—W.C. HARRIS:Fishing Up or Down Stream.
+Theme CXV.+—Persuade a friend, to choose some sport from one of the following pairs:—
1. Canoeing or sailing. 2. Bicycling or automobiling. 3. Golf or polo. 4. Basket ball or tennis. 5. Football or baseball.
+Theme CXVI.+—Choose one side of a proposition. Name the probable points on the other side and write out a refutation of them.
+Theme CXVII.+—State a proposition and write the direct argument.
+Theme CXVIII.+—Exchange theme CXVII for one written by a classmate and write the refutation of the arguments in the theme you receive.
(Theme CXVII and the corresponding Theme CXVIII should be read before the class.)
1. Argument is that form of discourse which attempts to prove the truth of a proposition.
2. Inductive reasoning is that process by which from many individual cases we establish the probable truth of a general proposition.
3. The establishing of a general truth by induction requires—a.That there be a large number of facts, circumstances, or specificinstances supporting it.b.That these facts be true.c.That they be pertinent.d.That there be no facts proving the truth of the contraryproposition.
4. Deductive reasoning is that process which attempts to prove the truth of a specific proposition by showing that a general theory applies to it.
5. The establishing of the truth of a specific proposition by deductivereasoning requires—a.A major premise that makes an affirmation aboutallthe membersof a class.b.A minor premise that states that the individual under considerationbelongs to the class named.c.A conclusion that states that the affirmation made about the classapplies to the individual. These three statements constitute asyllogism.
6. An enthymeme is a syllogism with but one premise expressed.
7. Errors of deduction arise—a.If terms are not used throughout with the same meaning.b.If the major premise does not make a statement about every memberof the class denoted by the middle term.c.If either premise is false.
8. Belief in a specific proposition may arise—a.Because of the presentation of evidence which is true andpertinent.b.Because of a belief in some general principle or theory whichapplies to it.
In arguing therefore we—a.Present true and pertinent facts, or evidence; orb.Appeal directly to general theories, or by means of facts, maxims,allusions, inferences, or the quoting of authorities, seek to callup such theories.
9. Classes of arguments:—a.Arguments from cause.b.Arguments from sign and attendant circumstances.c.Arguments from example and analogy.
10. Arrangement.a.Arguments from cause should precede arguments from sign, andarguments from sign should precede arguments from example.b.Inductive arguments usually precede deductive arguments.c.Arguments should be arranged with reference to climax.d.Arguments should be arranged, when possible, in a coherent order.
11. In making a brief the above principles of arrangement should be observed. Attention should be given to unity so that the trivial and false may be excluded.
12. Persuasion is argument that aims to establish the wisdom of a course of action.
13. Persuasion appeals largely to the feelings.a.Those feelings of satisfaction resulting from approval,commendation, or praise, or the desire to avoid blame, disaster,or loss of self-esteem.b.Those feelings resulting from the proper and legitimate use ofone's powers.c.Those feelings which arise from possession, either actual oranticipated.
14. Persuasion is concerned with—a.Questions of right.b.Questions of expediency.
+1. Importance of Form.+—The suggestions which have been made for the correction of the Themes have laid emphasis upon the thought. Though the thought side is the more important, yet careful attention must also be given to the form in which it is stated. If we wish to express our thoughts so that they will be understood by others, we shall be surer to succeed if we use the forms to which our hearers are accustomed. The great purpose of composition is the clear expression of thought, and this is aided by the use of the forms which are conventional and customary.
Wrong habits of speech indicate looseness and carelessness of thought, and if not corrected show a lack of training. In speaking, our language goes directly to the listener without revision. It is, therefore, essential that we pay much attention to the form of the expression so that it may be correct when we use it. Our aim should be to avoid an error rather than to correct it.
Similarly in writing, your effort should be given to avoiding errors rather than to correcting those already made. A misspelled word or an incorrect grammatical form in the letter that you send to a business man may show you to be so careless and inaccurate that he will not wish to have you in his employ. In such a case it is only the avoidance of the error that is of value. You must determine for yourself that the letter is correct before you send it. This same condition should prevail with reference to your school themes. The teacher may return these for correction, but you must not forget that the purpose of this correction is merely to emphasize the correct form so that you will use it in your next theme. It will be helpful to have some one point out your individual mistakes, but it is only by attention to them on your own part and by a definite and long-continued effort to avoid them that you will really accomplish much toward the establishing of correct language habits. In this, as in other things, the most rapid progress will be made by doing but one thing at a time.
