Ex. 2
To be able to produce a fine crescendo is a grand accomplishment. The bow must be lightly placed on the strings at some distance from the bridge; as the stroke proceeds, more pressure with the first finger is gradually applied, the bow is caused to approach the bridge and at the same time is drawn more rapidly. In performing a crescendo passage with the down bow, the strongest possible pressure must be applied as the bow is drawn to the point. The gradual swelling frompianoto forte, must be accomplished without any break in the tone being perceptible; a great amount of practiceis necessary to give the ability to produce a full round tone at the forte, without a disagreeable hardness in tone-quality.
Ex. 3
In a decrescendo the reverse action takes place. The bow is placed very firmly on the strings near the bridge, great pressure being applied. As the stroke proceeds the pressure is gradually withdrawn, the bow moves more slowly, and approaches the fingerboard.
Ex. 4
The effect of Ex. 4 is a combination in one bow of the crescendo and decrescendo effects given in bowings 2 and 3. The bow must be used very sparingly at the crescendo, so that sufficient may be left to sustain a bold forte, for the middle of the semibreve, and also to allow the tone to be gradually diminished. The student cannot devote too much time to the study of this difficult bowing; if properly mastered, great command of the bow, in a slow bow-stroke, will have been obtained.
Ex. 5
Scales played with two minims slurred (Ex. 5) should have whole smooth bow-strokes. In approaching an open string, care should be taken to prevent any break in the bow-stroke, or any roughness being perceptible. The open string should first be caused to vibrate with the friction of the bow, the pressure then being applied.Equal divisions of the bow are necessary for each minim, the bow being lightly placed at the heel, with slightly increasing pressure, as the point is neared; this is required to keep the tone-volume equal with that produced at the heel.
Ex. 6
Four crotchets slurred, are to be played with the same kind of bowing as Ex. 5, but here there are four notes to one bow-stroke. Each crotchet should have its full time value allowed, and the stroke should be equally divided, so that each note gets about a fourth of the bow. Equality of tone, and smoothness are the chief characteristics of a good performance of this and all similar slurred bowings. There should not be the slightest break between each crotchet, one note only being left off as the next is sounded.
Ex. 7
Smooth detached crotchets may be played with the upper half of the bow. In this style of detached bowing, each note must be approached and left without any roughness, a clear division of the notes being suggested rather than any decided break made. When moving from one position to another, no gliding is allowed, each note separate, but smooth.
Ex. 8
In Ex. 8 the whole octave is played with one bow stroke. In scale practice, it will be advisable for the student at first to repeat the tonic, so that a proper sense of the correct phrasing is felt, thus—
Ex. 8a
Ex. 9
Various divisions of slurred quavers may be practised, where each group contains the same quantity of notes, the same length of bow-stroke must be given each slur. Ex. 9 should be played with the upper third of the bow. The student should not acquire the habit of making the second quaver shorter than the first; each note must have equal duration. This bowing may also be practised with the middle third of the bow.
Ex. 10
Where one group contains more notes than another, it is not always advisable to use the same amount of bow for the smaller slur. To preserve the same tone-quality throughout in Ex. 10, it should be bowed as follows:—Place the bow on the strings near the heel; for the first three quavers, draw it just beyond the middle, then give the two tied quavers an up-stroke, using about a third of bow; for the remaining three quavers, draw the bow quite to the point. The octavehigher commences with an up-bow, the action being exactly reversed until the heel is reached.
Ex. 11
In playing two octaves slurred, besides observing all that has been written concerning smooth slurred bowings, the student must be careful to adopt a proper system of phrasing. It is perhaps advisable in scale practice to suggest in the phrasing, the commencement of another octave. This may be accomplished by dwelling slightly on the leading-note (in this case B), or by accenting the tonic of the upper octave.
Whatever method is adopted, must not be such as to seriously disturb the even run of the semiquavers.
Ex. 12
Detached quavers should be practised with the upper third of the bow, in the same manner as the crotchets in Ex. 7. The wrist is assisted by the fore-arm.
