Lesson 9

Fig. 110.—Mrs. Stark washing out of doors on a warm day. This is the old way. She has just bought a washing machine.

The processes for washing and ironing.If the stains have been removed from the table linen, it can then be soaked. Soaking helps to loosen the dirt when soap is added before the soaking. It is then unnecessary to rub them as much, and so materials are saved from wear. These are the processes for washing and ironing: soaking, washing, rinsing, boiling, rinsing, bluing, starching, hanging, drying, sprinkling, pulling, folding, ironing.

1.Soaking.Soak the table or bed linens about 1½ hours in cold or lukewarm water. Soap is really not necessary as the linen is not very dirty. All stains should have been previously removed.2.Washing.Wash with soap on both sides, rubbing on clothes board or in washing machine. Use hot water.3.Rinsing.Rinse and soap again to be placed in the boiler. The dirt is carried away by this rinsing.4.Boiling.Put the soaped articles in clear cold water. Boil briskly for five minutes. Add enough soap to keep a suds while boiling; save small pieces for this purpose. Stir clothes and press with a stick. Remove from boiler, after boiling actively for five minutes. Put in clean hot water, then in cold. Rinse once or twice again thoroughly before bluing.5.Bluing.Make the blue water from some good blue. Do not make it too deep. Test on a small doily. Stir the blue before each article is dipped, so it may not appear streaked on the clothes. If articles are very yellow it may be necessary to let them stand in the blue for a little while. If not yellow, dip two or three times.The next process is starching; but it is not as a rule necessary to starch napkins, tablecloths, or bed linens.6.Hanging.Hang very straight after stretching. Do not pin at corners. Hang ⅓ of the napkin or tablecloth over the line.7.Sprinkling.Table linen must be sprinkled evenly. Sometimes it can be taken from the line when half dry, and the process of sprinkling omitted.8.Ironing.Linen should be ironed damp and until dry. This makes the pattern stand out and gives a shine and gloss to the linen. This takes the place of starch.9.Folding.Iron napkins partly dry on wrong side; then turn to right side, and iron dry. Fold edges evenly. In the lengthwise fold do not fold quite to end, as in the final fold the napkin, handkerchief, tablecloth, or sheets will appear uneven at the edges. Fold the tablecloth, or napkins with selvedges together. Tablecloths may be folded with three, or four, long creases.

1.Soaking.Soak the table or bed linens about 1½ hours in cold or lukewarm water. Soap is really not necessary as the linen is not very dirty. All stains should have been previously removed.

2.Washing.Wash with soap on both sides, rubbing on clothes board or in washing machine. Use hot water.

3.Rinsing.Rinse and soap again to be placed in the boiler. The dirt is carried away by this rinsing.

4.Boiling.Put the soaped articles in clear cold water. Boil briskly for five minutes. Add enough soap to keep a suds while boiling; save small pieces for this purpose. Stir clothes and press with a stick. Remove from boiler, after boiling actively for five minutes. Put in clean hot water, then in cold. Rinse once or twice again thoroughly before bluing.

5.Bluing.Make the blue water from some good blue. Do not make it too deep. Test on a small doily. Stir the blue before each article is dipped, so it may not appear streaked on the clothes. If articles are very yellow it may be necessary to let them stand in the blue for a little while. If not yellow, dip two or three times.

The next process is starching; but it is not as a rule necessary to starch napkins, tablecloths, or bed linens.

6.Hanging.Hang very straight after stretching. Do not pin at corners. Hang ⅓ of the napkin or tablecloth over the line.

7.Sprinkling.Table linen must be sprinkled evenly. Sometimes it can be taken from the line when half dry, and the process of sprinkling omitted.

8.Ironing.Linen should be ironed damp and until dry. This makes the pattern stand out and gives a shine and gloss to the linen. This takes the place of starch.

9.Folding.Iron napkins partly dry on wrong side; then turn to right side, and iron dry. Fold edges evenly. In the lengthwise fold do not fold quite to end, as in the final fold the napkin, handkerchief, tablecloth, or sheets will appear uneven at the edges. Fold the tablecloth, or napkins with selvedges together. Tablecloths may be folded with three, or four, long creases.

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

1. Try to wash and iron the napkins for mother.2. Try to wash and iron some towels or pillowcases. Is the process different?3. Why is it unnecessary to iron some clothes if one is very busy. Can you give a good reason why it is hygienic not to iron them.

1. Try to wash and iron the napkins for mother.

2. Try to wash and iron some towels or pillowcases. Is the process different?

3. Why is it unnecessary to iron some clothes if one is very busy. Can you give a good reason why it is hygienic not to iron them.

THE STORY OF THE MANUFACTURE OF LINEN YARN INTO CLOTH

To-day we are going to study again about our linen tablecloths and napkins, and learn how the flax fiber is made into cloth after it has been cleaned at the scutching mill.

