon(Brussels, N.D.), pp. 124sq.
Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,Calendrier Belge(Brussels, 1861-1862), i. 141-143; E. Monseur,Le Folklore Wallon(Brussels, N.D.), pp. 124sq.
Footnote 268:(return)Émile Hublard,Fêtes du Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême(Mons, 1899), pp. 25. For the loan of this work I am indebted to Mrs. Wherry of St. Peter's Terrace, Cambridge.
Émile Hublard,Fêtes du Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême(Mons, 1899), pp. 25. For the loan of this work I am indebted to Mrs. Wherry of St. Peter's Terrace, Cambridge.
Footnote 269:(return)É. Hublard,op. cit.pp. 27sq.
É. Hublard,op. cit.pp. 27sq.
Footnote 270:(return)A. Meyrac,Traditions, coutumes, légendes et contes des Ardennes(Charleville, 1890), p. 68.
A. Meyrac,Traditions, coutumes, légendes et contes des Ardennes(Charleville, 1890), p. 68.
Footnote 271:(return)L.F. Sauvé,Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges(Paris, 1889), p. 56. The popular name for the bonfires in the Upper Vosges (Hautes-Vosges) ischavandes.
L.F. Sauvé,Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges(Paris, 1889), p. 56. The popular name for the bonfires in the Upper Vosges (Hautes-Vosges) ischavandes.
Footnote 272:(return)E. Cortet,Essai sur les fêtes religieuses(Paris, 1867), pp. 101sq.The local name for these bonfires isbures.
E. Cortet,Essai sur les fêtes religieuses(Paris, 1867), pp. 101sq.The local name for these bonfires isbures.
Footnote 273:(return)Charles Beauquier,Les mois en Franche-Comté(Paris, 1900), pp. 33sq.In Bresse the custom was similar. SeeLa Bresse Louhannaise, Bulletin Mensuel, Organe de la Société d'Agriculture et d'Horticulture de l'Arrondissement de Louhans, Mars, 1906, pp. 111sq.; E. Cortet,op. cit.p. 100. The usual name for the bonfires ischevannesorschvannes; but in some places they are calledfoulères, foualères, failles, orbourdifailles(Ch. Beauquier,op. cit.p. 34). But the Sunday is called the Sunday of thebrandons, bures, bordes, orboidès, according to the place. Thebrandonsare the torches which are carried about the streets and the fields; the bonfires, as we have seen, bear another name. A curious custom, observed on the same Sunday in Franche-Comté, requires that couples married within the year should distribute boiled peas to all the young folks of both sexes who demand them at the door. The lads and lasses go about from house to house, making the customary request; in some places they wear masks or are otherwise disguised. See Ch. Beauquier,op. cit.pp. 31-33.
Charles Beauquier,Les mois en Franche-Comté(Paris, 1900), pp. 33sq.In Bresse the custom was similar. SeeLa Bresse Louhannaise, Bulletin Mensuel, Organe de la Société d'Agriculture et d'Horticulture de l'Arrondissement de Louhans, Mars, 1906, pp. 111sq.; E. Cortet,op. cit.p. 100. The usual name for the bonfires ischevannesorschvannes; but in some places they are calledfoulères, foualères, failles, orbourdifailles(Ch. Beauquier,op. cit.p. 34). But the Sunday is called the Sunday of thebrandons, bures, bordes, orboidès, according to the place. Thebrandonsare the torches which are carried about the streets and the fields; the bonfires, as we have seen, bear another name. A curious custom, observed on the same Sunday in Franche-Comté, requires that couples married within the year should distribute boiled peas to all the young folks of both sexes who demand them at the door. The lads and lasses go about from house to house, making the customary request; in some places they wear masks or are otherwise disguised. See Ch. Beauquier,op. cit.pp. 31-33.
Footnote 274:(return)Curiously enough, while the singular isgranno-mio, the plural isgrannas-mias.
Curiously enough, while the singular isgranno-mio, the plural isgrannas-mias.
Footnote 275:(return)Dr. Pommerol, "La fête des Brandons et le dieu Gaulois Grannus,"Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, v. Série, ii. (1901) pp. 427-429.
Dr. Pommerol, "La fête des Brandons et le dieu Gaulois Grannus,"Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, v. Série, ii. (1901) pp. 427-429.
Footnote 276:(return)Op. cit.pp. 428sq.
Op. cit.pp. 428sq.
Footnote 277:(return)H. Dessau,Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, vol. ii. Pars i. (Berlin, 1902) pp. 216sq., Nos. 4646-4652.
H. Dessau,Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, vol. ii. Pars i. (Berlin, 1902) pp. 216sq., Nos. 4646-4652.
Footnote 278:(return)(Sir) John Rhys,Celtic Heathendom(London, 1888), pp. 22-25.
(Sir) John Rhys,Celtic Heathendom(London, 1888), pp. 22-25.
Footnote 279:(return)Émile Hublard,Fêtes du Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême(Mons, 1899), p. 38, quoting Dom Grenier,Histoire de la Province de Picardie.
Émile Hublard,Fêtes du Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême(Mons, 1899), p. 38, quoting Dom Grenier,Histoire de la Province de Picardie.
Footnote 280:(return)É. Hublard,op. cit.p. 39, quoting Dom Grenier.
É. Hublard,op. cit.p. 39, quoting Dom Grenier.
Footnote 281:(return)M. Desgranges, "Usages du Canton de Bonneval,"Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, i. (Paris, 1817) pp. 236-238; Felix Chapiseau,Le folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche(Paris, 1902), i. 315sq.
M. Desgranges, "Usages du Canton de Bonneval,"Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, i. (Paris, 1817) pp. 236-238; Felix Chapiseau,Le folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche(Paris, 1902), i. 315sq.
Footnote 282:(return)John Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 100.
John Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 100.
Footnote 283:(return)E. Cortet,Essai sur les fêtes religieuses(Paris, 1867), pp. 99sq.; La Bresse Louhannaise, Mars, 1906, p. 111.
E. Cortet,Essai sur les fêtes religieuses(Paris, 1867), pp. 99sq.; La Bresse Louhannaise, Mars, 1906, p. 111.
Footnote 284:(return)A. de Nore,Coutumes, mythes et traditions des provinces de France(Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 283sq.A similar, though not identical, custom prevailed at Valenciennes (ibid.p. 338).