Ex. 13
Smooth detached semiquavers should be played with the point of the bow, using the wrist only. They may also be played with the middle eighth of the bow, but if a very smooth performance is desired, it is better to keep near the point. This prevents the bow from gettinga springing movement, and causes the notes to be "rubbed" out of the instrument. Much practice is necessary, to get the fingers of the left hand to work in sympathy with the movements of the bow. The fingers must be pressed firmly on the strings, at first the student must exert himself to put forth the necessary pressure, afterwards, when the muscles of the fingers are fully developed, this will be done unconsciously. When playing in the middle of the bow, care must be taken to prevent any scraping sound being produced by too much pressure on the bow, or by not regulating the pressure when reversing the bow-stroke.
Bowing Continued—Martelé—Detached Stroke—Mixed Bowings—The Various Divisions of the Bow.
Ex. 14
This style of bowing (Ex. 14) is known asmartelé. It consists of a smart heavy stroke, with the upper third of the bow. The bow is stopped suddenly at the end of each stroke, without allowing the pressure of the first finger to relax; the bow stroke being suddenly checked, causes the abrupt stoppage of the smartly vibrating string, and allows a short pause to be made between each note. The effect might be represented thus:
Ex. 14a
Ex. 15
Short detached crotchets may be played with the upper half of the bow. The stroke must be made smartly, without any real gap between the notes. The bow should seem to pass quickly and smoothly over the strings, the tone being produced by friction, rather than any pressure which the first finger may exert. The scales in crotchets may be played withmartelébowing, using whole bow-strokes as previously explained in the remarks on early exercises.
Ex. 16
Short detached quavers should be played with the upper third of the bow. There are numerous examples of this kind of bowing in the studies for violoncello, by Kummer, Dotzauer, etc.
Ex. 17
This is an exceedingly difficult kind of bowing, but if well executed has a very brilliant effect. To produce the sforzando note with the up stroke, the bow should be lifted and thrown on the string with force, care being taken to do this close to the point, or instead of a sforzando note, a series of bounces will result. The balance is preserved with the fourth finger, which also assists in raising the bow from the string for the next sforzando note; the quaver with the down stroke should be played smartly. It would be unwise to use a gold mounted Tourte, in the first attempts at this bowing, asit is possible to seriously damage the bow if not executed with skill.
Ex. 18
This bowing is performed by commencing at the middle of the bow; with a smart, light stroke, draw the bow to the point, the three quavers played very smoothly take the bow back to the middle.
Ex. 19
The bowing in Ex. 19 has the phrasing just reversed, this bowing gives a very beautiful effect if nicely executed. For the three tied quavers commence at the middle of the bow, draw it smoothly to the point, then relaxing the tension of the muscles in the right hand, carry the bow smartly over the string, back to the middle. This light up-bow should be done without any pressure, and with the bow well under control.
Ex. 20
In Ex. 20 the first quaver receives a smart down stroke at the point of the bow. The slurred quaversshould all be of equal length, and on no account must the second slurred quaver receive any emphasis. If an accompanying part preserves the original accent, the effect is very pleasing.
Ex. 21
A large variety of mixed bowings may be invented by the student, after the style of Ex. 21. The chief object in practising such, should be to obtain a facility in using the various parts of the bow. Where groups containing the same quantity of slurred notes are separated by two, four, six, or any even number of detached notes, the slurred groups are played alternately with a down and an up bow-stroke, the detached notes being played first at the point, then at the middle or near the heel (as in Ex. 21), according to the length of bow-stroke required for the slur. If the slurs are separated by one, three, five or any odd number of detached notes, the bowing will be so arranged that the slur has always to be taken with the same kind of bow stroke: to allow this the necessary quantity of bow must be gained on one of the detached notes, this may be accomplished as in Ex. 22.