Fig. 111.—The flax wheel.

Combing and spinning flax.Uncle John divided his story in two parts, and told the Pleasant Valley Girls' League about the manufacture of flax as well as about its growth. The scutched flax is delivered to the manufacturer. He must first spin the flax into yarn before it can be woven into cloth. The flax fibers measure from 20 to 35 inches in length. How are they to be made into one continuous piece for spinning? The pictures (Figs. 112 and 113) will give a very good idea. Long ago grandmother or great-grandmother spun the yarn for the linen sheets on the flax wheel. Marjorie's grandmother sent her old flax wheel to school for the girls to see. The flax is here on the distaff. If you haven't a wheel at your school, look at the picture (Fig. 111). The woman is holding the flax fibers which come from the distaff; and, as her footturns the wheel and the flax in her fingers is fed to the spindle, it is twisted. Spinning of flax is a very old invention. It was once done with just a spindle like the woman has in the picture on page 71 (Fig. 44). This is the secret of how flax spinning is done to-day. The flax is opened at the mill and graded according to color and quality. It is then combed. This process is called hackling (Fig. 112). It is sometimes done by hand, and the worker draws the flax over the iron teeth of a comb. The straightened fibers are left and are called line; and the combed-out fibers are called tow. This first combing process is sometimes called roughing instead of hackling. The line is then combed again in a big machine which removes any loose tow. Tow is often put in a carding machine and made into yarn for coarser purposes; but the long straight line is used for the better materials. The line, after it is hackled, is placed on a spread board; and the process is called spreading. You can see in the picture (Fig. 113) thatthe bundles of flax yarn are spread and overlapped as they enter the machine. Now you know how the yarn begins to be made of continuous length. The flax comes from this machine in a rope and is something like the cotton rope or roving as it leaves the carding machine; but flax is brown and stiff, not so soft as cotton. Can you find in the picture (Fig. 113) the cans ready to receive the flax rovings as they come from the spreading machine? They are at the back of the machine. The rovings are then ready to be wound on spools and to be twisted to make them strong. This is done in the same way as the cotton. The spools are put in at the top of the machine; they hold therovings. The rovings pass over rollers which draw out and twist and wind the yarn on the spools below. This is called spinning. (Fig. 46 shows the cotton spinning machines.) Flax spinning is somewhat like this. Perhaps some day you may be able to visit a flax mill and see the spinning frames, as the machines are called, at work. Uncle John says that yarns are made of coarse or of very fine grade, according to the fineness of cloth desired. Linen thread is made by twisting together two or three of the linen yarns. Look at the linen thread and see if you can discover two or three.

Courtesy of York St. Mills, Belfast.Fig. 112.—Flax hackling done by machine.

Courtesy of York St. Mills, Belfast.

Fig. 112.—Flax hackling done by machine.

Courtesy of York St. Mills, Belfast.Fig. 113.—Spreading flax to make it a continuous line.

Courtesy of York St. Mills, Belfast.

Fig. 113.—Spreading flax to make it a continuous line.

Weaving linen.After the threads of flax have been spun, they are wound on spools; and the spools areput in the big spool holder or skarn in order to prepare the roll of warp threads for the loom. Do you remember how the cotton warp was prepared and how the weaving was done? Uncle John says that in Scotland to-day much of the very fine linen is woven by hand; but we know that linen weaving by machinery has been perfected there and that very beautiful materials are produced on the modern looms with the Jacquard harness as it is called, to produce the wonderful designs. Fine table damask is as beautiful as fine silk. The French, perhaps, make the most beautiful designs for table linen, and the Scotch and Irish come next. (See page 124 for Jacquard loom.)

Bleaching linen cloth.Uncle John says there are many things to be done to the linen cloth after it is woven. If we were to go to Ireland, we might ride for miles and see the woven linen cloth spread on the grass in great lengths. This is called crofting or grass bleaching. Do you remember how we said grandmother used to bleach her linen? Did she use a chemical? What did the sour milk which she used do to her linen? What did the oxygen do? Chemicals are sometimes used to-day in the early stages before the linen is spread on the grass. Uncle John says that from 20-25 per cent, or about ¼, of the weight of the linen is lost in bleaching. Linen is sometimes bleached in the thread, but more often after it is woven.

Finishing linen cloth for shipping.After linen cloth has been bleached, Uncle John says it is ready to befinished for shipping to the merchants. It is washed by passing the cloth through a machine called a rub-board. Then it is dried and passed through a beetling machine. This makes the fibers stand out. Then it is pressed between rollers to give it a smooth surface. Cotton is sometimes finished by means of these processes to look like linen and be sold for linen. When this cotton material is washed, the finishing wears off and it does not look like linen. Is such material cheaper or more expensive? Is it honest to sell cotton for linen, and to cheat the buyer? It is all right if the goods are labeled. Next lesson we shall talk about the buying of household linens. One must know many things in order to purchase wisely. Do you see how a knowledge of how things are made will help you, too?