A. de Nore,Coutumes, mythes et traditions des provinces de France(Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 283sq.A similar, though not identical, custom prevailed at Valenciennes (ibid.p. 338).
Footnote 285:(return)A. de Nore,op. cit.p. 302.
A. de Nore,op. cit.p. 302.
Footnote 286:(return)Désiré Monnier,Traditions populaires comparées(Paris, 1854), pp. 191sq.
Désiré Monnier,Traditions populaires comparées(Paris, 1854), pp. 191sq.
Footnote 287:(return)Laisnel de la Salle,Croyances et légendes du centre de la France(Paris, 1875). i. 35sqq.
Laisnel de la Salle,Croyances et légendes du centre de la France(Paris, 1875). i. 35sqq.
Footnote 288:(return)Jules Lecoeur,Esquisses du Rocage Normand(Condé-sur-Noireau, 1887), ii. 131sq.For more evidence of customs of this sort observed in various parts of France on the first Sunday in Lent, see Madame Clément,Histoire des Fêtes civiles et religieuses, etc.,du Département du Nord,2(Cambrai, 1836), pp. 351sqq.; Émile Hublard,Fêtes du Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême(Mons, 1899), pp. 33sqq.
Jules Lecoeur,Esquisses du Rocage Normand(Condé-sur-Noireau, 1887), ii. 131sq.For more evidence of customs of this sort observed in various parts of France on the first Sunday in Lent, see Madame Clément,Histoire des Fêtes civiles et religieuses, etc.,du Département du Nord,2(Cambrai, 1836), pp. 351sqq.; Émile Hublard,Fêtes du Temps Jadis, les Feux du Carême(Mons, 1899), pp. 33sqq.
Footnote 289:(return)J.H. Schmitz,Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes(Trèves, 1856-1858), i. 21-25; N. Hocker, inZeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde, i. (1853) p. 90; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme(Berlin, 1875), p. 501.
J.H. Schmitz,Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes(Trèves, 1856-1858), i. 21-25; N. Hocker, inZeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde, i. (1853) p. 90; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme(Berlin, 1875), p. 501.
Footnote 290:(return)N. Hocker,op. cit.pp. 89sq.; W. Mannhardt,l.c.
N. Hocker,op. cit.pp. 89sq.; W. Mannhardt,l.c.
Footnote 291:(return)F.J. Vonbun,Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie(Chur, 1862), p. 20; W. Mannhardt,l.c.
F.J. Vonbun,Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie(Chur, 1862), p. 20; W. Mannhardt,l.c.
Footnote 292:(return)Ernst Meier,Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 380sqq.; Anton Birlinger,Volksthümliches aus Schwaben(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 56sqq., 66sqq.;Bavaria, Landes-und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern(Munich, 1860-1867), ii. 2, pp. 838sq.; F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), i. 211, § 232; W. Mannhardt,l.c.One of the popular German names for the first Sunday in Lent is White Sunday, which is not to be confused with the first Sunday after Easter, which also goes by the name of White Sunday (E. Meier,op. cit.p. 380; A. Birlinger,op. cit.ii. 56).
Ernst Meier,Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 380sqq.; Anton Birlinger,Volksthümliches aus Schwaben(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 56sqq., 66sqq.;Bavaria, Landes-und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern(Munich, 1860-1867), ii. 2, pp. 838sq.; F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), i. 211, § 232; W. Mannhardt,l.c.One of the popular German names for the first Sunday in Lent is White Sunday, which is not to be confused with the first Sunday after Easter, which also goes by the name of White Sunday (E. Meier,op. cit.p. 380; A. Birlinger,op. cit.ii. 56).
Footnote 293:(return)H. Gaidoz, "Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,"Revue Archéologique, iii. série, iv. (1884) pp. 139sq.
H. Gaidoz, "Le dieu gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,"Revue Archéologique, iii. série, iv. (1884) pp. 139sq.
Footnote 294:(return)August Witzschel,Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen(Vienna, 1878), p. 189; F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 207; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus,pp. 500sq.
August Witzschel,Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen(Vienna, 1878), p. 189; F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 207; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus,pp. 500sq.
Footnote 295:(return)W. Kolbe,Hessiche Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche,2(Marburg, 1888), p. 36.
W. Kolbe,Hessiche Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche,2(Marburg, 1888), p. 36.
Footnote 296:(return)Adalbert Kuhn,Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks,2(Gütersloh, 1886), p. 86, quoting Hocker,Des Mosellandes Geschichten, Sagen und Legenden(Trier, 1852), pp. 415sqq.Compare W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 501; and below, pp. 163sq.Thus it appears that the ceremony of rolling the fiery wheel down hill was observed twice a year at Konz, once on the first Sunday in Lent, and once at Midsummer.
Adalbert Kuhn,Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks,2(Gütersloh, 1886), p. 86, quoting Hocker,Des Mosellandes Geschichten, Sagen und Legenden(Trier, 1852), pp. 415sqq.Compare W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 501; and below, pp. 163sq.Thus it appears that the ceremony of rolling the fiery wheel down hill was observed twice a year at Konz, once on the first Sunday in Lent, and once at Midsummer.
Footnote 297:(return)H. Herzog,Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche(Aarau, 1884), pp. 214-216; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, "Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen Volksbrauch,"Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde, xi. (1907) pp. 247-249;id., Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes(Zurich, 1913), pp. 135sq.
H. Herzog,Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche(Aarau, 1884), pp. 214-216; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, "Fruchtbarkeitsriten im schweizerischen Volksbrauch,"Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde, xi. (1907) pp. 247-249;id., Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes(Zurich, 1913), pp. 135sq.
Footnote 298:(return)Theodor Vernaleken,Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich(Vienna, 1859), pp. 293sq.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 498. SeeThe Dying God, p. 239.
Theodor Vernaleken,Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich(Vienna, 1859), pp. 293sq.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 498. SeeThe Dying God, p. 239.
Footnote 299:(return)J. H. Schmitz,Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes(Treves, 1856-1858), i. 20; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 499.
J. H. Schmitz,Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des Eifler Volkes(Treves, 1856-1858), i. 20; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 499.
Footnote 300:(return)L. Strackerjan,Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 39, § 306; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 498.
L. Strackerjan,Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 39, § 306; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 498.
Footnote 301:(return)W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 499.
W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 499.
Footnote 302:(return)W. Mannhardt,op. cit.pp. 498sq.
W. Mannhardt,op. cit.pp. 498sq.
Footnote 303:(return)W. Mannhardt,op. cit.p. 499.