Ex. 22
The slurs are always taken with a down-stroke, using the upper third of the bow. The bow should be carried back, on the first detached quaver, which being the first note of a triplet, may be given a slight emphasis; thetwo remaining quavers are played with a short wrist movement.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 4.
Before leaving the subject of mixed bowings, I would impress upon the student the necessity for the application of a good division of the bow's length, so that whatever variety of bowing presents itself, may be treated with the part of the bow, and in the manner most capable of producing the finest effects. The student should make a mental division of the bow into thirds, fourths, etc., see Fig. 4, the various divisions being designated as there shown, such as point fourth, heel fourth, upper third, etc. In the smaller divisions there given, the wrist may be assisted with a slight movement of the fore-arm, for purely wrist movements, a bow-stroke of about a couple of inches may be taken with any part of the bow, according to the requirements of the particular passage.
On "Staccato" Bowing—Spiccato—Slurred Springing-Bow—Varieties of Phrasing Occasioned by the Portion of Bow Used—Sautillé—Dotted Notes.
Ex. 23
The staccato bowing, if neatly executed, has a very brilliant effect; to obtain anything like mastery of it the student must first be careful to see that the bow is held correctly, and from the commencement, the bowing must be practised only in the recognised fashion, and according to the hints here given. If any movements other than those described are allowed, the student will find that he can never execute this difficult bowing beyond a certain speed, or if he does flatter himself in to the belief that he has arrived at a brilliant execution of it, on comparison it will be found that instead of the recognised bowing, it is one of the various kinds of trick staccato, often accomplished by a slight tremolo of the fore-arm or some such movement. The chief movement in the staccato bowing is distinctly a wrist-one, the first finger playing a great part in givingcrispness and attack to each note. The initial quaver in Ex. 23, should receive a smart down-stroke with the upper third of the bow; as previously explained in the remarks on legato bowing, the hand carries on the stroke after the fore-arm movement ceases, causing the hand, when the bow is at the point, to be turned away from the player. This should be made the foundation of the staccato stroke. As the arm progresses slowly and steadily along for the up-stroke, the hand keeps pace by a series of short jerks; these are purely wrist movements, not being assisted in any fashion by the arm. It is of the utmost importance to have the hand, and wrist, in a proper position at the beginning of the series of up-strokes, if the hand is already turned inwards, how will it be possible to execute a wrist movement in the same direction? The first finger should press firmly on the bow as the hand moves for the attack of each note, this attack if analysed, will be found to be a modified kind of sforzando on every semiquaver; the notes are separated by relieving the pressure, and also by the short pauses between the wrist movements. An explanation concerning the pressure of the first finger is perhaps necessary; the pressure is not caused by the contraction of the muscles of the first finger, so much as by the weight caused by an inward turn of the hand, being brought to bear on the bow through the medium of the first finger.
Ex. 34
The first attempts at the staccato bowing may be made on one string, after the fashion of Ex. 24; about an inch of bow may be used for each quaver, taking care to produce the sforzando effect, which in an attempt at a slow tempo should be more apparent than in a quick staccato run.
The bow must not be allowed to leave the string, the release of pressure only allowing the bow to right itself in preparation for the "bite" on the next note. After the movements previously explained have been mastered, there is nothing further required for the production of a good effect in staccato bowing, except a complete command of the upper-half of the bow, in the sense of being able to produce a good tone, without unduly straining or fatiguing the muscles of the hand and fore-arm.
The staccato may be played with the down-bow, the wrist and arm movements being simply the reverse of those in the up-bow. It is better not to commence quite at the heel, as the tone there, unless great care and skill be exercised, is apt to be "gritty." It is possible to produce a very pleasing effect on the 'cello with this bowing, even in fairly quick passages; the bow should not grip the string too heavily, nor be allowed to drag, but should be carried lightly.
In slow movements, a class of phrasing is often introduced, which although expressed like the staccato, if executed as such, would entirely spoil the effect.
Ex. 25
The four slurred staccato quavers should be played with four down-bow strokes, using the whole length of the bow, each quaver receiving about a fourth; the division between the notes should be very slight, being caused almost as much by a slight accent on each quaver, as by the bow being actually stopped.