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

1. Write a story of two hundred words telling how flax is made into cloth.2. Have an exhibit of articles brought from home, showing different patterns of linen cloth.3. Perhaps there may be a cord factory near for you to visit. Tow is sometimes used in making twine. Study how cord is made.

1. Write a story of two hundred words telling how flax is made into cloth.

2. Have an exhibit of articles brought from home, showing different patterns of linen cloth.

3. Perhaps there may be a cord factory near for you to visit. Tow is sometimes used in making twine. Study how cord is made.

A TALK ABOUT BUYING LINENS

Have you ever gone shopping with mother? There are some important things to remember when buying table linen or other household materials. What are they?

Marjorie goes with her mother once a year to buy household linens. This is usually in January, when the big shop in town has a sale. Last January, when Marjorie's mother was ill, they had to order by mail. The catalogue from the shop described fully, and Mrs. Allen knew exactly what to ask for; so they managed without going to town. This can be done if one knows how and if the store is a reliable one. These are some of the things Mrs. Allen is teaching Marjorie. Some day she will wish to buy for her own home; or, if her mother is ill again, she can go alone. It is always more satisfactory to see what one is buying.

Here are some of the points to be noticed in buying:

1. The first important thing to remember is to buy only what one needs. Know the shops one patronizes, if possible, and go or send to only reliable firms. The reliable places are the cheapest in the end. One learns, too, that some things are better at one shop and some at another. Reliable stores often have sales, but as a rule bargains are not cheap. Remember nothing is ever given away.

2. It is wise and cheaper to purchase some new household linen once each year than to wait and have it all wear out at once.

3. Cost is a good guide. Linen is expensive. If too cheap, beware.

4. Linen is sometimes cheapened or adulterated with cotton. If the store keeper sells it for union, itis honest; if he calls it linen, and you pay linen price, it is dishonest. Ravel and untwist the ends of the warp and filling thread. Cotton will be fuzzy, linen should be long and lustrous. Round threads of linen are best. The linen threads appear pointed at the ends when separated. The all linens made from the tow (you have learned what that is) are cheaper than those made from the line. Why? They will not last quite so well.

Wet the linen. Water spreads more rapidly on linen than on cotton. An old-fashioned test was to moisten with the finger. If you have a sample of linen at home for testing, use a drop of olive oil. The oil makes the linen fibers more translucent than the cotton. Why?

5. Another way to know. Linen feels colder than cotton; also it feels heavier when crushed in the hand.

6. Notice the finish. Is it full of starch which can be picked off? If so, after the washing you will have a loosely woven material without starch. It is better to buy a softer linen than one filled stiff with starch which will crack.

7. Damask by the yard is slightly cheaper than by the cloth. One dollar a yard is a fair price. Table cloths from 2½ to 3 yards are a good size for a family of six. A cloth wears about as long as 1½ or 2 dozen napkins. The price of one dozen napkins about equals the cost of a cloth. Napkins come in three sizes:5⁄8, 17-22 inches; ¾, 23-27 inches;7⁄8, 29-31 inches.

8. Scotch, French, and Irish linens are the best for quality, beauty, and variety of patterns. German damask is good; but German patterns are perhaps the least attractive. Unbleached linen will wear much longer, is less expensive, and is bought by many housewives and bleached as used.

9. For family towels huckaback is the most serviceable, although damask is used a great deal. Linen towels vary in price from $3.00 a dozen up, according to size and quality. Dish towels of linen crash are very serviceable.

10. The microscope is the only sure test for distinguishing cotton and linen fibers.

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

1. Ask mother if she knows any other methods of judging good linen.2. When you go to town, price some tablecloths and napkins. How much will a good cloth and napkins cost?

1. Ask mother if she knows any other methods of judging good linen.

2. When you go to town, price some tablecloths and napkins. How much will a good cloth and napkins cost?

REVIEW PROBLEMS

I. Plan a systematic way of looking over your clothing and keeping it in repair.II. How do you store your winter clothing for protection during summer? Your summer clothes during winter?III. How does your knowledge of buying linens help you in going shopping with mother?

I. Plan a systematic way of looking over your clothing and keeping it in repair.

II. How do you store your winter clothing for protection during summer? Your summer clothes during winter?

III. How does your knowledge of buying linens help you in going shopping with mother?

THE PLEASANT VALLEY GIRLS LEARN TO MAKE MORE GARMENTS

Would you like to learn to make some useful garments? Perhaps, then, you can help with the family sewing and make some useful garments for your sister or mother. Some day you may wish to be a seamstress or a dressmaker and to earn money in that way. Barbara Oakes says she expects to do so. Now is the time to begin to learn how, and later perhaps you may go to a dressmaking school.