W. Mannhardt,op. cit.p. 499.
Footnote 304:(return)Christian Schneller,Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol(Innsbruck, 1867), pp. 234sq.; W. Mannhardt,op. cit.pp. 499sq.
Christian Schneller,Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol(Innsbruck, 1867), pp. 234sq.; W. Mannhardt,op. cit.pp. 499sq.
Footnote 305:(return)John Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 157sq.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, pp. 502-505; Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting,Aus dem Lechrain(Munich, 1855), pp. 172sq.; Anton Birlinger,Volksthümliches aus Schwaben(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 472sq.; Montanus,Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube(Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 26; F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 241sq.; Ernst Meier,Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 139sq.;Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern(Munich, 1860-1867), i. 371; A. Wuttke,Der deutsche Volksaberglaube,2(Berlin, 1869), pp. 68sq., § 81; Ignaz V. Zingerle,Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes,2(Innsbruck, 1871), p. 149, §§ 1286-1289; W. Kolbe,Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche,2(Marburg, 1888), pp. 44sqq.;County Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, Leicestershire and Rutland, collected by C.J. Billson (London, 1895), pp. 75sq.; A. Tiraboschi, "Usi pasquali nel Bergamasco,"Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizione Popolari, i. (1892) pp. 442sq.The ecclesiastical custom of lighting the Paschal or Easter candle is very fully described by Mr. H.J. Feasey,Ancient English Holy Week Ceremonial(London, 1897), pp. 179sqq.These candles were sometimes of prodigious size; in the cathedrals of Norwich and Durham, for example, they reached almost to the roof, from which they had to be lighted. Often they went by the name of the Judas Light or the Judas Candle; and sometimes small waxen figures of Judas were hung on them. See H.J. Feasey,op. cit.pp. 193, 213sqq.As to the ritual of the new fire at St. Peter's in Rome, see R. Chambers,The Book of Days(London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 421; and as to the early history of the rite in the Catholic church, see Mgr. L. Duchesne,Origines du Culte Chrétien,3(Paris, 1903), pp. 250-257.]
John Brand,Popular Antiquities of Great Britain(London, 1882-1883), i. 157sq.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, pp. 502-505; Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting,Aus dem Lechrain(Munich, 1855), pp. 172sq.; Anton Birlinger,Volksthümliches aus Schwaben(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), i. 472sq.; Montanus,Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube(Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 26; F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 241sq.; Ernst Meier,Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 139sq.;Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern(Munich, 1860-1867), i. 371; A. Wuttke,Der deutsche Volksaberglaube,2(Berlin, 1869), pp. 68sq., § 81; Ignaz V. Zingerle,Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes,2(Innsbruck, 1871), p. 149, §§ 1286-1289; W. Kolbe,Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche,2(Marburg, 1888), pp. 44sqq.;County Folk-lore, Printed Extracts, Leicestershire and Rutland, collected by C.J. Billson (London, 1895), pp. 75sq.; A. Tiraboschi, "Usi pasquali nel Bergamasco,"Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizione Popolari, i. (1892) pp. 442sq.The ecclesiastical custom of lighting the Paschal or Easter candle is very fully described by Mr. H.J. Feasey,Ancient English Holy Week Ceremonial(London, 1897), pp. 179sqq.These candles were sometimes of prodigious size; in the cathedrals of Norwich and Durham, for example, they reached almost to the roof, from which they had to be lighted. Often they went by the name of the Judas Light or the Judas Candle; and sometimes small waxen figures of Judas were hung on them. See H.J. Feasey,op. cit.pp. 193, 213sqq.As to the ritual of the new fire at St. Peter's in Rome, see R. Chambers,The Book of Days(London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 421; and as to the early history of the rite in the Catholic church, see Mgr. L. Duchesne,Origines du Culte Chrétien,3(Paris, 1903), pp. 250-257.]
Footnote 306:(return)Bavaria, Landes und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern(Munich, 1860-1867), i. 1002sq.
Bavaria, Landes und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern(Munich, 1860-1867), i. 1002sq.
Footnote 307:(return)Gennaro Finamore,Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi(Palermo, 1890), pp. 122sq.
Gennaro Finamore,Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi(Palermo, 1890), pp. 122sq.
Footnote 308:(return)G. Finamore,op. cit.pp. 123sq.
G. Finamore,op. cit.pp. 123sq.
Footnote 309:(return)Vincenzo Dorsa,La Tradizione Greco-Latina negli Usi e nelle Credenze Popolari della Calabria Citeriore(Cosenza, 1884), pp. 48sq.
Vincenzo Dorsa,La Tradizione Greco-Latina negli Usi e nelle Credenze Popolari della Calabria Citeriore(Cosenza, 1884), pp. 48sq.
Footnote 310:(return)Alois John,Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen(Prague, 1905), pp. 62sq.
Alois John,Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen(Prague, 1905), pp. 62sq.
Footnote 311:(return)K. Seifart,Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aits Stadt und Stift Hildesheim,2(Hildesheim, 1889), pp. 177sq., 179sq.
K. Seifart,Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aits Stadt und Stift Hildesheim,2(Hildesheim, 1889), pp. 177sq., 179sq.
Footnote 312:(return)M. Lexer, "Volksüberlieferungen aus dem Lesachthal in Karnten,"Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde, iii. (1855) p. 31.
M. Lexer, "Volksüberlieferungen aus dem Lesachthal in Karnten,"Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde, iii. (1855) p. 31.
Footnote 313:(return)The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe, 1570, edited by R.C. Hope (London, 1880), p. 52,recto.The title of the original poem wasRegnum Papisticum. The author, Thomas Kirchmeyer (Naogeorgus, as he called himself), died in 1577. The book is a satire on the abuses and superstitions of the Catholic Church. Only one perfect copy of Googe's translation is known to exist: it is in the University Library at Cambridge. See Mr. R.C. Hope's introduction to his reprint of this rare work, pp. xv.sq.The words, "Then Clappers ceasse, and belles are set againe at libertée," refer to the custom in Catholic countries of silencing the church bells for two days from noon on Maundy Thursday to noon on Easter Saturday and substituting for their music the harsh clatter of wooden rattles. See R. Chambers,The Book of Days(London and Edinburgh, 1886), i, 412sq.According to another account the church bells are silent from midnight on the Wednesday preceding Maundy Thursday till matins on Easter Day. See W. Smith and S. Cheetham,Dictionary of Christian Antiquities(London, 1875-1880), ii. 1161, referring toOrdo Roman. i.u.s.