Many matters of form are already familiar to you. A brief statement of these is made in order to serve as a review and to secure uniformity in class work.
1.Neatness.—All papers should be free from blots and finger marks. Corrections should be neatly done. Care in correcting or interlining will often render copying unnecessary.
2.Legibility.—Excellence of thought is not dependent upon penmanship, and the best composition may be the most difficult to read. A poorly written composition is, however, more likely to be considered bad than one that is well written. A plain, legible, and rapid handwriting is so valuable an accomplishment that it is well worth acquiring.
3.Paper.—White, unruled paper, about 8-1/2 by 11 inches, is best for composition purposes. The ability to write straight across the page without the aid of lines can be acquired by practice. It is customary to write on only one side of the paper.
4.Margins.—Leave a margin of about one inch at the left of the sheet. Except in formal notes and special forms there will be no margin at the right. Care should be taken to begin the lines at the left exactly under each other, but the varying length of words makes it impossible to end the lines at the right at exactly the same place. A word should not be crowded into a space too small for it, nor should part of it be put on the next line, as is customary in printing, unless it is a compound one, such as steam-boat. Spaces of too great length at the end of a line may be avoided by slightly lengthening the preceding words or the spaces between them.
5.Spacing.—Each theme should have a title. It should be placed in the center of the line above the composition, and should have all important words capitalized. Titles too long for a single line may be written as follows:—
With unruled paper some care must be taken to keep the lines the same distance apart. The spaces between sentences should be somewhat greater than those between words. Paragraphs are indicated by indentations.
6.Corrections.—These are best made by using a sharp knife or an ink eraser. Sometimes, if neatly done, a line may be drawn through an incorrect word and the correct one written above it. Omitted words may be written between the lines and the place where they belong indicated by a caret. If a page contains many corrections, it should be copied.
7.Inscription and Folding.—The teacher will give directions as to inscription and folding. He will indicate what information he wishes, such as name, class, date, etc., and where it is to be written. Each page should be numbered. If the paper is folded, it should be done with neatness and precision.
+2. Capitals.+—The use of capitals will serve to illustrate the value of using conventional forms. We are so accustomed to seeing a proper name, such as Mr. Brown, written with capitals that we should be puzzled if we should find it written without capitals. The sentence, Ben-Hur was written by Lew Wallace, would look unfamiliar if written without capitals. We are so used to our present forms that beginning sentences with small letters would hinder the ready comprehension of the thought. Everybody agrees that capitals should be used to begin sentences, direct questions, names of deity, days of the week, the months, each line of poetry, the pronoun I, the interjection O, etc., and no good writer will fail to use them. Usage varies somewhat in regard to capitals in some other places. Such expressions as Ohio river, Lincoln school, Jackson county, state of Illinois, once had both names capitalized. The present tendency is to write them as above. Even titles of honor are not capitalized unless they are used with a proper name; for example, He introduced General Grant The general then spoke.
+3. Rules of Capitalization.+—1. Every sentence and every line of poetry begin with capitals.
2. Every direct quotation, except brief phrases and subordinate parts of sentences, begins with a capital.
3. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capitals. Some adjectives, though derived from proper nouns, are no longer capitalized;e.g.voltaic.
4. Titles of honor when used with the name of a person begin with capitals.
5. The first word and every important word in the titles of books, etc., begin with capitals.
6. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitalized.
7. Names applied to the Deity are capitalized and pronouns referring thereto, especially if personal, are usually capitalized.
8. Important words are often capitalized for emphasis, especially words in text-books indicating topics.
+4. Punctuation.+—The meaning of a sentence depends largely on the grouping of words that are related in sense to each other. When we are reading aloud we make the sense clear by bringing out to the hearer this grouping. This is accomplished by the use of pauses and by emphasis and inflection. In writing we must do for the eye what inflection and pauses do for the ear. We therefore use punctuation marks to indicate inflection and emphasis, and especially to show word grouping. Punctuation marks are important because their purpose is to assist in making the sense clear. There are many special rules more or less familiar to you, but they may all be included under the one general statement: Use such marks and only such marks as will assist the reader in getting the sense.