Barbara Oakes and some of the League girls have a class which meets once a week for instruction in gymnastics and fancy dancing. In the spring or early summer they expect to give a dance outdoors. A pageant will be prepared by some of the members of the Mothers' Club; and the dance is part of that pageant.

The pageant will picture the history of Pleasant Valley. The Mothers' Club is planning to have all the people who will, take part. Have you ever seen apageant? It is a pleasant way to learn history and to celebrate an interesting local event. Pageants have been held in many parts of the eastern and western states; and in England there have been many pageants. Perhaps you can plan a pageant for your town. While the girls are practicing their dancing and gymnastics, bloomers will be very useful, and the girls have decided to learn to make them. Would you like to learn how? The bloomers will be useful for school gymnastics, too. You can also make a middy blouse and a skirt to wear with them, so as to have the whole outfit.

THE PATTERN OF THE BLOOMERS

Let us study the pattern which your teacher has brought to school. You have learned to read patterns. You must also calculate how much material to order, and what kind.

Let us open the pattern and study its parts.Yes, the long narrow strips are for the belt; some are for the placket facings. Notice if the dots indicate where these are to be placed: on a fold of material or lengthwise of the cloth. There is one other piece. It is the leg; so two must be cut. Is it possible to cut two at the same time? How, then, should the material be folded? Notice the perforations. They will help us to know which part of the pattern is to be placed on the warp of the cloth. How wide is the width of the pattern at the widest part? If it is 34 inches, then it will be easyto calculate how many lengths to buy of cloth 36 inches wide. Measure the length of the pattern and see if it is long enough for you to allow for fullness at the knee so that there is some to blouse over. If not, how will you add to the pattern? This extra length must be allowed in ordering the material. Can you tell how much cloth to order? See if you can calculate.

Fig. 114.—The bloomers and middy blouse.

What kind of material will you use?Some of the Pleasant Valley girls wish wool material because it will be warmer for winter wear. Dark blue or black serge is very durable, is washable also, and will shed the dust. Here are some samples. Sateen is also a durable cotton material, but it is not so warm. It is easier for girls to handle in making than wool. Bloomers can also be made from gingham, percale, galatea, or other cotton cloth. Which will you choose? Shall we not write for some samples of these different materials? The Pleasant Valley girls wrote and received them in a few days. Perhaps you too are learning how to order by mail when you are too far away from town to go shopping. Try to make all the calculations to-day and to learn all about the pattern. Pin the pieces of the pattern together; also try to hold them up to your figure or the girl next to you. It helps one to learn where the parts lieon the body and to locate where the seams will fall. The Pleasant Valley girls worked in pairs and helped each other with the cutting, fitting, and planning. This is a good way when each girl does her part.

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

1. Open the pattern for the bloomers. Notice the parts, also the perforations and directions.2. Calculate how much cloth will be necessary for a pair of bloomers for yourself.3. Bring samples of materials suitable for bloomers.

1. Open the pattern for the bloomers. Notice the parts, also the perforations and directions.

2. Calculate how much cloth will be necessary for a pair of bloomers for yourself.

3. Bring samples of materials suitable for bloomers.

THE STORY OF WHERE WOOL IS GROWN

While you are waiting for the samples of wool serges, galatea, and sateen, let us study about wool. Wool is the most important textile fiber. All girls should know about it, whether you will use wool or cotton for your bloomers.

In the picture (Fig. 115) you will see a very peaceful scene. The sheep are grazing and storing up food and energy to be converted into food for us to eat and clothing for us to wear. Mr. Allen has over a hundred sheep on his farm. How grateful we should be to the patient sheep. This animal fiber called wool is a variety of hair, and varies in fineness. The coarser varieties are called hair. Hair is obtained from the angora goat, the camel, and alpaca. Perhaps your teacher has a microscope. Look at the fibers under the glass. You can see how hair differs from wool. There are tinyserrations on the wool surface which look like the scales of a pine cone, lapping one over the other. This is a wonderful thing to see; for it is on account of these tiny serrations which close up when in hot water that one must be so careful about laundering woolens. Wool looks wavy in length. It is fine and has a luster; while hair has a smooth surface and lies straight.

Rosa Bonheur.Fig. 115.—These peaceful looking sheep provide our wool clothing.

Rosa Bonheur.

Fig. 115.—These peaceful looking sheep provide our wool clothing.

Have you ever seen sheep sheared of their wool?Perhaps it is done on your farm. Sheep are usually sheared only once a year, in April or May. If there are only a few sheep, it is easy to use the hand shearslike those in the picture (Fig. 117); but where there are many sheep, the machine clippers must be used. These clipping machines can be run by hand or other power. They shear close and save wool. Notice the machine which the man in the picture (Fig. 118) is using; it is just like the one Mr. Allen uses. Frank or John sometimes helps. The coating of wool from one sheep is called a fleece. On the large sheep ranches of the West the fleeces are tied into bundles, and these bundles are put in sacks holding about 400 pounds to be shipped to certain wool-purchasing centers where the buyers examine the wool and buy in quantities.