Ex. 26
The introduction of the springing-stroke in the interpretation of a composition, is left almost entirely to the discretion of the performer. It will be observed (Ex. 26), that the same signs are used for this, as for short detached solid bowings. Although this lack of clearness in our system of musical notation is to be regretted, one cannot help but think that this very general way of expressing the whole variety of detached staccato bowing, is really a gain to the artist. What is now admired as originality, and individuality in reproduction, would be considered an undue license or lack of skill, and thus it is, that out of the very incompleteness in our musical notation, or in the failure of composers to express the details of phrasing, etc., the freedom of interpretation is given, which allowing of such various treatment, forms the foundation of the different "schools," or styles in instrumental playing.
The springing stroke is suitable for any music of a light, playful character, although it should not be continued too long without the introduction of solid bowing as a relief. In practising the scales in quavers (Ex. 26), the bow actually bounces away from the string between each note, at the moment the bow is thrown on the string, the hand should move backwards, or forwards, so that sufficient tone may be brought out of the instrument. Regarding the latter, it will be evident to the student, that the action of the bow falling on the strings cannot alone set them in vibration; no matter how brilliant is the bowing, we must have some species ofstrokeor the result will be minus tone. To allow of the maximum tone being produced which is possible with such a slight bow-stroke, the hand may droop more than usual, causing the whole width of the hair to come in contact with the strings, this will also prevent any jarring sound being occasioned by the "wood" of the bow. To prevent a very scratchy performance, the bow strokes should be made exactly at the same part of the strings; taking care that the bow springs awayat right angles. The most useful part of the bow for the slow style of spiccato, is generally just below the middle; although for detached notes with long rests between, or intermixed with left-hand pizzicato, it may be accomplished with the point.
Ex. 27
Slurred spiccato is very useful as a relief to the staccato proper.
It is performed after the same style as detached springing-stroke, except that instead of the bow being reversed at each stroke, a number of notes are played with the bow springing in one direction. The bow should be given a preliminary bounce by a smart downward turn of the wrist, then gradually moved forward, which will cause several detached strokes as the bow falls after each rebound. For long, quick passages, it is necessary to commence near the point, although not so near that instead of the bow springing, a sforzando is produced; it is not necessary to assist the bow to spring away from the strings in these quick passages, after the initial bounce has been given, the natural spring of the bow asserting itself against the weight of the hand, being sufficient to allow of twenty or more notes being played.
Although the slurred spiccato bowing is expressed in the same manner as solid staccato, the violoncellist will occasionally come across certain passages, which would lose all their charm if played with solid bowing. Ex. 28 will illustrate this. The semiquaver triplet should be executed with three smart bounces with the up-bow; then the bow should be controlled, and lightly drawn for the two tied quavers. The introduction of the twoslurred quavers in this passage, makes it almost compulsory to execute it between the middle and the heel of the bow, it being possible to check the bouncing better there than if playing near the point.
Ex. 28
However, to illustrate how the 'cellist must be able to appreciate the subtle differences in various manners of phrasing, or how an artist by a slight liberty, would transform an awkward bowing into one with more character and force, we will suppose the above passage written thus:—
Ex. 28a
The semiquaver triplet in this case, (Ex. 28a), is executed with springing-bow, using the upper third; the bow is then thrown on the string close to the point for the sforzando.
In substituting or inventing the manner of bowing any particular passage, the violoncellist should always take into consideration the character of the composition being performed, not being above considering the generally acknowledged manner of interpreting the works of well known composers. The introduction of any exaggeration in accent, etc., whilst being perfectly admissable in performing compositions by Brahms, Schumann, or Dvorak, would most probably be out of place, if introduced in similar works by Mendelssohn or Beethoven.