What marks we shall use and how we shall use them will be determined by custom. In order to benefit a reader, marks must be used in ways with which he is familiar. Punctuation changes from time to time. The present tendency is to omit all marks not absolutely necessary to the clear understanding of the sentence.
There are some very definite rules, but there are others that cannot be made so definite, and the application of them requires care and judgment on the part of the writer. Improvement will come only by practice. Sentences should not be written for the purpose of illustrating punctuation. The meaning of what you are writing ought to be clear to you, and the punctuation marks should be put inas you write, not inserted afterward.
+5. Rules for the Use of the Comma.+—1. The comma is used to separate words or phrases having the same construction, used in a series.
Judges, senators, and representatives were imprisoned.
The country is a good place to be born in, a good place to die in, agood place to live in at least part of the year.
If any conjunctions are used to connect the last two members, the comma may or may not be used in connection with the conjunction.
The cabbage palmetto affords shade, kindling, bed, and food.
2. Words or expressions in apposition should be separated by a comma.
The native Indian dress is an evolution, a survival from long years ofwild life.
3. Commas are used to separate words in direct address from the rest of the sentence.
Bow down, dear Land, for thou hast found release.O, Sohrab, an unquiet heart is thine!
4. Introductory and parenthetical words or expressions are set off by commas.
However, the current is narrow and very shallow here.
This, in a general way, describes the scope of the small parks or playgrounds.
If the parenthetical expression is long and not very closely related to the rest of the sentence, dashes or marks of parenthesis are frequently used. Some writers use them even when the connection is somewhat close.
5. The comma is frequently used to separate the parts of a long compound predicate.
Pine torches have no glass to break, and are within the reach of any manwho can wield an ax.
6. A comma is often used to separate a subject with several modifiers, or with a long modifier, from the predicate verb.
One of the mistakes often made in beginning the study of birds with small children, is in placing stress upon learning by sight and name as many species of birds as possible.
7. Participial and adjective phrases and adverb phrases out of their natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
A knight, clad in armor, was the most conspicuous figure of all.
To the mind of the writer, this explanation has much to commend it.
8. When negative expressions are used in order to show a contrast, they are set off by commas.
They believed in men, not in mere workers in the great human workshop.
9. Commas are used in complex sentences to separate the dependent clause from the rest of the sentence.
The great majority of people would be better off, if they had more moneyand spent it.
While the flour is being made, samples are sent every hour to thetesting department.
If the connection is close, the comma is usually omitted, especially when the dependent clause comes last.
I will be there when the train arrives.
10. When a relative clause furnishes an additional thought, it should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
Hiram Watts, who has been living in New York for six years, has justreturned to England.
If the relative clause is restrictive, that is, if it restricts or limits the meaning of the antecedent, the comma is unnecessary.
This is the best article that he ever wrote.
11. Commas are used to separate the members of a compound sentence when they are short or closely connected.
Ireland is rich in minerals, yet there is but little mining done there.
Breathe it, exult in it,All the day long,Glide in it, leap in it,Thrill it with song.
12. Short quotations should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
"There must be a beaver dam here," he called.
13. The omissions of important words in a sentence should be indicated by commas.
If you can, come to-morrow; if not, come next week.
+6. Rules for the Use of the Semicolon.+—1. When the members of a compound sentence are long or are not closely connected, semicolons should be used to separate them.
Webster could address a bench of judges; Everett could charm a college; Choate could delude a jury; Clay could magnetize a senate, and Tom Corwin could hold the mob in his right hand; but no one of these men could do more than this one thing.
—Wendell Phillips.
We might as well decide the question now; for we shall surely beobliged to soon.
2. When the members of a compound sentence themselves contain commas, they should be separated from one another by semicolons.
As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him.
—Shakespeare.
3. The semicolon should be used to precedeas, namely, i.e., e.g., viz.
Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, bad, and little.
4. When a series of distinct statements all have a common dependence on what precedes or follows them, they may be separated from each other by semicolons.