The Popish Kingdome or reigne of Antichrist, written in Latin verse by Thomas Naogeorgus and Englyshed by Barnabe Googe, 1570, edited by R.C. Hope (London, 1880), p. 52,recto.The title of the original poem wasRegnum Papisticum. The author, Thomas Kirchmeyer (Naogeorgus, as he called himself), died in 1577. The book is a satire on the abuses and superstitions of the Catholic Church. Only one perfect copy of Googe's translation is known to exist: it is in the University Library at Cambridge. See Mr. R.C. Hope's introduction to his reprint of this rare work, pp. xv.sq.The words, "Then Clappers ceasse, and belles are set againe at libertée," refer to the custom in Catholic countries of silencing the church bells for two days from noon on Maundy Thursday to noon on Easter Saturday and substituting for their music the harsh clatter of wooden rattles. See R. Chambers,The Book of Days(London and Edinburgh, 1886), i, 412sq.According to another account the church bells are silent from midnight on the Wednesday preceding Maundy Thursday till matins on Easter Day. See W. Smith and S. Cheetham,Dictionary of Christian Antiquities(London, 1875-1880), ii. 1161, referring toOrdo Roman. i.u.s.
Footnote 314:(return)R. Chambers,The Book of Days(London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 421.
R. Chambers,The Book of Days(London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 421.
Footnote 315:(return)Miss Jessie L. Weston, "TheScoppio del Carroat Florence,"Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 182-184; "Lo Scoppio del Carro,"Resurrezione, Numero Unico del Sabato Santo(Florence, April, 1906), p. 1 (giving a picture of the car with its pyramid of fire-works). The latter paper was kindly sent to me from Florence by my friend Professor W.J. Lewis. I have also received a letter on the subject from Signor Carlo Placci, dated 4 (or 7) September, 1905, 1 Via Alfieri, Firenze.
Miss Jessie L. Weston, "TheScoppio del Carroat Florence,"Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) pp. 182-184; "Lo Scoppio del Carro,"Resurrezione, Numero Unico del Sabato Santo(Florence, April, 1906), p. 1 (giving a picture of the car with its pyramid of fire-works). The latter paper was kindly sent to me from Florence by my friend Professor W.J. Lewis. I have also received a letter on the subject from Signor Carlo Placci, dated 4 (or 7) September, 1905, 1 Via Alfieri, Firenze.
Footnote 316:(return)Frederick Starr, "Holy Week in Mexico,"The Journal of American Folk-lore, xii. (1899) pp. 164sq.; C. Boyson Taylor, "Easter in Many Lands,"Everybody's Magazine, New York, 1903, p. 293. I have to thank Mr. S.S. Cohen, of 1525 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, for sending me a cutting from the latter magazine.
Frederick Starr, "Holy Week in Mexico,"The Journal of American Folk-lore, xii. (1899) pp. 164sq.; C. Boyson Taylor, "Easter in Many Lands,"Everybody's Magazine, New York, 1903, p. 293. I have to thank Mr. S.S. Cohen, of 1525 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, for sending me a cutting from the latter magazine.
Footnote 317:(return)K. von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens(Berlin, 1894), pp. 458sq.; E. Montet, "Religion et Superstition dans l'Amérique du Sud,"Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, xxxii. (1895) p. 145.
K. von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens(Berlin, 1894), pp. 458sq.; E. Montet, "Religion et Superstition dans l'Amérique du Sud,"Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, xxxii. (1895) p. 145.
Footnote 318:(return)J.J. von Tschudi,Peru, Reiseskizzen aus den Jahren 1838-1842(St. Gallen, 1846), ii. 189sq.
J.J. von Tschudi,Peru, Reiseskizzen aus den Jahren 1838-1842(St. Gallen, 1846), ii. 189sq.
Footnote 319:(return)H. Candelier,Rio-Hacha et les Indiens Goajires(Paris, 1893), p. 85.
H. Candelier,Rio-Hacha et les Indiens Goajires(Paris, 1893), p. 85.
Footnote 320:(return)Henry Maundrell, "A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter, A.D. 1697," in Bohn'sEarly Travellers in Palestine(London, 1848), pp. 462-465; Mgr. Auvergne, inAnnales de la Propagation de la Foi, x. (1837) pp. 23sq.; A.P. Stanley,Sinai and Palestine, Second Edition (London, 1856), pp. 460-465; E. Cortet,Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses(Paris, 1867), pp. 137-139; A.W. Kinglake,Eothen, chapter xvi. pp. 158-163 (Temple Classics edition); Father N. Abougit, S.J., "Le feu du Saint-Sépulcre,"Les Missions Catholiques, viii. (1876) pp. 518sq.; Rev. C.T. Wilson,Peasant Life in the Holy Land(London, 1906), pp. 45sq.; P. Saint-yves, "Le Renouvellement du Feu Sacré,"Revue des Traditions Populaires, xxvii. (1912) pp. 449sqq.The distribution of the new fire in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is the subject of a picture by Holman Hunt. From some printed notes on the picture, with which Mrs. Holman Hunt was so kind as to furnish me, it appears that the new fire is carried by horsemen to Bethlehem and Jaffa, and that a Russian ship conveys it from Jaffa to Odessa, whence it is distributed all over the country.
Henry Maundrell, "A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter, A.D. 1697," in Bohn'sEarly Travellers in Palestine(London, 1848), pp. 462-465; Mgr. Auvergne, inAnnales de la Propagation de la Foi, x. (1837) pp. 23sq.; A.P. Stanley,Sinai and Palestine, Second Edition (London, 1856), pp. 460-465; E. Cortet,Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses(Paris, 1867), pp. 137-139; A.W. Kinglake,Eothen, chapter xvi. pp. 158-163 (Temple Classics edition); Father N. Abougit, S.J., "Le feu du Saint-Sépulcre,"Les Missions Catholiques, viii. (1876) pp. 518sq.; Rev. C.T. Wilson,Peasant Life in the Holy Land(London, 1906), pp. 45sq.; P. Saint-yves, "Le Renouvellement du Feu Sacré,"Revue des Traditions Populaires, xxvii. (1912) pp. 449sqq.The distribution of the new fire in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is the subject of a picture by Holman Hunt. From some printed notes on the picture, with which Mrs. Holman Hunt was so kind as to furnish me, it appears that the new fire is carried by horsemen to Bethlehem and Jaffa, and that a Russian ship conveys it from Jaffa to Odessa, whence it is distributed all over the country.