Ex. 29
Although this bowing is often called Spiccato, Springing-stroke, Dancing-bow, etc., etc., it must not on any consideration be confused with the bowing previously described as such, that is the springing-bow applied to passages at only a moderate tempo; the method of production and the effect of these two bowings are entirely different, the sautillé, varying from the heavier class of springing-stroke, in not being produced by any studied action of the right-hand, wrist, or fingers. The work of the fingers in executing this bowing, is merely passive, except perhaps the first finger, which assists in giving the "go" to the bow. No pressure is required; the tone seems to be "pulled" out of the instrument by the bite of the hair on the strings, the springing movement being caused solely by the elasticity of the bow.
The scales may be practised as Ex. 29, first in smooth semiquavers at the middle of the bow, using about an inch of bow, and without any pressure being applied. The scales should be worked up to a very high rate of speed; when this is accomplished, the student will find that unless he prevents the bow from springing, it will commence a kind of dancing movement, although it hardly seems as if the bow leaves the strings. The student will easily recognise the bowing when he has accomplished it, by the distinct picked out character of the notes. Most amateurs who fail to acquire this bowing, may blame their misfortune either to gripping the bow too firmly, thus not allowing the wrist and fingers sufficient play, or being "weary in well doing" with respect to practice. Modern compositions for violoncello abound with this bowing, fine examples maybe found in Am Springbrunnen, Davidoff; Papillon, Elfentanz, etc., etc., by Popper, last movement Military Concerto, and other solos by Servais; in fact nearly all modern player-writers, have composed works which introduce this fairy-like bowing.
Ex. 30
The rhythm given in Ex. 30, is frequently met with in almost every class of instrumental music. It may be bowed in four distinctly different ways. The way mostly adopted, especially in chamber, or orchestral music, where occasionally whole sections of a work have accompaniments for the strings in this rhythm, is to tie the two notes in one bow as marked in Ex. 30, this is done, even if no bowing marks whatever are given in the parts. The upper half of the bow may be used, the bow being almost drawn to the point, then suddenly stopped to allow the semiquaver to have a distinct stroke, for the latter, using about a couple of inches of bow with a wrist movement only.
Ex. 30a and b
In solo pieces, and occasional passages in chamber-music, this rhythm may be given one bow-stroke to each note. However, the effect although pleasing, is so assertive especially if executed in a very broad, heavy fashion, that the listener becomes tired before many bars have been played. This bad effect is not quite so evident if the bowing is executed in a light, playfulmanner, the very nature of the rhythm is of a gay, frolicsome character, especially in a moderately quick tempo, therefore a dull, solid performance is entirely out of place. In practising the bowing at Ex. 30A, more than a third part of the bow must not be used, and slightly less for a quicker tempo. The semiquaver must have the same length of bow-stroke as the dotted quaver; therefore the bow must move more slowly, and receive more pressure for the down-stroke than for the light up-stroke; for the latter, the bow is carried lightly over the string, with the pressure relieved. The bowing may also be reversed as in Ex. 30B, here the longer note is played with an up bow-stroke, the semiquaver receiving a smart, light, down bow.
Another method of bowing may also be occasionally used, although when compared with any of the foregoing, it will perhaps be regarded as a trifle commonplace. The bow is placed on the strings at the heel; the first dotted quaver receives a down stroke with the heel fourth, the semiquaver being played with an up-bow, using about an eighth of bow; the next dotted quaver again receives a down-stroke with a fourth; thus gaining an eighth at each dotted note, the bow gradually travels to the point. The up-bow may also be used in like manner, commencing at the point and finishing near the heel, the movements being reversed. This method of bowing will be found useful for special passages which have to be executed in a quiet manner, or where the change in bowing thus occasioned is necessary.
On the Positions—The Individual Requirements of Orchestral Player and Soloist—The Necessity of "Stretching" for the Intervals—The Locality of the Neck Positions—The Enharmonic Difference of Sharp and Flat Keys—Absolute Pitch—How to Leap any Awkward Interval—The Positions not Determined by Mathematical Rules, but by the "Ear"—Shifting—"Economy of Motion"versus"Effect"—Choice of Positions.