When subject to the influence of cold we eat more; we choose more heat-producing foods, as fatty foodstuffs; we take more vigorous exercise; we put on more clothing, especially of the non-conducting kinds—woolens.
+7. Rules for the Use of the Colon.+—1. The colon is used before long or formal quotations, before enumerations, and before the conclusion of a previous statement.
Old Sir Thomas Browne shrewdly observes: "Every man is not only himself. There have been many Diogeneses and many Timons though but few of the name. Men are lived over again. The world is now as it was in ages past. There were none then, but there has been one since, that parallels him, and is, as it were, revived self."
—George Dana Boardman.
Adjectives are divided into two general classes: descriptive anddefinitive adjectives.
The following members sent in their resignations: Mrs. William M.Murphy, Mrs. Ralph B. Wiltsie, and Mrs. John C. Clark.
2. The colon is used to separate the different members of a compound sentence, when they themselves are divided by semicolons.
It is too warm to-day; the sunshine is too bright; the shade, too pleasant: we will wait until to-morrow or we will have some one else do it when the busy time is over.
+8. Rules for the Use of the Period.+—1. The period is used at the close of imperative and declarative sentences.
2. All abbreviations should be followed by a period.
+9. Rule for the Use of the Interrogation Mark.+—The interrogation mark should be used after all direct questions.
+10. Rule for the Use of the Exclamation Mark.+—Interjections and exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation mark. Sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole exclamation. In this case, the exclamatory word should be followed by a comma, and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark.
See, how the lightning flashes!
+11. Rules for the Use of the Dash.+—1. The dash is used to show sudden changes in thought or breaks in speech.
I can speak of this better when temptation comes my way—if it ever does.
2. The dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis to set off parenthetical expressions.
In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree—the spruce— abounds.
3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed.
I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in the rain—all evidences of wasted time.
4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations, before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced statement.
+12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.+—1. Quotation marks are used to inclose direct quotations.
"In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked.
2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation marks.
"Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady of a clerk in Brooklyn.
3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.
"Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold."
4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last one.
+13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.+—The apostrophe is used to denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to form the plural of signs, figures, and letters.
In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which can't be distinguished from engravings.
+14. English grammar+ is the study of the forms of English words and their relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. Asentenceis a group of words that expresses a complete thought.
+15. Elements of a Sentence.+—The elements of a sentence, as regards the office that they perform, are thesubjectand thepredicate. Thesubjectis that about which something is asserted, and thepredicateis that which asserts something about the subject.
Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself to complete a sentence: [The thrushsings. The thrushhas been singing]. Some require a following word or words: [William struckJohn(object complement, or object). Edward becameking(attribute complement). The people made Edwardking(objective complement)].
The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought (to which the general termsubstantivemay be given); some word or group of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term,assertive); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement, objective complement).
In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more exact. Such additions are known asmodifiers. The word-groups which are used as modifiers are thephraseand theclause.
[The thrush, singsin the pine woods(phrase). The wayfarerwho hears the thrushis indeed fortunate (clause).]
Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified:
[Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover]; one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover].
The unmodified subject may be called thesimple subject, or, merely, thesubject. If modified, it becomes thecomplete subject.
The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is present, may be called thesimple predicate. If modified, it becomes thecomplete predicate.
Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, thesimple predicate; modified or completed, thecomplete predicate.
+16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.+—Sentences are classified according to purpose into three classes:declarative,interrogative, andimperativesentences.
Adeclarativesentence is one that makes a statement or declares something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic].
Aninterrogativesentence is one that asks a question: [Who wroteMother Goose?].
Animperativesentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty:["Fling away ambition"].
Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the sentence is said to be anexclamatorysentence: [How happy all the children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?" (exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!" (exclamatory imperative)].
Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark.
+17. The Individual Elements+ of which every sentence is composed arewords. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the wordshorse, he, blue, speaks, merrily, at, andbecause, has a certain naming value, more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these,horse, blue, he, merrily, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case ofatandbecause, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation between other ideas: ["I amatmy post"], ["I gobecauseI must"]. The wordspeaksis less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following sentences: Hespeaksin public. Heisa publicspeaker. It is evident thatspeakscontains in itself thenamingvalue represented in the wordspeaker, but also has theconnectingoffice fulfilled in the second sentence byis.