Footnote 321:(return)Father X. Abougit, S.J., "Le feu du Saint-Sépulcre,"Les Missions Catholiques, viii. (1876) pp. 165-168.
Father X. Abougit, S.J., "Le feu du Saint-Sépulcre,"Les Missions Catholiques, viii. (1876) pp. 165-168.
Footnote 322:(return)I have described the ceremony as I witnessed it at Athens, on April 13th, 1890. CompareFolk-lore, i. (1890) p. 275. Having been honoured, like other strangers, with a place on the platform, I did not myself detect Lucifer at work among the multitude below; I merely suspected his insidious presence.
I have described the ceremony as I witnessed it at Athens, on April 13th, 1890. CompareFolk-lore, i. (1890) p. 275. Having been honoured, like other strangers, with a place on the platform, I did not myself detect Lucifer at work among the multitude below; I merely suspected his insidious presence.
Footnote 323:(return)W.H.D. Rouse, "Folk-lore from the Southern Sporades,"Folk-lore, x. (1899) p. 178.
W.H.D. Rouse, "Folk-lore from the Southern Sporades,"Folk-lore, x. (1899) p. 178.
Footnote 324:(return)Mrs. A.E. Gardner was so kind as to send me a photograph of a Theban Judas dangling from a gallows and partially enveloped in smoke. The photograph was taken at Thebes during the Easter celebration of 1891.
Mrs. A.E. Gardner was so kind as to send me a photograph of a Theban Judas dangling from a gallows and partially enveloped in smoke. The photograph was taken at Thebes during the Easter celebration of 1891.
Footnote 325:(return)G.F. Abbott,Macedonian Folklore(Cambridge, 1903) p. 37.
G.F. Abbott,Macedonian Folklore(Cambridge, 1903) p. 37.
Footnote 326:(return)Cirbied, "Mémoire sur la gouvernment et sur la religion des anciens Arméniens,"Mémoires publiées par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, ii. (1820) pp. 285-287; Manuk Abeghian,Der armenische Volksglaube(Leipsic, 1899), pp. 72-74. The ceremony is said to be merely a continuation of an old heathen festival which was held at the beginning of spring in honour of the fire-god Mihr. A bonfire was made in a public place, and lamps kindled at it were kept burning throughout the year in each of the fire-god's temples.
Cirbied, "Mémoire sur la gouvernment et sur la religion des anciens Arméniens,"Mémoires publiées par la Société Royale des Antiquaires de France, ii. (1820) pp. 285-287; Manuk Abeghian,Der armenische Volksglaube(Leipsic, 1899), pp. 72-74. The ceremony is said to be merely a continuation of an old heathen festival which was held at the beginning of spring in honour of the fire-god Mihr. A bonfire was made in a public place, and lamps kindled at it were kept burning throughout the year in each of the fire-god's temples.
Footnote 327:(return)The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 32, ii. 243;Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 65, 74, 75, 78, 136.
The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 32, ii. 243;Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 65, 74, 75, 78, 136.
Footnote 328:(return)Garcilasso de la Vega,Royal Commentaries of the Yncastranslated by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871), vol. ii. pp. 155-163. Compare Juan de Velasco, "Histoire du Royaume de Quito," in H. Ternaux-Compans'sVoyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux pour servir à l'Histoire de la Découverte de l'Amérique, xviii. (Paris, 1840) p. 140.
Garcilasso de la Vega,Royal Commentaries of the Yncastranslated by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871), vol. ii. pp. 155-163. Compare Juan de Velasco, "Histoire du Royaume de Quito," in H. Ternaux-Compans'sVoyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux pour servir à l'Histoire de la Découverte de l'Amérique, xviii. (Paris, 1840) p. 140.
Footnote 329:(return)B. de Sahagun,Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), bk. ii. chapters 18 and 37, pp. 76, 161; Brasseur de Bourbourg,Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale(Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 136.
B. de Sahagun,Histoire Générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), bk. ii. chapters 18 and 37, pp. 76, 161; Brasseur de Bourbourg,Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale(Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 136.
Footnote 330:(return)Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, "The Zuñi Indians,"Twenty-third Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology(Washington, 1904), pp. 108-141, 148-162, especially pp. 108, 109, 114sq., 120sq., 130sq., 132, 148sq., 157sq.I have already described these ceremonies inTotemism and Exogamy, iii. 237sq.Among the Hopi (Moqui) Indians of Walpi, another pueblo village of this region, new fire is ceremonially kindled by friction in November. See Jesse Walter Fewkes, "The Tusayan New Fire Ceremony,"Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, xxvi. 422-458;id., "The Group of Tusayan Ceremonials calledKatcinas," Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology(Washington, 1897), p. 263;id., "HopiKatcinas," Twenty-first Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology(Washington, 1903), p. 24.
Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, "The Zuñi Indians,"Twenty-third Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology(Washington, 1904), pp. 108-141, 148-162, especially pp. 108, 109, 114sq., 120sq., 130sq., 132, 148sq., 157sq.I have already described these ceremonies inTotemism and Exogamy, iii. 237sq.Among the Hopi (Moqui) Indians of Walpi, another pueblo village of this region, new fire is ceremonially kindled by friction in November. See Jesse Walter Fewkes, "The Tusayan New Fire Ceremony,"Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, xxvi. 422-458;id., "The Group of Tusayan Ceremonials calledKatcinas," Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology(Washington, 1897), p. 263;id., "HopiKatcinas," Twenty-first Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology(Washington, 1903), p. 24.
Footnote 331:(return)Henry R. Schoolcraft,Notes on the Iroquois(Albany, 1847), p. 137. Schoolcraft did not know the date of the ceremony, but he conjectured that it fell at the end of the Iroquois year, which was a lunar year of twelve or thirteen months. He says: "That the close of the lunar series should have been the period of putting out the fire, and the beginning of the next, the time of relumination, from new fire, is so consonant to analogy in the tropical tribes, as to be probable" (op. cit.p. 138).
Henry R. Schoolcraft,Notes on the Iroquois(Albany, 1847), p. 137. Schoolcraft did not know the date of the ceremony, but he conjectured that it fell at the end of the Iroquois year, which was a lunar year of twelve or thirteen months. He says: "That the close of the lunar series should have been the period of putting out the fire, and the beginning of the next, the time of relumination, from new fire, is so consonant to analogy in the tropical tribes, as to be probable" (op. cit.p. 138).