Fig. 116.—Wool fibers magnified.

What do you know about the sheep industry?Our sheep industry is very important. The western states, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Oregon, support about 38 million sheep. That is a large family to shear and feed.

Fig. 117.—The hand shears.

Other countries grow sheep for clothing wools, too. Australia, England, South Africa, South America, Spain, and Germany all give much attention to sheep raising.

Courtesy of Chicago Flexible Shaft Co.Fig. 118.—Sheep shearing by machinery.

Courtesy of Chicago Flexible Shaft Co.

Fig. 118.—Sheep shearing by machinery.

This industry is very old. We read in the Bible that wool was used long ago and that King David of Israel wrote psalms as he tended his sheep on the hillside. Abel, the brother of Cain, was a keeper of sheep. Can you find these stories in the Bible? Writers of many ages tell about wool—Pliny, Homer, and Virgil. Alexander too, when he journeyed to India in early days, saw beautiful woolen shawls being made.

Some sheep give a better quality of wool than others.The Merino wool is the very finest. The camel furnishes a beautiful soft fiber. Then, there is the angora goat of Asia Minor, which provides us with mohair. This is a lovely soft fiber resembling silk. Can you find this country on your map? Look for Peru and for Chili. The sheep there furnish the alpaca and llama wools.

Some wool fibers are long, and some are quite short.The length of fiber, or staple as it is called, varies. An average length is 7 or 8 inches. How does this compare with the silk or linen fiber? Is it as long as cotton? The fibers also vary in strength and luster, fineness, softness, and elasticity. What do these words mean? Can you find them in your dictionary? The tiny serrations on the wool fiber cannot be seen with the naked eye. They are, however, very important; for it is this characteristic of wool which makes it felt, and, because these tiny serrations interlock, it is possible to make the fine texture of broadcloth and other fine wool materials. We shall study how later. Do you think we wish the tiny serrations to interlock when we wash woolen articles? If they do, what will happen to the garment? Do you know how this can be prevented? If you have sheep on your farm or near, will you bring some of the wool to school. It is dirty. Perhaps you can wash it at school, and see how soft and fine and lustrous it is. You may also be able to dye some. The center of the wool fiber is ratherporous, and this enables the fiber to take up dye easily.

The wool from some sheep farms varies on account of the differences in climate, soil, and breed of sheep.The sheep of southern England produce short and fine wool; while in the north, where it is colder, the wool is stronger and coarser. Wools from Saxony and Silesia are very fine. The English and Australian wools are of several qualities. The long wools come from Lincoln and Leicestershire, and the shorter from Suffolk and Shropshire. Can you find these places on your map of England? The long coarse wools are used for carpets and for knitting, because they are so strong. The short wools used for clothing are about 3 to 4 inches in length. The long wools, about 10 inches in length, are called combing wools and are used for materials which are loosely woven like serges, homespuns, and others.

Next lesson we shall study our samples of woolen materials. Bring all the scraps of different kinds which you can contribute. Put them in the surprise box. We shall learn the names of the most common ones. Will you make a sample book for these too?

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

1. Find on the map the principal countries producing wool.2. If your teacher has a microscope, compare wool and hair. How do they differ?3. Why do woolen garments shrink when washed in hot water?4. Why is wool the most important fiber of commerce?5. Tell some of the uses of long coarse wools; of the finer wools.

1. Find on the map the principal countries producing wool.

2. If your teacher has a microscope, compare wool and hair. How do they differ?

3. Why do woolen garments shrink when washed in hot water?

4. Why is wool the most important fiber of commerce?

5. Tell some of the uses of long coarse wools; of the finer wools.

SOME OF THE MOST COMMON MATERIALS MADE FROM WOOL

There are many materials made from wool. Let us learn to-day about those which are used most commonly.

Perhaps some one in the class will sort the pieces in the surprise box. Mollie Stark sorted those at Pleasant Valley School. Do not sort according to color, but place them in three piles. We have the thick, close materials, which are heavy and firm. Then we have the thin, sheer ones. In the third pile, place the medium weight ones which look strong and are wiry but not so closely woven and firm as those in the first pile. Shall we learn about some of each kind?