All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a connecting or relational office.
+18. Parts of Speech.+—When we examine the different words in sentences we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either aphraseor aclause.
Aphraseis a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate, that is used as a single part of speech.
Aclauseis a group of words, containing both subject and predicate, that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it is called asubordinate, ordependent, clause. Some grammarians use the wordclausefor a subordinate statement only.
+19. Classification.+—The eight parts of speech may be classified as follows:—
I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns.II. Assertives: verbs.III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs.IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions.V. Interjections.
+20. Definitions.+—The parts of speech may be defined as follows:—
(1) Anounis a word used as a name.
(2) Apronounis a word used in place of a noun, designating a person, place, or thing without naming it.
(3) Anadjectiveis a word that modifies a substantive.
(4) Averbis a word that asserts something—action, state, or being—- concerning a substantive.
(5) Anadverbis a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
(6) Aprepositionis a word that shows the relation of the substantive that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence.
(7) Aconjunctionis a word that connects words or groups of words used in the same way.
(8) Aninterjectionis a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of the sentence.
+21. Classes of Nouns.+—Nouns are divided into two general classes:propernouns [Esther] andcommonnouns [girl].
Common nouns includeabstractnouns [happiness] andcollectivenouns [army].
Any word mentioned merelyas a wordis a noun: [Andis a conjunction].
+22. Inflection.+—A change in the form of a word to denote a change in its meaning is termedinflection.
+23. Number.+—The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to denote one or more than one is termednumber. A noun that denotes but one object issingularin number. A noun that denotes more than one object ispluralin number.
The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by addingsandesto the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes].
Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:—
1. The irregular plural inen[child, children].
2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese].
3. Fourteen nouns ending inforfechange theforfeintoyes[leaf, leaves].
4. Nouns ending iny, preceded by a consonant, change theytoiand addes[enemy, enemies].
5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding 's:[You have used too manyi's].
6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena].
7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number.(a) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and theplural [sheep, deer].(b) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks].(c) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh].(d) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles,news, politics].
8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls].
9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters. The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs. Harrisons.]
10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth, cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence].
+24. Case.+—Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun bears to some other word in the sentence.
Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting case is termeddeclension. There are three cases in the English language: thenominative, thepossessive, and theobjective; but nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and objective cases have the same form.
+25. Formation of the Possessive.+—Nouns in the singular, and those in the plural not already ending ins, form the possessive regularly by adding 'sto the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's].
In case the plural already ends ins, the possessive case adds only the apostrophe [girls'].
A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the 'swould make an unpleasant sound [Moses'].
Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding 'sto the last word.This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used:[Bradbury and Emery's Algebra].
Notice that in the following expression the 'sis affixed to the second noun only: [My sister Martha's book].
Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to denote possession: [The hardnessof the rock, not The rock's hardness].
+26. Gender.+—Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex. Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of themasculinegender; those denoting females are of thefemininegender; and those denoting things without animal life are of theneutergender.
+27. Person.+—Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to be in thefirst, second, orthirdperson. Nouns and many pronouns are not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what persons they represent.
+28. Constructions of Nouns.+—The following are the usual constructions of nouns:—
(a) Thepossessivecase of the noun denotes possession.
(b) Nouns in thenominativecase are used as follows:—
1. As the subject of a verb: [The westernskyis all aflame]
2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeousseasonof the year].
3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poorsoul, it could not be!].
4. In direct address: [O hush thee, mybaby!].
5. Absolutely: [Therainbeing over, the grass twinkled in the sunshine].
6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; anativeof Genoa, discovered America].
(c) Nouns in theobjectivecase are used as follows:—
1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the object complement: [I saw ahostof golden daffodils].
2. As the objective complement: [They crowned himking].
3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gaveEthela ring].
4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast ofNewEngland].
5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commandedthe man(him)to gowithout delay].
6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitiveto be: [Ithought it to beJohn(him)].
7. As an adverbial noun: [He came lastweek].
8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone, the greatexplorer].
