XIIICHIP CARVING AND KNIFE WORK (See31,109)

Fig. 67. Parts of letter rack

The cutting of the grooves in the base was a new problem, and Harry was allowed to try his skill with a chisel. The method used was first to make the drawing shown ata,Fig. 67. The long side lines of each groove were scored with the point of the knife, going over each line several times, tomake the cut as deep as possible. An under cut was then made, as shown in the figure.

Fig. 68. Boys' designs for letter racks

The wood in the centre was removed with a1⁄4-inch chisel, and the process continued until a uniform depth of1⁄4inch was reached. After all three grooves had been cut, the edges of the base were bevelled with the plane. This bevelling could have been done readily with the knife, but much time was saved by using the plane, always doing the long sides first.

In all the letter racks shown in the illustrationsthe construction was the same. First, the three blank partitions were made, then finished in their outlines with knife and sand-paper. The carving was always drawn carefully on the surface of the front piece. Third, came the making of the base, and last, the gluing of the partitions into the grooves. To increase the strength of a letter rack,3⁄4-inch brads can be driven from the bottom into the partitions, but where this is done it is safer to draw pencil lines on the bottom directly under the centre of each partition. Place the point of the brad exactly on the line before hammering.

Fig. 69. Form "A"

Although the forms of the letter rack are endless, the one which our boys found most interesting was based on the ellipse. It called forth a very instructive drawing lesson. Ralph showed Harry first how the figure could be drawn by a string, with two pins to represent the foci of the ellipse. Thefigure has two dimensions called the major axis and minor axis. (Fig. 70).

Fig. 70.

The combined length of the two lines drawn from any point on the ellipse to the two foci must always be the same and equal to the length of the major axis. This is readily seen with the two pins and string. (Fig. 71.)

Fig. 71. Drawing the ellipse with string and pins

The pencil point as it traverses the ellipse represents any point, and the string remains the same length. Where it is required to draw an ellipse of definite size, say two by three, it becomes necessary to find the foci before the string can be used, and as it requires considerable skill to get the string the exact length, Ralph showed the boy another way, called the trammel method. (Fig. 72.)

Suppose the problem is to construct an ellipse 6 inches × 21⁄2inches. First draw the two linesa bandc dat right angles, intersecting at the exact centre. Take a straight piece of paper, lay it alonga bwith one end ata. Make a dot on the edge of the paper where the lines cross, and mark itx. Next, lay the same strip of paper alongc d, with the original end atc, and again mark a point where the lines cross. Mark this pointy. At any position of this strip of paper when the pointsxandytouch the two axesa bandc d, the end of the paper strip will be on the ellipse. By shifting this paper trammel and keeping the two points on the axes a series of points may be made at the end of the paper. Connecting this by a pencil line will complete the ellipse. This is a very simple method and a very accurate one.

Fig. 72. The trammel method

Fig. 73. The ellipse used in carving designs

Our boys drew this figure, 6 × 21⁄2inches, with a trammel and then worked out the design from it shown inFig. 73. It made a very satisfactory form for the letter rack, and gave an elliptical space for carving, a new problem in chip carving design.

Fig. 74.

Two more of these elliptical designs are shown inFig. 74.

Another feature of this rack was a change in the middle partition; the form is shown atFig. 75. The making of the base and gluing into the grooves were similar to the earlier designs.

The next design was characterized by an outline composed largely of straight lines.

The middle partition was lower than the front and back pieces, as shown inFig. 75.

Fig. 75. A neat design for a letter rack

The boys found a great deal of pleasure in working out a decorative scheme for the carving. Having discovered how easy it is to carve the long flowing curves, they introduced them wherever possible. The general shape of the carved section must of course conform to the outline of the wood, but while filling in these flowing curves they soon learned to sketch them in free-hand.

Fig. 76. A letter rack decorated with the veining tool

To a person who has not tried this work or who has not begun with simple cuts it appears very difficult, but when it is remembered that only one cut can be made at a time and that each chip is a triangle, even if its sides are slightly curved, it actually proves very easy, and within the power of any normal boy to accomplish.

Fig. 77. The pen-holder

Harry was introduced at this time to the use of the veining tool, a fine gouge with a cross section almost V-shaped. This was used to emphasize the outlines of the designs by simply pushing ahead directly on the lines. When veining straight lines, it may be guided by a ruler or other straight edge, but for curves, a free-hand movement is necessary. A very good practice piece is the design shown atFig. 76. This may be applied to the front of the letter rack design. (Fig. 69.)