Although learning the various positions used in violoncello playing is neither so interesting a study nor so quickly mastered as are a few of the seemingly more difficult styles of bowing, a thorough practical knowledge of them is absolutely necessary both for orchestral and solo work. It is interesting to note, however, that extraordinary ability in any one direction is generally obtained at the expense of the other branch of 'cello playing. A long experienced orchestral player, although having a complete mastery of the "fingerboard," in the matter of being able to play almost any composition at sight, seldom possesses that perfection in bowing requisite for a successful soloist. The chief matters for special attention in the orchestra are time and tune, together with the ordinary "light and shade" effects; and considering the numerous compositions which the orchestral violoncellist must "go" through in one short season only, it is not to be expected that anygreat attention can be devoted to the perfection of bowing; or at least to such brilliant bowings as the staccato, and various spiccato effects, which are only heard to advantage when each instrument may be heard individually. The exceptions to this rule, are orchestral players who combine with their orchestral work, much practice in chamber music or solos. The same law is in effect with any who excel greatly as soloists; the solo player may have a greater command of the positions in a mechanical sense than has the orchestral player, but it is seldom he reads so well at sight. The very system of working up to perfection, and memorizing a certain number of compositions, is detrimental to good reading; in fact it may be safely said that the more an artist plays by ear the less able will he be to read at sight. I should think such artists as Piatti, Lady Hallé, Joachim, however, are notable exceptions,—not to the rule, but to great solo players being poor sight readers, but these artists have always combined much quartet playing with their solo work.
The special requirements in respect to positions, of each class of violoncellist, may be stated as follows; the soloist to be successful requires a complete mastery of the practical or mechanical part of playing perfectly in tune, and a perfect command of shifting from one position to another. The orchestral player requires the ability to quickly divine the most suitable positions in which to play any given passage, when seen expressed in musical notation. The successful quartet player must possess to a certain degree, the abilities of both classes. Whatever class of work the student intends to fit himself for, he must gain a knowledge of the positions in a practical manner,i.e., with the instrument in hand. Theory by itself is of no use, the player may know that a certain note will be produced if a given string be stopped in a certain place, but if he is unable to perform the mechanical part, and by exactly gauging the distance to be leaped, stop the note perfectly in tune, the knowledge stands for nothing.
Each position should have separate attention, and the notes obtainable thoroughly mastered both theoretically and practically before another position is attempted. The position most easily learned is the first position (first finger on B a whole tone above the open A string), and as this is in a sense the normal position in 'cello playing, and for ordinary work the most useful owing to its relation to the four open strings, the hand of the student should be allowed to become thoroughly "set" to this position, and facility obtained in stretching the various intervals, before attempting to "shift."
From the commencement, the student should compel himself tostretchfor the intervals when necessary, and not contract the bad habit of using the thumb as a kind of pivot, on which the hand is moved backwards and forwards, the thumb remaining in the same position. If the student once gets into this habit, his hope of ever playing perfectly in tune, especially in rapidly descending passages, must be abandoned; it is a bad habit, however, which nearly every learner will contract unless strictly watched; and when pupils who have had previous instruction come to me for lessons, I generally have to commence with a series of finger exercises composed expressly for its correction.
The player will find that after a few years of 'cello playing, if the correct system of fingering has been adopted, the bones of the hand (metacarpal) seem to get quite loose, and are under the control of the muscles, so that when the fingers are stretched for a wide interval, they are assisted by the hand-bones, which move direct from the wrist, almost like the action of the metacarpal bone connected with the thumb, only of course in a much smaller degree. This gives a greater width of the hand, measuring across the knuckles, and it is with this capacity that ease in stretching the intervals is arrived at, andnotwith long fingers, as some are apt to imagine. Fingers of more than ordinary length are of no special assistance in 'cello playing, if they are so firmly bound together at the knuckles as to hamper free movementfrom side to side; this is one of the chief reasons why it would be so difficult to master a stringed instrument, if maturity should be reached before commencing to learn. Besides the bones of the hand getting gradually bound together with the surrounding muscles and ligaments, if not kept in constant use; the tendons which are plainly discernable at the back of the hand seem to lose individuality, thus we see some aged people who are unable to move any one finger independently to the others. The player must grow to his instrument, and it is wonderful what change does take place in this respect, the whole character of the hand being altered; this has to come about before anything like command of the instrument can be expected.