+29. Equivalents for Nouns.+
1. Pronoun: [John gavehisfather a book for Christmas].
2. Adjective: [Thegoodalone are truly great].
3. Adverb: [I do not understand thewhysandwhereforesof the process].
4. A gerund, or infinitive ining: [Seeingisbelieving].
5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him,to thinkisto act].
6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believethat she took the money]. Noun clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and appositive.
7. A prepositional phrase: [Over the fenceis out].
+30. Antecedent.+—The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun. The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called theantecedent, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree inperson, number, andgender, but not necessarily incase.
+31. Classes of Pronouns.+—Pronouns are commonly divided into five classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2) relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns, (5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added).
+32. Personal Pronouns.+—Personal pronouns are so called because they show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use:I, you, he, she, andit.
+33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.+—The personal pronouns are used in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be understood.
1. The worditis often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is usedimpersonally.
2. The pronounitis often used as thegrammaticalsubject of a sentence in which thelogicalsubject is found after the predicate verb: [Itis impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronounitis called anexpletive. Thereis used in the same way.
+34. Cautions and Suggestions.+
1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive formsits, yours, ours, andtheirs.
2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute complement: [It isI; it isthey].
3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of the most common violations of this rule is in usingtheirin such sentences as the following:—Every boy and girl must arrangehisdesk. Who has losthisbook? The use ofeveryand the formhasobliges us to make the possessive pronouns singular.
Hismay be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is convenient not to use the expressionhis or her.
4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case: [I askedhimto go].
5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective case: [I knew it (obj.) to behim]; but the attribute complement of the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) washe].
6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun.
7. Do not use the personal pronoun formthemfor the adjectivethose: [Thosebooks are mine].
+35. Compound Personal Pronouns.+—To the personal pronounsmy, our, your, him, her, it, andthem, the syllablesself(singular) andselves(plural) may be added, thus forming what are termedcompound personalpronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:—
1. They are used for emphasis: [Hehimselfis an authority on the subject].
2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injuredhimself].
+36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.+—The pronounswho, which, what(= that which),that, andas(aftersuch) are more than equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are often namedrelative pronounsbecause they relate to some antecedent either expressed or implied; they are equally well namedconjunctive pronounsbecause they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate clauses only; these clauses are calledrelative clauses, and since they modify substantives, are also calledadjective clauses.
+37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.+—Whois used to represent persons, and objects or ideas personified;whichis used to represent things;thatandasare used to represent both persons and things.
When a clause is usedfor the purposeof pointing out some particular person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced bythat; but when the clause supplies an additional thought,whoorwhichis more frequently used. The former is called arestrictive clause, and the latter, anon-restrictive clause.
[The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the omission of the comma beforethat. [My eldest brother, who is now in England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10.
In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to separate, in thought,the boy that broke his legfrom all other boys. Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does sofor the purposeoflimitingorrestrictingthought to one especial boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is indicated by the wordeldest. The clause,who is now in England, is put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information.
+38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.+—Relative pronouns may be used as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and possessive modifier.
The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [I, whoamyour friend, will assist you].
The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause in which it is found: [Hewhomthe president appointed was fitted for the position].
+39. Compound Relative Pronouns.+—The compound relative pronouns are formed by addingeverandsoeverto the relative pronounswho, which, andwhat. These have the constructions of the simple relatives, and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it towhoeverwishes it. Give it towhomeveryou see].
+40. Interrogative Pronouns.+—The pronounswho, which, andwhatare used to ask questions, and when so used, are calledinterrogativepronouns.Whorefers to persons;what, to things; andwhich, to persons or things. Like the relativeswhohas three case forms;whichandwhatare uninflected.
The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did you see? The introductorywhomis an interrogative pronoun, and the clause itself is called anindirect question.
The wordswhich, what, andwhosemay also be used as modifiers of substantives, and when so used they are calledinterrogative adjectives: ["Whatmanner of man is this?"Whosechild is this?Whichbook did you choose?].
+41. Demonstrative Pronouns.+—Thisandthat, with their pluralstheseandthose, are calleddemonstrative pronouns, because they point out individual persons or things.