Footnote 332:(return)C.F. Hall,Life with the Esquimaux(London, 1864), ii. 323.
C.F. Hall,Life with the Esquimaux(London, 1864), ii. 323.
Footnote 333:(return)Franz Boas, "The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,"Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural, History, xv. Part i. (New York, 1901) p. 151.
Franz Boas, "The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,"Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural, History, xv. Part i. (New York, 1901) p. 151.
Footnote 334:(return)G. Nachtigal,Saharâ und Sûdân, iii. (Leipsic, 1889) p. 251.
G. Nachtigal,Saharâ und Sûdân, iii. (Leipsic, 1889) p. 251.
Footnote 335:(return)Major C. Percival, "Tropical Africa, on the Border Line of Mohamedan Civilization,"The Geographical Journal, xlii. (1913) pp. 253sq.
Major C. Percival, "Tropical Africa, on the Border Line of Mohamedan Civilization,"The Geographical Journal, xlii. (1913) pp. 253sq.
Footnote 336:(return)Adrien Germain, "Note sur Zanzibar et la côte orientale de l'Afrique,"Bulletin de la Société de Géographie(Paris), v. Série xvi. (1868) p. 557;Les Missions Catholiques, iii. (1870) p. 270; Charles New,Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa(London, 1873), p. 65; Jerome Becker,La Vie en Afrique(Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 36; O. Baumann,Usambara und seine Nachbargebiele(Berlin, 1891), pp. 55sq.; C. Velten,Sitten und Gebräucheaer Suaheli(Göttingen,1903), pp. 342-344.
Adrien Germain, "Note sur Zanzibar et la côte orientale de l'Afrique,"Bulletin de la Société de Géographie(Paris), v. Série xvi. (1868) p. 557;Les Missions Catholiques, iii. (1870) p. 270; Charles New,Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa(London, 1873), p. 65; Jerome Becker,La Vie en Afrique(Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 36; O. Baumann,Usambara und seine Nachbargebiele(Berlin, 1891), pp. 55sq.; C. Velten,Sitten und Gebräucheaer Suaheli(Göttingen,1903), pp. 342-344.
Footnote 337:(return)Duarte Barbosa,Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar(Hakluyt Society, London, 1866), p. 8;id., inRecords of South-Eastern Africa, collected by G. McCall Theal, vol. i. (1898) p. 96; Damião de Goes, "Chronicle of the Most Fortunate King Dom Emanuel," inRecords of South-Eastern Africa, collected by G. McCall Theal, vol. iii. (1899) pp. 130sq.The name Benametapa (more correctlymonomotapa) appears to have been the regular title of the paramount chief, which the Portuguese took to be the name of the country. The people over whom he ruled seem to have been the Bantu tribe of the Makalanga in the neighbourhood of Sofala. See G. McCall Theal,Records of South-Eastern Africa, vii. (1901) pp. 481-484. It is to their custom of annually extinguishing and relighting the fire that Montaigne refers in his essay (i. 22, vol. i. p. 140 of Charpentier's edition), though he mentions no names.
Duarte Barbosa,Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar(Hakluyt Society, London, 1866), p. 8;id., inRecords of South-Eastern Africa, collected by G. McCall Theal, vol. i. (1898) p. 96; Damião de Goes, "Chronicle of the Most Fortunate King Dom Emanuel," inRecords of South-Eastern Africa, collected by G. McCall Theal, vol. iii. (1899) pp. 130sq.The name Benametapa (more correctlymonomotapa) appears to have been the regular title of the paramount chief, which the Portuguese took to be the name of the country. The people over whom he ruled seem to have been the Bantu tribe of the Makalanga in the neighbourhood of Sofala. See G. McCall Theal,Records of South-Eastern Africa, vii. (1901) pp. 481-484. It is to their custom of annually extinguishing and relighting the fire that Montaigne refers in his essay (i. 22, vol. i. p. 140 of Charpentier's edition), though he mentions no names.
Footnote 338:(return)Sir H.H. Johnson,British Central Africa(London, 1897), pp. 426, 439.
Sir H.H. Johnson,British Central Africa(London, 1897), pp. 426, 439.
Footnote 339:(return)W.H.R. Rivers,The Todas(London, 1906), pp. 290-292.
W.H.R. Rivers,The Todas(London, 1906), pp. 290-292.
Footnote 340:(return)Lieut. R. Stewart, "Notes on Northern Cachar,"Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengalxxiv. (1855) p. 612.
Lieut. R. Stewart, "Notes on Northern Cachar,"Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengalxxiv. (1855) p. 612.
Footnote 341:(return)A. Bastian,Die Völker des östlichen Asien, ii. (Leipsic, 1866) pp. 49sq.; Shway Yoe,The Burman(London, 1882), ii. 325sq.
A. Bastian,Die Völker des östlichen Asien, ii. (Leipsic, 1866) pp. 49sq.; Shway Yoe,The Burman(London, 1882), ii. 325sq.
Footnote 342:(return)G. Schlegel,Uranographie Chinoise(The Hague and Leyden, 1875), pp. 139-143; C. Puini, "Il fuoco nella tradizione degli antichi Cinesi,"Giornale della Società Asiatica Italiana, i. (1887) pp. 20-23; J.J.M. de Groot,Les Fétes annuellement célébrées à Émoui (Amoy)(Paris, 1886), i. 208sqq.The notion that fire can be worn out with age meets us also in Brahman ritual. See theSatapatha Brahmana, translated by Julius Eggeling, Part i. (Oxford, 1882) p. 230 (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii.).
G. Schlegel,Uranographie Chinoise(The Hague and Leyden, 1875), pp. 139-143; C. Puini, "Il fuoco nella tradizione degli antichi Cinesi,"Giornale della Società Asiatica Italiana, i. (1887) pp. 20-23; J.J.M. de Groot,Les Fétes annuellement célébrées à Émoui (Amoy)(Paris, 1886), i. 208sqq.The notion that fire can be worn out with age meets us also in Brahman ritual. See theSatapatha Brahmana, translated by Julius Eggeling, Part i. (Oxford, 1882) p. 230 (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii.).