The pen-holder shown atFig. 77is one of a large number which were made by the boys. The pieceswere cut out with a knife to the blank forms shown. On all pieces like these, afterward to be assembled, the edges were made straight and square on the shooting board, and the carving done before assembling. This pen-holder was put together with3⁄4-inch brads with the exception of the front, which was glued, as it was thought best not to have nails showing on this important side. (Fig. 78.)

Fig. 78. Pieces composing pen-holder

Photograph by Arthur G. EldredgeUsing the Veining Tool.

Photograph by Arthur G. Eldredge

Using the Veining Tool.

"I like this new work better than anything we have ever done," said Harry one day when he and Ralph were up to their ears in carving, whittling, and designing.

Ralph smiled as he remembered Harry's intense interest in making moving toys. "As I told you once before," he replied, "this is not new but old. The people of northern Europe have done it for centuries, and the reason is not hard to find. In Norway during the long winter it gets dark very early, in some places at three o'clock in the afternoon, and does not become light again until nine o'clock in the morning. The result is very, very long evenings, when it is much more comfortable to work indoors.

"At an early era the people developed this beautiful art of carving, and spent their long evenings in working at it. They became very skilful and as most of the household utensils were of wood, it was not at all unusual to see the householdfurniture, even to their bread boards, beautifully carved."

"By the way," said Harry, "can't I make a paper knife now? You know you said I could after I had learned to use the knife!"

"Yes, I think you might try your skill on something of that character now. It will be quite a change from this flat work we have been doing. It will require a harder wood, however, than you have been using, as a paper knife must be thin and strong at the same time.

"The Swedish carvers use apple wood a great deal for their paper knives, but as this is rare with us, suppose we try rock maple. It is white in colour, close grained, and hard."

As usual, they worked up their design on paper first and sketched in the carving shown inFig. 79.

A piece of rock or sugar maple was first squared up and laid out in pencil as shown atB. In order to get the outline to conform exactly to the drawing, the form was cut out of paper and traced on the face of the wood. The blank form was then whittled out to the pencil line, and sand-papered smooth as shown atc.

Maple proved to be a hard wood to whittle.

Notches were cut atd dafter drawing the edge view onfront and back edges. The blade and handle were then whittled down to lineseandf.

Fig. 79. Two designs for paper knives

"Whew!" exclaimed Harry, "don't ever give me any maple to whittle again."

"Well, you wanted to make a paper knife, didn't you? A paper knife that would break when it fell on the floor wouldn't be of much use, and you are not through yet. The blade must be cut down to a fairly sharp edge on both sides now."

This was done by bevelling the edges as shown inhand the bevel gradually cut back to the centreline, as shown atiandj. Harry concluded that this was the hardest work that he had ever done.

Fig. 80. Key rack designs

"Now you understand," said Ralph, "why I couldn't allow you to make a knife at first. All the training I have given you was necessary before you had the requisite skill and control of your hands. The carving will be easy for you because of all this practice. Skill is something which comes that way. Why, if I should give you the problem of making that first key rack over again, you would do it in about one third of the time, and very much better than at your first attempt. You have been gaining skill without knowing it.

"Just to show you how much you have advanced, I will give you one or two key rack designs to be decorated with chip carving. When they are finished, take them into the house and compare them with the first you made. I think you will be amused at the difference. That original piece of which you were so proud will seem a very crude affair now."

"All right," said Harry, "but I should like to make one more paper knife first if you don't mind."

"Very well; make up a new design, because no artist ever duplicates his work," said Ralph with a mischievous smile.

The smile was premature, however. The boy had not been designing woodwork for nothing. The design is shown at No. 2,Fig. 79, and even Ralph, severe critic though he was, had to admit that it was "pretty fair."

"Looks like a table knife," he said seriously. "However, it is your own design, so go ahead and make it. Try a piece of cherry this time. It makes a good wood for carving, and is not quite so hard to whittle as maple."

The different steps in the process of cutting this out were the same as in No. 1,Fig. 79.

Fig. 81. The blotter pad

The key rack shown inFig. 80was comparatively easy after making paper knives. The bevelling of the curves at the ends was the only new feature of the knife work.