+42. Indefinite Pronouns.+—Some pronouns, aseach, either, some, any, many, such, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two,oneandother, are inflected.
NOM. AND OBJ. one ones other others
POSS. one's ones' other's others'
+43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.+—Many words, as has been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question is called apronominal adjective; but if the noun is omitted so that the word in question takes its place, it is called anadjective pronoun. [Thathouse is white (adjective).Thatis the same house (pronoun).]
+44. Classes of Adjectives.+—There are two general classes of adjectives: thedescriptive[blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and thelimitingordefinitiveadjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,—descriptiveadjectives. Proper adjectives andparticipialadjectives form a small part of this large class: [Europeancountries. Arunningbrook].
+45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.+—Thelimitingadjectives include the various classes ofpronominal adjectives(all of which have been mentioned under pronouns), thearticles(a,an, andthe), and adjectives denotingplaceandnumber.
+46. Comparison of Adjectives.+—With the exception of the wordsthisandthat, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a difference in degree. This change of form is calledcomparison. There are three degrees of comparison: thepositive, thecomparative, and thesuperlative. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the syllableserandestto the positive to form the comparative and superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives of more than one syllable, the adverbsmoreandmostare placed before the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer, longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful].
+47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.+—A few adjectives are compared irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar with the correct forms.
bad } evil } worse worst ill }
far farther farthest
good } better best well }
fore former { foremost{ first
late { later { latest { latter { last
little less least
many } more most much }
near nearer { nearest{ next
old { older { oldest{ elder { eldest
The following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive degree, and asadjectivesin the other two degrees:—
(forth) further furthest
(in) inner { innermost { inmost
(out) { outer { outermost{ utter { utmost{ uttermost
(up) upper { upmost { uppermost
+48. Cautions concerning the Use of Adjectives.+
1. When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is placed only before the first, unless emphasis is desired: [He is an industrious, faithful pupil].
2. If the adjectives refer to different things, the article should be repeated before each adjective: [She has a white and a blue dress].
3. When two or more nouns are in apposition, the article is placed only before the first: [I received a telegram from Mr. Richards,thebroker and real estate agent].
4.This, these, that, andthosemust agree in number with the noun they modify: [This kindof flowers;those sortsof seeds].
5. When but two things are compared, the comparative degree is used: [This is the more complete of the two].
6. Whenthanis used after a comparative, whatever is compared should be excluded from the class with which it is compared: [I like this house better than any other house; not, I like this house better than any house].
7. Do not useaafterkind of, sort of, etc.: [What kind of man is he? (not, What kind ofaman)].Oneman does not constitute a class consisting of many kinds.
+49. Constructions of Adjectives.+—Adjectives that merely describe or limit are said to beattributivein construction. When the adjective limits or describes, and, at the same time, adds to the predicate, it is called apredicate adjective.Predicate adjectives may be used either as attribute or objective complements: [The sea isroughto-day (attribute complement), He painted the boatgreen(objective complement)].
+50. Equivalents for Adjectives.+—The following are used as equivalents for the typical adjective:—
1. A noun used in apposition: [Barrie's story of his mother, "Margaret Ogilvy," is very beautiful].
2. A noun used as an adjective: [Acampaignsong].
3. A prepositional phrase: [His little, nameless, unremember'd actsof kindnessandof love].
4. Participles or participial phrases: [We saw a brookrunningbetween the alders. Soldiershired to serve a foreign countryare called mercenaries].
5. Relative clauses: [This is the housethat Jack built].
6. An adverb (sometimes called thelocativeadjective): [The bookhereis the one I want].
+51. Uses of Verbs.+—Averbis the word or word-group that makes an assertion or statement, and it is therefore the most important part of the whole sentence. It has been already shown that such a verb asspeaksserves the double purpose of suggesting an activity and showing relation. The most purelyrelationalverb is the verbto be, which is called thecopulaorlinking verb, for the very reason that it joins predicate words to the subject: [The lakeisbeautiful].To be, however, is not always a purecopula. In such a sentence as, "He that cometh to God must believe that Heis," the wordismeansexists.Verbs that are like the copula, such as,appear, become, seem, etc., are calledcopulativeverbs. Verbs that not only are relational but have descriptive power, such assings, plays, runs, etc., are calledattributiveverbs. They attribute some quality or characteristic to the subject.