Let us see what we have in the third pile of wiry, more loosely woven materials.First we have theserges. Here are several pieces. Some are fine with the twilled weave, and others are twilled but the weave is coarser. They are very serviceable and are suitable for bloomers, or for dress fabrics. Here is a sample of a plaid serge. Marjorie Allen had such a dress last winter. It is possible to buy plain colors too. Serges are woven quite wide, from 42 to 54 inches, and cost from 75 cents to $3 per yard.Cheviotsare very similar to serges in price and width, but are somewhat heavier in appearance. The surface of some is rather rougher than serge, although there are smooth cheviots too. Have some samples of serges been sent from the store? Youmust examine these, too, to see if you will select one for your bloomers.

This coarse one in the same pile is ahomespun, and this is atweed. They are both rough, wiry, loosely woven, and made of rather coarse yarn. They are rather open in texture and were both in olden times spun and woven by hand, but are now made by machinery. Tweed gets its name from a place in Scotland. These materials are very serviceable, especially for rough wear for suitings, coats, or dress goods. The color or pattern is not always clearly defined, because the yarn of which it is woven is mixed in color. Homespuns are somewhat cheaper than tweeds. They cost from $1 to $3 per yard, and are woven from 42 to 50 inches wide. Tweeds are a little wider, 52 to 54 inches, and cost from $2 to $4 per yard.

There are four samples in this pile, not quite so heavy. They arecashmere,challie,albatross, andhenrietta. Have you ever heard these names before? They are all common wool materials. They are often used for girls' school dresses, for wrappers, and for baby wear. They are all softer than serges. Cashmere and henrietta resemble each other. They both have a twilled weave. Henrietta was originally woven with a silk warp. One can buy silk warp henrietta to-day. Grandmother Stark has one. Is there a sample in your box? Cashmere is also soft, and the finer qualities are made from hair of the cashmere goat. Cashmere is woven 36 to 45 inches in width and can be boughtfor from 75 cents to $1.25 per yard. Henrietta is about the same width and price, except when it has silk warp. Then it is more expensive.

Challie and albatross are about the same weight. I am sure you have all had a pretty challie dress sometime. Challies are figured;—sometimes the pattern is woven in and sometimes printed. It is made sometimes of a mixture of cotton and wool, or silk and wool; but now challies can be bought in all cotton too as well as in all wool. They come about 30 inches wide and cost from 50 to 75 cents per yard.

Albatross is also soft and a fancy weave. It too is used for dress goods and costs about the same as challie, 50 cents to $1 per yard. It is woven from 38 to 45 inches in width.

Let us now examine some of the heavy ones in the first pile.Yes, every one knows the name of the heavy fine piece. It isbroadclothand is used for coats and dress goods. There are also some lighter weights of broadcloth with a smooth satiny finish. They are calledlady's cloth. A very good broadcloth is expensive, and costs about $5 per yard. One can buy it for $1.50, but as a rule it is not very satisfactory under $2 per yard. Broadcloth is closely woven, smooth, and soft in finish. It is from 50 to 58 inches in width. Has any one at your house a dress or coat made from this? Examine it and ask how durable it has been. Father's winter overcoat was perhaps made ofmelton, orcovert cloth. Mr. Allen had such a coat last year. Examinethe samples. They are both heavy. Melton is about the same width as broadcloth, 52 inches, and costs also from $2 to $4 per yard for a good quality. It is used for suits, overcoats, and heavy garments. This is a standard material and is usually dark blue or black. Uniforms are often made from it.

Covert cloth is, also, used for overcoats and suits. It is heavy, but differs from the smooth surface of broadcloth. It is a heavy twilled cloth.

Feltandflannelare both in this heavy pile, although there are some lightweight flannels. Felt is not woven, but is compressed, so that the wool fibers are matted together in a flat mass. It is made 24 to 50 inches in width and costs from 80 cents to $1.50 per yard. I am sure you all know its use. School pennants are made from it, and so are some table covers. Flannel is woven. It is finished with a soft surface which is slightly napped. What does that mean? It is a rather loosely woven fabric, and is used for many purposes. Can you tell some? Yes, petticoats, baby garments, waists, dressing sacques, shirts for men. It costs from 50 cents to $1 per yard. Sometimes it is made of a combination of cotton and wool, instead of all wool. It varies in width from 27 to 36 inches.

Let us examine some of the thin samples.Here is one which it is almost possible to see through. It is calledvoileand is thin and gauzy, like veiling. This sample near is callednun's veiling. It, also, has an open mesh weave, and is a common wool material.They are both used for dress goods, and are made in solid colors. There are also some printed voiles, but they are usually made of cotton.Wool voilecosts from $1.25 to $2 per yard and is woven from 42 to 45 inches wide; while nun's veiling is narrower, 36 inches wide, and slightly less expensive, from 75 cents to $1 per yard.

Here are some samples calledetamineandgrenadine. They are similar to the voiles, of open mesh weave, and are used principally for dress goods.

Buntingis another open mesh weave. We certainly all know its use. Look at the flag flying on your schoolhouse. Bunting is about 24 inches in width and costs about 35 cents per yard. It is sometimes made from mohair.