Fig. 82. Method of using the spokeshave

The making of presents went rapidly onward from this time. The next article to engage our woodworkers' attention was the blotting pad, made of two pieces of black walnut fastened together with the screw handle. (Fig. 81.) The blotter is bent around the curved face of the lower part, and the ends gripped between the two parts by tightening the screw. These handles with screw attached are of brass, and can be obtained at any hardware store.

The upper piece was bevelled, and a circular space in the centre left plain to provide for the handle, the rest of the space being carved.

The making of the curved face on the bottom was too difficult for the knife, so the boy worked it out with the plane and spokeshave shown in (Fig. 82).

When these blotter pads are finished with thebrass handle, coloured blotter and hand-carved top, they are very attractive, and make acceptable presents.

Toilet boxes were next in order, and there seemed no end to them; glove boxes, collar boxes, handkerchief boxes, boxes for storing away photographs, etc. Those for collars were square, viewed from the top, while glove boxes were made long and narrow.

The construction of these called for the use of carpenters' tools, and Ralph was not ready to start his pupil on this branch of woodwork yet, for several reasons.

In the first place, it meant a halt in the fascinating work of carving, and they had not yet exhausted the possibilities of knife work. So they tried the plan of buying ready-made boxes from the stores. This was not entirely satisfactory, as most of them were of basswood, soft, and easily carved, but so white that it became soiled too readily. This difficulty finally led to a unique scheme. They stained the wood a dull ebony, and found that the design showed very clearly in gray pencil lines, easily carved.

The carving came out white on a black background, and proved quite satisfactory for the coarserdesigns. The finer work, however, did not show to advantage, and the method was adopted of leaving certain portions of the surface plain.

One of the glove box designs is shown inFig. 83.

The lines made in this black and white carving by the veining tool are very effective.

Fig. 83. Design for glove box

The boys had just gotten nicely at work one afternoon when Harry remarked very seriously: "On what subject shall our lecture be this afternoon, professor?"

A block of white pine hurtled across the shop, but Harry ducked and no one was hurt.

"No," said Ralph, "you can't start a discussion to-day. I've been thinking that you will have to take up the use of bench tools pretty soon, because you are really doing this work backward."

"What do you mean?"

"Why, you should never decorate anything which you haven't actually made."

"Well, haven't I made everything we have carved so far?"

Fig. 84. Double photo frame

"All except the boxes. When we bought those boxes, that was a signal that it was time for you to begin constructive work. It has been a big problem to give you carving to do on articles in the flat that you could make with the knife. We will make a few picture frames, carve them, and then leave our carving until you can construct anything in wood. You will always be able now to design carved work for any given space; one of these picture frames, however, is going to be a rather severe test of your skill."

Fig. 84shows the first photograph frame they took up, a simple design in one piece.

The openings for the pictures were cut out with coping saw and knife and bevelled. The bevels on the outer edges of the frame were planed.

Fig. 85. Carved picture frame

Fig. 85shows a problem in designing for irregular spaces, and the design is a typical Swedish form. In both of these frames it was necessary to provide a method of holding the photo on the back.

This was accomplished by tacking on two strips of1⁄8-inch basswood on each side, and the bottom as shown inFig. 85, the narrow strip being1⁄4inch wide, and the top one1⁄2inch wide, making a groove1⁄8inch deep to receive the picture. If it is designed to have glass in front of the photo, the narrow strip must be1⁄4inch thick in place of1⁄8inch.

The problem of polishing carved work is rather a difficult one. Ordinary varnish or shellac cannot be used to advantage, as on flat surfaces, because it fills up the spaces and ruins the effect. Perhaps the best method is to dissolve a small quantity of beeswax in turpentine, and rub in with an old tooth or nail brush, which is comparatively soft. This will not injure the carving, and will protect it from dampness and dust, as the wax hardens. It should be put on when about the consistency of soft putty.

Fig. 86. Palette photograph frame

The photo frame shown (Fig. 86) was the last form our boys attempted in the flat.

It has the advantage of simplicity, only one kind of cut being used; but the long flowing lines, which must be first drawn on the wood free-hand, require all the patience and skill one can command.

The form in outline is the artist's palette, and the opening for the picture an ellipse.

All the lines in the carving converge to a point to the left of the centre of the opening.