Footnote 343:(return)W.G. Aston,Shinto, The Way of the Gods(London, 1905), pp. 258sq., compare p. 193. The wands in question are sticks whittled near the top into a mass of adherent shavings; they go by the name ofkedzurikake("part-shaved"), and resemble the sacredinaoof the Aino. See W.G. Aston,op. cit.p. 191; and as to theinao, seeSpirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 185, with note 2.
W.G. Aston,Shinto, The Way of the Gods(London, 1905), pp. 258sq., compare p. 193. The wands in question are sticks whittled near the top into a mass of adherent shavings; they go by the name ofkedzurikake("part-shaved"), and resemble the sacredinaoof the Aino. See W.G. Aston,op. cit.p. 191; and as to theinao, seeSpirits of the Corn and of the Wild, ii. 185, with note 2.
Footnote 344:(return)Ovid,Fasti, iii. 82; Homer,Iliad, i. 590,sqq.
Ovid,Fasti, iii. 82; Homer,Iliad, i. 590,sqq.
Footnote 345:(return)Philostiatus,Heroica, xx. 24.
Philostiatus,Heroica, xx. 24.
Footnote 346:(return)Ovid,Fasti, iii. 143sq.; Macrobius,Saturn, i. 12. 6.
Ovid,Fasti, iii. 143sq.; Macrobius,Saturn, i. 12. 6.
Footnote 347:(return)Festus, ed. C.O. Müller (Leipsic, 1839), p. 106,s.v."Ignis." Plutarch describes a method of rekindling the sacred fire by means of the sun's rays reflected from a hollow mirror (Numa, 9); but he seems to be referring to a Greek rather than to the Roman custom. The rule of celibacy imposed on the Vestals, whose duty it was to relight the sacred fire as well as to preserve it when it was once made, is perhaps explained by a superstition current among French peasants that if a girl can blow up a smouldering candle into a flame she is a virgin, but that if she fails to do so, she is not. See Jules Lecoeur,Esquisses du Bocage Normand(Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 27; B. Souché,Croyances, Présages et Traditions diverses(Niort, 1880), p. 12. At least it seems more likely that the rule sprang from a superstition of this sort than from a simple calculation of expediency, as I formerly suggested (Journal of Philology, xiv. (1885) p. 158). CompareThe Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings>ii. 234sqq.
Festus, ed. C.O. Müller (Leipsic, 1839), p. 106,s.v."Ignis." Plutarch describes a method of rekindling the sacred fire by means of the sun's rays reflected from a hollow mirror (Numa, 9); but he seems to be referring to a Greek rather than to the Roman custom. The rule of celibacy imposed on the Vestals, whose duty it was to relight the sacred fire as well as to preserve it when it was once made, is perhaps explained by a superstition current among French peasants that if a girl can blow up a smouldering candle into a flame she is a virgin, but that if she fails to do so, she is not. See Jules Lecoeur,Esquisses du Bocage Normand(Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 27; B. Souché,Croyances, Présages et Traditions diverses(Niort, 1880), p. 12. At least it seems more likely that the rule sprang from a superstition of this sort than from a simple calculation of expediency, as I formerly suggested (Journal of Philology, xiv. (1885) p. 158). CompareThe Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings>ii. 234sqq.
Footnote 348:(return)Geoffrey Keating, D.D.,The History of Ireland, translated from the original Gaelic, and copiously annotated, by John O'Mahony (New York, 1857), p. 300, with the translator's note. Compare (Sir) John Rhys,Celtic Heathendom(London, 1888), pp. 514sq.
Geoffrey Keating, D.D.,The History of Ireland, translated from the original Gaelic, and copiously annotated, by John O'Mahony (New York, 1857), p. 300, with the translator's note. Compare (Sir) John Rhys,Celtic Heathendom(London, 1888), pp. 514sq.
Footnote 349:(return)W.R.S. Ralston,Songs of the Russian People, Second Edition (London, 1872), pp. 254sq.
W.R.S. Ralston,Songs of the Russian People, Second Edition (London, 1872), pp. 254sq.
Footnote 350:(return)A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz,Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche(Leipsic, 1848), p. 373; A. Kuhn,Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen(Leipsic, 1859), ii. 134sqq.; id., Märkische Sagen und Märchen(Berlin, 1843), pp. 312sq.; J.D.H. Temme,Die Volkssagen der Altmark(Berlin, 1839), pp. 75sq.; K. Lynker,Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen,2(Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), p. 240; H. Pröhle,Harzbilder(Leipsic, 1855), p. 63; R. Andree,Braunschweiger Volkskunde(Brunswick, 1896), pp. 240-242; W. Kolbe,Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche(Marburg, 1888), pp. 44-47; F.A. Reimann,Deutsche Volksfeste(Weimar, 1839), p. 37; "Sitten und Gebräuche in Duderstadt,"Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sitten-kunde, ii. (1855) p. 107; K. Seifart,Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift Hildesheim,2(Hildesheim, 1889), pp. 177, 180; O. Hartung, "Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,"Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, vii. (1897) p. 76.
A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz,Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche(Leipsic, 1848), p. 373; A. Kuhn,Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen(Leipsic, 1859), ii. 134sqq.; id., Märkische Sagen und Märchen(Berlin, 1843), pp. 312sq.; J.D.H. Temme,Die Volkssagen der Altmark(Berlin, 1839), pp. 75sq.; K. Lynker,Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen,2(Cassel and Göttingen, 1860), p. 240; H. Pröhle,Harzbilder(Leipsic, 1855), p. 63; R. Andree,Braunschweiger Volkskunde(Brunswick, 1896), pp. 240-242; W. Kolbe,Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche(Marburg, 1888), pp. 44-47; F.A. Reimann,Deutsche Volksfeste(Weimar, 1839), p. 37; "Sitten und Gebräuche in Duderstadt,"Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sitten-kunde, ii. (1855) p. 107; K. Seifart,Sagen, Märchen, Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt und Stift Hildesheim,2(Hildesheim, 1889), pp. 177, 180; O. Hartung, "Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,"Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde, vii. (1897) p. 76.
Footnote 351:(return)L. Strackerjan,Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. p. 43sq., §313; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme(Berlin, 1875), pp. 505sq.
L. Strackerjan,Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. p. 43sq., §313; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme(Berlin, 1875), pp. 505sq.
Footnote 352:(return)L. Strackerjan,op. cit.ii. p. 43, §313.
L. Strackerjan,op. cit.ii. p. 43, §313.
Footnote 353:(return)J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4(Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 512; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme, pp. 506sq.
J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4(Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 512; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme, pp. 506sq.