Here are three samples: one calledbrilliantine; and another,alpaca; the third,mohair. The brilliantine and mohair do not feel as soft as the wool serges or cashmeres, but rather more wiry. They are made from hair of the Angora goat. They are serviceable, for they both shed dust and wear well. They are used for dresses or dust coats. The Alpaca is made from the hair of the llama, which is bright, strong, and elastic. All of these materials are bright and glossy. Here are their prices and woven widths:

Alpaca36-45 inches75 cents-$1 per yardBrilliantine54 inches75 cents-$2 per yardMohair40-54 inches50 cents-$2 per yard

There are still some common wool materials we have not mentioned.Yes,blankets. They are made of cotton as well as of wool, or of a mixture of the two. They cost from $7 to $30 per pair if all wool. The combination of cotton and wool can be had for less.

Carpetsare also made from wool yarn. They are woven so that the yarn stands up in loops, and then these loops are cut as in velvet carpet. In Brussels and ingrain carpets the loops are not cut.

Suppose you plan to arrange your sample books with three columns of materials made from wool. You may have four or five columns if you prefer to put the mohairs, alpacas, and brilliantines by themselves, and the blankets and carpets in a separate column. That is the way the Pleasant Valley girls arranged theirs. The first will be the heavy materials; then the medium weight, and then the thin ones. It is easy to sort and label them now that you know their names, uses, and widths. Before very long we shall learn the story of how the wool fiber is made into so many different kinds of cloth. It is treated by different processes in manufacture in order to get a smooth close finish or a loose wiry finish. We shall learn how.

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

1. Tell the difference between felt and flannel.2. Name some heavy wool materials; some of lighter weight. Tell where you have seen them used.

1. Tell the difference between felt and flannel.

2. Name some heavy wool materials; some of lighter weight. Tell where you have seen them used.

3. Look up the story of how carpets are made. Perhaps you would like to study about rugs, too.4. How do serges and broadcloths differ in appearance?5. Plan to collect materials for the five columns of the chart. Mount with prices and widths.

3. Look up the story of how carpets are made. Perhaps you would like to study about rugs, too.

4. How do serges and broadcloths differ in appearance?

5. Plan to collect materials for the five columns of the chart. Mount with prices and widths.

MAKING A PAIR OF BLOOMERS

Let us begin to make the bloomers to-day.

First, we shall lay the pattern.Some girls have probably chosen serge for their bloomers, and some have ordered galatea or sateen. The black or the blue are serviceable. Suppose you cut them out to-day. You have studied the pattern which your teacher had. Perhaps some girls will find it necessary to add in length or width. Your teacher ordered the pattern by size, according to age. 14-year size was chosen. Perhaps you must make yours smaller or larger. One pattern can be adapted to the whole class. This you allowed for, in ordering the amount of cloth. Let us place the pattern carefully. Be sure that the perforations which indicate lengthwise of the material are placed on the warp. Can you cut out both legs at the same time? Can you tell where to place the two strips for the bands, and for the placket facings? Which way of the material will the length of band and facings be cut? Pin carefully in place and cut with an even motion. It will perhaps be safer to mark the notcheswith a pencil or with a white thread. Girls sometimes forget—cut the notches too large and spoil the cloth.

Then we shall learn to make a flat felled seam.Thetwolegs are to be sewed up on the right side. Be very careful not to make both legs for the same leg. That is the mistake Marjorie Allen made. Baste the seam ½ inch wide. Then stitch close to the basting. Cut off one edge of this seam to within1⁄8inch of the stitching, and lay the other edge of seam flat on the cloth for the fell. Turn in the raw edge, baste, and stitch flat. This must be done very carefully, for it is very easy to make a fell which is wrinkled and full instead of flat (see Fig. 119).

Fig. 119.—The flat fell, showing the three steps in making:A, the seam stitched;B, one edge cut;C, the turning of the other edge flat, to be basted and stitched.

Join the two legs together at the center with the same flat fell. Be sure to have the two leg seams come together. This is important.

The placket openings lie over the hip. A single strip may be used to bind this opening, or a regular placket may be made according to your pattern. If a strip is used, cut it lengthwise of the cloth and one inch longer than twice the length of placket opening. If cut 2½ inches wide, the finished facing will be one inch in width. Place the right side of the strip to the right side of the bloomers. Baste ¼ inch seams, holding strip all around the placket opening; and then stitch. Turn to the wrong side, turn in ¼ inch and baste, stitch again. Care must be taken at the bottom of the placket opening to make the seam of sufficient width so that it will not pull out.

At the bottom of each leg make a hem, one inch wide finished. Stitch, leaving one inch open. This is the opening for the elastic band. Run in the elastic before completing the hem by hand.