The man who is most successful is the one who is best prepared for his work. In beginning to learn how to use woodworking tools, the average boy is very often hampered by the lack of facilities. The place he is to use for his shop should at least have good light. Many of the lines he uses are knife lines, which are harder to see than pencil lines, so that light at least is an essential.

The tools should be as good as he can obtain. This does not mean that it is necessary to have elaborate sets of chisels, gouges, etc., but the cutting tools should be of well tempered steel. It is far better to have a few very good tools than an elaborate equipment of poor ones, such as the boy's ready-made tool chest often contains.

A good workman is one who can do a large variety of good work with a few well-selected tools.

One reason for our having given so much space to knife work was to illustrate this very fact. Veryoften the carved pieces described in previous chapters are salable at good figures, and from the money thus obtained a supply of bench or carpenters' tools can be bought.

Next to a well lighted place in which to work, a fairly good bench is essential. This can be made by the boy himself, if he cannot secure one already built, but as the construction of a bench presupposes some previous practice with tools, we will assume that our readers receive their first tool practice on a bench already built, just as Harry did.

Several forms of benches on the market are shown inFig. 87.

The bench to be of any use must have a vise of some description, as very often both hands are required to guide the tool, and the wood must be held rigid.

The old-fashioned screw vise is cheap, and a cheap vise may be made at a cost of half a dollar, by purchasing the screw and nut and making the jaw and guides by hand, but this again calls for the use of a bench. So taken all in all it will pay the young woodworker to save his money and buy a good vise even if the bench is home-made.

This is just where our boys had their first argument; Harry wanted to begin by building a work bench.

Fig. 87. Types of work bench

"That is where you are wrong," said Ralph. "Perhaps you remember that you wanted to begin knife work by making a paper cutter, and as a matter of fact it was very nearly the last thing I gave you to do. It required all your skill and previous practice to accomplish it. It will be just the same with the bench and vise. You will be able to construct them, but only after considerable experience with tools. You might as well insist on making all your tools before starting to use them or you might insist on going into the woods, cutting down trees and ripping out your own planks for stock. Just wait a minute."

He went into the house and came out with a pamphlet on lumbering, which he opened at the picture shown inFig 88. It represents the old style of sawing out planks by hand before the coming of the saw-mill.

The man in the pit is called a pit man, the one on the log, the sawyer. This method of cutting lumber was in vogue up to about fifty years ago.

"This," said Ralph, "is what your line of reasoning would lead us back to, so if I am to be your instructor you must leave these things to my judgment, and my advice is to start work with a good bench having on it a good vise."

Fig. 88. The old way of getting out lumber

To let you into a family secret, the boys' work in carving had been admired by several friends and they had worked up quite a trade in making and selling their carvings. From the money they had saved they purchased the bench shown inFig. 89. It was very well built, having a heavy top of 3-inch maple and a modern quick action vise. The seven drawers underneath were notreally necessary, but the boys found them very handy for storing tools, nails, screws, unfinished work, etc.

Fig. 89. Bench with quick action vise

The space under a bench is very apt to become a catch-all and a nuisance, so as time went on they concluded that the extra cost of this bench was justified, although at the time the price seemed very high. Some of the cheaper benches they looked at are shown inFig. 87.

The quick action vise was a great time saver, as it could be pulled wide open or pushed back without turning the handle, as in the old screw vises.

A dozen of these quick action vises are on themarket, and may be had at hardware stores for from four dollars upward.

This flat topped bench had no tool rack, and could consequently be worked on from any side. At first, the owners kept most of their tools in the large drawer at the top, but later on they made a good sized tool cabinet, which was fastened to the wall and will be described later.

The iron bench stop also proved a valuable feature, as it could be fastened at any desired height by a set screw, or dropped down out of the way below the level of the bench top. When planing thin wood, one end of the board is braced against the bench stop. Ralph found that starting with a new bench had another advantage. It helped his pupil to take good care of the bench. Harry was very careful not to saw or cut it as he might have done with an old bench, and to foster this spirit of carefulness, Ralph gave him for his first problem the making of a bench hook. (Fig. 90.) The tools used in its construction were:

24-inch rip sawBrace and1⁄4-inch bit20-inch cross cut sawCountersink bitMarking gauge11⁄2-inch flat head screwsTry square 6 inchesPiece of maple, planed to7⁄8-inch15-inch jack-planethick, 12 inches long, 10 inches wide

Fig. 90. The bench hook

The maple board was first laid out as shown ata, a pencil line being drawn 2 inches from one edge. The piece was placed in the vise horizontally, and both long edges planed straight and true and tested with the try square.