Footnote 354:(return)H. Pröhle,Harzbilder(Leipsic, 1855), p. 63;id., inZeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde, i. (1853) p. 79; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz,Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche(Leipsic, 1848), p. 373; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 507.
H. Pröhle,Harzbilder(Leipsic, 1855), p. 63;id., inZeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde, i. (1853) p. 79; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz,Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche(Leipsic, 1848), p. 373; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 507.
Footnote 355:(return)A. Kuhn,Märkische Sagen und Märchen(Berlin, 1843), pp. 312sq.; W. Mannhardt,l.c.
A. Kuhn,Märkische Sagen und Märchen(Berlin, 1843), pp. 312sq.; W. Mannhardt,l.c.
Footnote 356:(return)W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultusp. 508. Compare J.W. Wolf,Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie(Göttingen, 1852-1857), i. 74; J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 512. The two latter writers only state that before the fires were kindled it was customary to hunt squirrels in the woods.
W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultusp. 508. Compare J.W. Wolf,Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie(Göttingen, 1852-1857), i. 74; J. Grimm,Deutsche Mythologie,4i. 512. The two latter writers only state that before the fires were kindled it was customary to hunt squirrels in the woods.
Footnote 357:(return)A. Kuhn,l.c.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 508.
A. Kuhn,l.c.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 508.
Footnote 358:(return)Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern(Munich, 1860-1867), iii. 956.
Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern(Munich, 1860-1867), iii. 956.
Footnote 359:(return)See above, pp.116sq.,119.
See above, pp.116sq.,119.
Footnote 360:(return)F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 211sq., § 233; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, pp. 507sq.
F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 211sq., § 233; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, pp. 507sq.
Footnote 361:(return)Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iii. 357.
Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern, iii. 357.
Footnote 362:(return)F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 212sq., § 236.
F. Panzer,Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie(Munich, 1848-1855), i. pp. 212sq., § 236.
Footnote 363:(return)F. Panzer,op. cit.ii. pp. 78sq., §§ 114, 115. The customs observed at these places and at Althenneberg are described together by W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 505.
F. Panzer,op. cit.ii. pp. 78sq., §§ 114, 115. The customs observed at these places and at Althenneberg are described together by W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 505.
Footnote 364:(return)A. Birlinger,Volksthümliches aus Schwaben(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. p. 82, § 106; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 508.
A. Birlinger,Volksthümliches aus Schwaben(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. p. 82, § 106; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 508.
Footnote 365:(return)Elard Hugo Meyer,Badisches Volksleben(Strasburg, 1900), pp. 97sq.
Elard Hugo Meyer,Badisches Volksleben(Strasburg, 1900), pp. 97sq.
Footnote 366:(return)The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 349sqq.See further below, vol. ii. pp. 298sqq.
The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 349sqq.See further below, vol. ii. pp. 298sqq.
Footnote 367:(return)J.W. Wolf,Beiträge sur deutschen Mythologie, i. 75sq.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 506.
J.W. Wolf,Beiträge sur deutschen Mythologie, i. 75sq.; W. Mannhardt,Der Baumkultus, p. 506.
Footnote 368:(return)L. Lloyd,Peasant Life in Sweden(London, 1870), p. 228.
L. Lloyd,Peasant Life in Sweden(London, 1870), p. 228.
Footnote 369:(return)W. Müller,Beiträge sur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mahren(Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), pp. 321, 397sq.In Wagstadt, a town of Austrian Silesia, a boy in a red waistcoat used to play the part of Judas on the Wednesday before Good Friday. He was chased from before the church door by the other school children, who pursued him through the streets with shouts and the noise of rattles and clappers till they reached a certain suburb, where they always caught and beat him because he had betrayed the Redeemer. See Anton Peter,Volksthümliches aus österreichisch-Schlesien(Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 282sq.; Paul Drechsler,Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien(Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 77sq.
W. Müller,Beiträge sur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mahren(Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), pp. 321, 397sq.In Wagstadt, a town of Austrian Silesia, a boy in a red waistcoat used to play the part of Judas on the Wednesday before Good Friday. He was chased from before the church door by the other school children, who pursued him through the streets with shouts and the noise of rattles and clappers till they reached a certain suburb, where they always caught and beat him because he had betrayed the Redeemer. See Anton Peter,Volksthümliches aus österreichisch-Schlesien(Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 282sq.; Paul Drechsler,Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien(Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 77sq.
Footnote 370:(return)Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, from the MSS. of John Ramsay, Esq., of Ochtertyre, edited by Alexander Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 439-445. As to thetein-eiginor need-fire, see below, pp.269sqq. The etymology of the word Beltane is uncertain; the popular derivation of the first part from the Phoenician Baal is absurd. See, for example, John Graham Dalyell,The Darker Superstitions of Scotland(Edinburgh, 1834), pp. 176sq.: "The recognition of the pagan divinity Baal, or Bel, the Sun, is discovered through innumerable etymological sources. In the records of Scottish history, down to the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries, multiplied prohibitions were issued from the fountains of ecclesiastical ordinances, against kindlingBailfires, of which the origin cannot be mistaken. The festival of this divinity was commemorated in Scotland until the latest date." Modern scholars are not agreed as to the derivation of the name Beltane. See Rev. John Gregorson Campbell,Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland(Glasgow, 1902), pp. 268sq.; J.A. MacCulloch,The Religion of the Ancient Celts(Edinburgh, 1911), p. 264.
Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, from the MSS. of John Ramsay, Esq., of Ochtertyre, edited by Alexander Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 439-445. As to thetein-eiginor need-fire, see below, pp.269sqq. The etymology of the word Beltane is uncertain; the popular derivation of the first part from the Phoenician Baal is absurd. See, for example, John Graham Dalyell,The Darker Superstitions of Scotland(Edinburgh, 1834), pp. 176sq.: "The recognition of the pagan divinity Baal, or Bel, the Sun, is discovered through innumerable etymological sources. In the records of Scottish history, down to the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries, multiplied prohibitions were issued from the fountains of ecclesiastical ordinances, against kindlingBailfires, of which the origin cannot be mistaken. The festival of this divinity was commemorated in Scotland until the latest date." Modern scholars are not agreed as to the derivation of the name Beltane. See Rev. John Gregorson Campbell,Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland(Glasgow, 1902), pp. 268sq.; J.A. MacCulloch,The Religion of the Ancient Celts(Edinburgh, 1911), p. 264.