Now we are ready for the bands.There is one for the front and one for the back. If your pattern allows for fullness, gather to fit ½ of your waist measure. It will be necessary to measure your bands and to allow the two inches for lapping on the back band. The front band is usually shorter than the back. Fasten the bloomers so that they lap towards the front.

To put on the band, work in the same way as in putting on the apron or petticoat band, except the band is turned to the right side for tailor finish on a garment with flat fells. Begin by placing the right side of the band to the inside of the front, and alsoback of the bloomer portions. Baste, stitch, turn to the right side. Snaps may be used, or buttons and buttonholes, for closing. Buttonholes can also be placed at the center front and at the back of the bands, if the bloomers are to be fastened to a waist. How shall the buttonholes be placed in cutting for fastening in this way? Do you think it is very difficult to make the bloomers? The girls who use serge can make the placket facings and bands of silk or sateen or some lining material which will be thinner. Only the most experienced Pleasant Valley girls used the serge—those who had sewed at home.

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

1. What are the important things to remember in cutting out the bloomers?2. How does the band of the bloomers differ from that put on the petticoat?

1. What are the important things to remember in cutting out the bloomers?

2. How does the band of the bloomers differ from that put on the petticoat?

THE STORY OF HOW WOOL IS MADE INTO CLOTH

The Pleasant Valley boys and girls learned how wool is made into cloth after it has been sheared from the sheep. Would you like to know?

Courtesy of M. J. Whittall.Fig. 120.—Wool sorting.

Courtesy of M. J. Whittall.

Fig. 120.—Wool sorting.

First, the wool is sorted.Wool sometimes travels a long distance before it is delivered to the manufacturer. Perhaps the wool in your skirt was grown in England or in Australia, and was shipped in great sacks to New York, and then to the manufacturer. As it issheared from the sheep, it is dirty and full of burrs, grease, and perspiration. This grease helps to preserve the wool until the manufacturer is ready to use it; and, although he buys the wool by weight and pays for dirt and grease, he prefers to do so because of the preserving qualities of the grease. Even ⅔ of the weight may be dirt and grease. The first thing the manufacturer does is to sort the wool to put the good grades together, and to separate them from the poor ones. You remember the fleece is the whole coat ofthe sheep. Some parts of this coat are better wool than others; especially the part from the head and upper part of the back and sides. About seven different grades are separated for different purposes.

Courtesy of M. J. Whittall.Fig. 121.—Wool washing or scouring.

Courtesy of M. J. Whittall.

Fig. 121.—Wool washing or scouring.

The second process is washing or scouring.Wool cannot be carded and spun until the dirt and grease are removed; so the next thing the manufacturer does is to remove the grease, or "yolk" as it is called, by washing. This must be done very carefully so as notto break or injure the wool. Perhaps you can bring some dirty wool from your farm to school and wash it. Soft soap is the most harmless. Use a soft water at a low temperature (120° F.). Can you tell why it must be low? The washing is done in a series of tanks. You can see them in the picture (Fig. 121). The wet wool is swished back and forth by means of wooden forks which carry the wool forward and beat it out. There are rollers for passing the wool from one tank to another. Then the wool must be dried. This is done in a kind of wringing machine called a "hydro extractor." Then it is beaten into a fluffy mass.

Then a strange thing happens. Oil in wool is necessary in order to help in the spinning and to keep it soft and elastic, so the manufacturer must return some oil to the wool, after having washed it all out. Olive oil is used.

If there is any dirt or any burrs left in the wool, they must be removed. A machine called a burr picker is used to beat out the dirt.

Then the wool is blended.Do you know that the wool skirt which you are wearing may not be made of all new wool? Wool can be used over and over again. Old wool rags are pulled apart and mixed with new wool. If this did not happen, the manufacturer would have to charge much more than you pay for serge or some woolen materials, as he would have to use all new wool. That is why some wool materials are so expensive.If only new wool were used, there would not be enough raised in the world to clothe everybody. The wool manufacturer, therefore, blends, or mixes, the wool before it is sent to the carding machine. In blending he knows just what color, style, and grade of material he wishes to produce, and he grades accordingly. Cheapness is one of the principal reasons for blending. Sometimes cotton or jute are mixed in, if the manufacturer wishes to produce a very cheap material which is not all wool.

Would you like to know the names of some of the all-wool substitutes which are used in reducing the cost of all-wool materials? Marjorie Allen's grandmother told her, and Marjorie told the League girls. Shoddy is one; it is made from old rags, like woolen stockings, flannels, soft underwear; materials which have not been felted together. Do you know what felted means? The rags are washed, ground up, and prepared to mix with the new wool. Mungo is another queer name which is given to woolen rags which have been felted, as broadcloth or men's suitings. Flocks is nothing but dust or waste from the clipping machines when cloth is sheared or clipped in finishing. This is used to fill in. So you see nothing is wasted.

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