The block was then placed upright in the vise, and the ends planed square with the block plane. This required much explaining and practise, as the block plane has a bad habit of breaking off the farther corner.

Ralph showed Harry how to use this tool safely by planing only part way across the end and then finishing from the other side. Both ends were tested with the try square.

The piece was now sawed in two by using a rip saw on the pencil line, the wood being held in the vise in an upright position.

This made two pieces of stock 12 inches long, one 2 inches wide, the other 8 inches nearly, as the saw cut had removed some of the wood.

The 2-inch piece was laid out as shown atb. The marking gauge was set at 13⁄4inches and from the joint edge—that already planed—a line was gauged on each flat face, and the sawed edge planed to these lines as atb.

It was then laid out as shown atc, two knife lines being squared around the four sides1⁄8inch apart. The piece was then sawed apart carefully between these two knife lines, and the ends block planed and tested.

Fig. 91. Method of using the bench hook and back saw

Two1⁄4-inch holes were bored, as shown atd, in each piece, and countersunk with the countersink bit. This makes a place for the screw heads, so they will be below the surface where they cannot be in the way of tools or scratch the bench.

The wide piece was next planed on its sawed edge, and the blocks screwed on. That the bench hook might always be handy and have a definite place of its own, a half-inch hole was bored as shown in the illustration, and it was hung on a nail, set in the end of the bench.

The bench hook is designed to protect the bench from saw marks and the cuts of chisels, gouges, etc. The method of using it with the saw is shown inFig. 91. Wherever possible, it should be made of hard wood.

Nothing is so necessary to the saving of time and energy as an orderly shop. Our boys had bought a quantity of white pine to begin operations and it was lying in a pile on the floor where it was always in the way.

To cut a piece of stock from one of these 12-foot boards it was necessary to use two kitchen chairs for trestles, so it was decided to construct two saw horses, and as soon as they were finished, to build a lumber rack against the wall where their little supply could be stored out of the way.

"We will carry out our regular practice by first making a drawing," said Ralph. "We know from experience that it saves time."

Fig. 92shows the proportions of the trestle ata, and the mechanical drawing with all dimensions atb.

The body of the trestle was built up of four pieces, two long and two short ones. The open space in the centre, Ralph explained, would make a convenient tool rack where hammers, chisels, etc., could be placed while they were working, especially at outdoor work, instead of being dropped on the ground. The body then called for two pieces 3 feet long by 4 inches wide, and two pieces 10 inches long by 4 wide.

These were sawed from a rough plank with the rip saw by using the chairs as trestles. A pencil line was laid out 31⁄4inches from one edge, and the saw cut made directly on the line, 8 feet long.

The cross cut saw was used to cut the strip off and this strip was then sawed with the same saw into four pieces of equal length for the legs. Another strip 41⁄4inches wide, 7 feet 8 inches long, was ripped out and taken off with the cross cut saw, for the body, and divided into two pieces 3 feet 10 inches long, for convenience in planing.

Harry now had his first real experience in planing. All the pieces were of 1-inch rough lumber, with sawed edges, and had to be planed down to7⁄8inch in thickness.

To plane six pieces of stock straight and true, with squared edges and of definite size, was no easy task.

"How do you like manual labour?" asked Ralph, mischievously.

"I like it all right," replied the perspiring boy,"but we won't need any gymnasium work for exercise while we are doing this."

Fig. 92. The trestle or saw horse. By permission of Carpentry and Building

"Wouldn't you like to make a bench in hard wood right away?" asked Ralph.

"No, I guess you were right after all."

Ralph showed him the proper way to stand, and how to hold the jack-plane so as to get the best results. He promised to show him how to sharpen and adjust the plane as soon as the lumber was stored away on the lumber rack.

Harry's business was to dress down one of the flat faces of each piece till it was smooth, straight and true both with the grain and across it. He tested it by his eye and the edge of his plane and when he thought it was about right, passed it over to Ralph for criticism.