As a ready way of describing the locality of the various "neck" positions, the names of the notes stopped by the first finger on the A string will be given only. In these neck positions, the thumb remains behind the neck of the instrument, retaining as far as possible the same relationship to the hand as in the first position, already explained. For the half-position, or what is generally known as the back-shift, the hand should move backwards from the first position the distance of half a tone, the first finger will then stop A♯ or B♭. When playing in extreme keys, this half position is very useful, especially when the notes of all the four open strings have to be played sharp.
The distance of the second position from the first is only a semitone, the first finger stopping C. This position also bears a "raised" position, sometimes named the "second-and-a-half position"; although it is easier to designate it the second raised, or if in flat keys the third lowered position. For this position, the whole hand moves forward from the second position, until the first finger stops C♯ or D♭. The third position is distant a tone and a half from the first position, the first finger stopping D. The second and third positions are perhaps not so readily mastered as are the first and fourth, or perhaps even the higher positions; for thisreason they should be all the more perseveringly practised. Not only should the notes which are obtainable in the second and third positions have special attention, the student should practise various leaps from any of the other positions, until he has their exact locality firmly fixed. When playing in the fourth position, the first finger stops E, the hand should be allowed to rest on the ribs of the instrument, this will assist the student in placing the locality of this position. The fourth position bears a lowered, but not a raised position, as there is only a semitone between E and F. The fourth lowered position is identical with the third raised position, the first finger stopping E♭ for the former, and D♯ for the latter form.
The fifth position therefore is a semitone higher than the fourth, the first finger stopping F. From the fifth position upwards to the seventh, the thumb is allowed to gradually leave its positionbehindthe neck, until for the seventh position it only touches the side of the lower portion, almost where the neck joins the body of the instrument. However, the thumb should retain its touch, so that the hand may quickly assume the necessary attitude for the lower positions when required. For the fifth raised position the first finger stops F♯.
In the sixth position, the first finger stops G. The fingers are now in advance of the thumb, also the student will observe that in these higher positions, the distance between the notes gradually grow smaller. It is now possible to stop three notes separated by intervals of whole tones (major 2nds), with the first, second, and third fingers, and not as in the first position, compulsory to use four fingers to stop three notes. The sixth raised position is taken with the first finger on G♯. The seventh position is the highest neck position practicable, the first finger stopping A.
To sum up, we find that there are seven ordinary neck positions, the fundamental notes of which on the A string, are directly related to the diatonic scale of C. Also there are six half-positions, each position bearing a"raised" form, except where the fundamental note of two positions is only separated by a semitone. This occurs in two instances,i.e., between the leading-note and tonic of the C scale (first and second position), and between the mediant and sub-dominant (fourth and fifth positions). These five raised positions, together with the backshift, gives us the six. Together with this, each position bears a normal, and a "stretched" form, for the former in the lower positions, the fingers are allowed to fall naturally at the distance of a semitone apart; for the latter the thumb (behind the neck of course), and one or more fingers remain in the position, the first finger being stretched backwards, or the third or fourth fingers stretched forwards, or both.
I am aware that some theorists may object to the method of assigning the same position to say B♭ and A♯, on the principle that B♭ is lower in pitch than A♯. However, if the matter is thoroughly looked into, we shall find that the system of portioning out the fingerboard with mathematical exactness, and giving to the various groups the names of positions, is really under the control of another system. This system, which is found to be the chief factor both in singing in tune, and in giving the stringed instrumentalist the power of playing in tune, for want of a more comprehensive title might be named "relative pitch." The student if sufficiently advanced may easily prove this to himself in the following manner.