Ralph was a very exacting instructor, but made allowance for the boy's inexperience. He was making the second trestle at the same time and it was exasperating to Harry to see the ease with which he turned out his work.

"Never mind," said Ralph, "you can do as good carving now as I, and in a few weeks you will be able to do just as good joinery or carpentry. The first day is always the hardest. You are all impatience and want to get through right away. After a while you will learn by experience that you can only do one thing at a time, and will not rush so."

Photograph by Helen W. CookeUsing the Jack Plane.

Photograph by Helen W. Cooke

Using the Jack Plane.

Finally, one face on each of the six pieces was pronounced finished, and the next step was to"joint" or "dress down" one edge straight, smooth and square with the working face—the first planed surface. This seemed easier after the experience of making the bench hook, and Harry knew how to test for squareness with the try square.

Working on the two long pieces for the body, both edges of each were squared up, a 10-inch piece was marked off on one end of each with pencil and try square, and sawed off with cross cut saw.

It was decided to leave the inner faces rough, as they would be inside the trestle, and out of sight. These four pieces forming the body were now nailed together with 21⁄2-inch wire nails, as shown ina.

The four pieces for the legs were dressed on all four sides, and it only remained to cut the angle at top and bottom.

This brought into use a new tool, the bevel. The anglexwas found by laying the bevel on the mechanical drawing, and fixing it at the angle by tightening the set screw provided for the purpose. The line was carried across the face by means of the try square, and the bevel used on the farther edge. When this laying out was finished, the piece looked likec, the triangular pieceybeing removed by sawing directly on the pencil lines.

After the four legs were laid out in this manner and cut, they were nailed to the body with 3-inch wire nails.

The saw horse was now complete with the exception of the two braces, and the final truing up.

The braces were made by holding a piece of stock 4 inches ×7⁄8inch in position and marking the slope with a pencil, sawing to pencil lines and nailing in positiond.

The final process of truing up was an interesting one to Harry, and he used it many times afterward in finishing pieces of furniture, such as tables, tabourettes, etc.

The horse was placed on the bench, and a pair of dividers set as shown ate.

A line was scribed on each leg wherever the compasses point touched it, holding the latter upright and going around all four sides of each leg. By sawing to the lines made in this way, the trestle was found to stand on the floor perfectly true. This is a method much used in truing up articles that rest on three or more legs, and it overcomes any inaccuracies that may have arisen in the process of assembling; but it is very important that the surface on which this truing up is done shall itself be perfectly true. The bench used in this case wasnew and had not yet warped at all, but an old bench might not have been suitable. This can be ascertained by testing the surface in several directions with a long straight edge.

The facts of warping and shrinkage in wood must always be taken into consideration.

The saw horse is an important part of every shop equipment, and the boys now relegated the clumsy chairs to the kitchen, where they belonged, and were prepared to saw out stock from their longest boards.

Ralph had painted two signs and fastened them in prominent places on the wall. One read: "One thing at a time"; the other, "A place for everything, and everything in its place."

"Those are very old-fashioned," he said, "but they are none the less absolutely true. Many boys fail to accomplish anything in tool work because they do not heed the first, and more time is wasted than we ever realize, particularly among mechanics, by failing to observe the second. It often seems a waste of time to put a tool or piece of stock away in a definite place, but, on the other hand, one often spends ten times as many minutes in looking for a thing as he would putting it in its place where it could be found instantly."

"What's the answer?" said Harry absent-mindedly.

"The answer is that we will make a rack for our lumber before we do anything else.

"It need not be very fine work, but it will makeour shop much neater, if the surfaces of the wood are planed instead of being left rough, and to give you practice in planing and to develop your muscles, I am going to let you do most of the planing, while I lay out the work."

The rack as finally constructed is shown inFig. 93. The shop was not sheathed on the inside, the framework or studding being exposed. The short cross pieces were nailed to the studding with ten-penny wire nails, but where they joined the uprights they were let into the latter to a depth of1⁄2inch before being nailed. Harry wanted to know what this was for, and Ralph explained that if the cross pieces were simply nailed to the uprights, all the weight would be carried by the nails. By letting or "gaining" them part way into the uprights, the weight was carried by the latter without so much strain on the nails.

"Then why don't you let them into the wall studs too?" asked Harry.

"Because the studs are in position and we couldn't saw them out without breaking through the outside of the building; therefore we are obliged simply to nail them on."

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