Reverse the usual position of the instrument, that is, instead of having the fingerboard turned away, place the 'cello in such a position that the whole length of the fingerboard may be viewed from before. Now endeavour to point out the position of any given note, it will be found that an entirely wrong conception has been formed of the distance between the intervals, and it will be almost impossible to place the exact position, where any isolated note could be sounded exactly in tune. Perhaps more success will be experienced inplacing the position of a few of the easier divisions of the string, like the harmonic at the half-string, but strange as it may appear, the attempts to point out the exact positions of notes even in the first position, will, in nearly every case, be complete failures. If the reader has had much experience in teaching the 'cello, and has become accustomed to judge the distance of notes by eye measurement, he must be considered an exception to the above. This proves to us then that the eye has, or should have, nothing to do with gauging the distances to be leaped, or stretched, for the various intervals. It is here that a wonderful faculty is found to exist in the trained violoncellist; this faculty is obtained by the wonderful connection between the fingers and arm movement, and the "ear," or more correctly, the brain. At first sight it appears very wonderful how any given interval between two sounds may be reduced down to measurement, and have its tonal character represented by a physical movement, but with long practice the movements of the arm and fingers become so perfectly under control, and work in such sympathy with the brain, that the act of conceiving the character of an interval, and its production, seems almost to be accomplished by the same brain action. This applies only to the production of one note in relation to another, or to the position of a note in relation to a fixed position, and not to isolated notes. How then is the 'cellist to establish the pitch, and decide the position of an isolated note, if in such a high position that no guide is given to the hand, such as is noticed in positions like the fourth? Although pursuing this subject has the appearance of leading us away from the chief matter of the present chapter, it is of such importance to the instrumentalist to know exactly how to obtain any isolated note, and as it is so much more easily explained at the present stage, it will be better to consider it straight away.
The brain must have some basis whereon to build up an expectation relative to any isolated sound. Thus, if a solitary note is represented on the music page, say E♭,the brain not having any fixed sound whereby to place the tonality of E♭, no expectation is raised as to its probable pitch; to bring this to practice. A pianist striking the one note E♭, on the piano, would feel quite satisfied with the pitch of the sound produced, whether the piano should happen to be tuned a quarter of a tone either below, or above concert pitch. This statement is open to challenge by the upholders of the theory of absolute pitch; I am well aware that afewmusicians have this gift of absolute pitch, and perhaps a greater number still, from long practice with one fixed sound—like the singing master with his C tuning fork—are able to guess the pitch of that one sound with moderate success, but for a musician to have the pitch of all the range of sounds so thoroughly established, as to feel a sense of disappointment if an isolated note was sounded either slightly above, or below concert pitch, is almost an impossibility, if such an one does exist he must be considered an exception to the above. It may be accepted as the general rule, that until one note is heard, no expectation is raised as to any given note. The 'cellist, therefore, not having any fixed notes like the pianist, would be completely at sea, especially if a composition should commence on a note in rather an awkward position, say on the E♭ above the A half string. If an introduction in the accompaniment preceded, the 'cellist would be able to tell after the E♭ was sounded, whether he had happened to hit on the right position, but it would hardly be edifying to the audience to commence the note slightly out of tune, and shuffle to the correct pitch, after the accompanying chords were struck, nor would they appreciate a series of introductory grace notes leading to the required position.
It is here that the faculty of gauging the distance of aknowninterval, taking the required note by a leap from some equally well known position, is brought into force. If the 'cellist has just previously tuned his instrument, the sounds of the open strings will be still fresh in his mind, dispensing with A, D and G, the C being thenearest related to E♭ will be immediately seized upon, and a conception of the interval to be leaped (a minor third above the third octave), will be firmly established. After this the process is chiefly mechanical, the move may be made from any position the exact locality of which the student is thoroughly acquainted with, exactly as if leaping from a note in that position to the required E♭, as—