+52. Classes of Verbs.+—According to their uses in a sentence verbs are divided into two classes:transitiveandintransitive.
Atransitiveverb is one that takes a following substantive, expressed or implied, called theobject, to designate the receiver or the product of the action: [They seized thecity. They built acity]. The transitive verb may sometimes be usedabsolutely:[The horse eats]. Here the object is implied.
Anintransitiveverb is one that does not take an object to complete its meaning; or, in other words, an intransitive verb is one that denotes an action, state, or feeling that involves the subject only: [He ran away. They were standing at the water's edge].
A few verbs in our language are always transitive, and a few others are always intransitive. The verbslieandlay, riseandraise, sitandset, are so frequently misused that attention is here called to them. The verbslie, rise, andsit(usually) are intransitive in meaning, while the verbslay, raise, andsetare transitive. The wordsitmay sometimes take a reflexive object: [They satthemselvesdown to rest].
The majority of verbs in our language are either transitive or intransitive, according to the sense in which they are used.
[The fireburnsmerrily (intransitive).The fireburnedthe building (transitive).The birdflewswiftly (intransitive).The boyflewhis kite (transitive).]
Some intransitive verbs take what is known as acognate object: [He died a nobledeath.] Here the object repeats the meaning of the verb.
+53. Complete and Incomplete Verbs.+—Some intransitive verbs make a complete assertion or statement without the aid of any other words. Such verbs are said to be ofcomplete predication: [The snow melts].
All transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs require one or more words to complete the meaning of the predicate. Such verbs are said to be incomplete. Whatever is added to complete the meaning of the predicate is termed acomplement. The complement of a transitive verb is called theobject complement, or simply theobject: [She found thebook]. Some transitive verbs, from the nature of their meaning, take also anindirectobject: [I gaveherthe book]. When a word belonging to the subject is added to an intransitive verb in order to complete the predicate, it is termed anattribute complement. This complement may be either a noun or an adjective: [He is ourtreasurer(noun). This rose isfragrant(adjective)]. Among the incomplete intransitive verbs the most conspicuous are the copula and the copulative verbs.
+54. Auxiliary Verbs.+—English verbs have so few changes of form to express differences in meaning that it is often necessary to use the so-calledauxiliaryverbs. The most common are:do, be, have, may, must, might, can, shall, will, should, would, could, andought. Some of these may be used as principal verbs. A few notes and cautions are added.
Canis used to denote the ability of the subject.
Mayis used to denote permission, possibility, purpose, or desire. Thus the request for permission should be, "May I?" not "Can I?"
Mustindicates necessity.
Oughtexpresses obligation.
Hadshould never be used withought. To express a moral obligation in past time, combineoughtwith the perfect infinitive: [I oughtto have doneit].
Shouldsometimes expresses duty: [You should not go].
Wouldsometimes denotes a custom: [He would sit there for hours]. Sometimes it expresses a wish: [Would he were here!]. For other uses ofshouldandwould, see Appendix 60.
+55. Principal Parts.+—The main forms of the verb—so important as to be called theprincipal partsbecause the other parts are formed from them— are theroot infinitive, thepreterite(past)indicative, and thepast participle[move, moved, moved; sing, sang, sung; be, was, been]. Thepresentparticiple is sometimes given with the principal parts.
+56. Inflection.+—As is evident from the preceding paragraph, verbs have certain changes of form to indicate change of meaning. Such a change orinflection, in the case of the noun, is calleddeclension;in the case of the verb it is calledconjugation. Nouns aredeclined; verbs areconjugated.
+57. Person and Number.+—In Latin, or any other highly inflected language, there are many terminations to indicate differences in person and number, but in English there is but one in common use,sin the third person singular: [He runs],Storestis used afterthouin the second person singular: [Thou lovest].
+58. Agreement.+—Verbs must agree with their subjects in person and number. The following suggestions concerning agreement may be helpful:—
1. A compound subject that expresses a single idea takes a singular verb: [Bread and milkiswholesome food].
2. When the members of a compound subject, connected byneither … nor, differ as regards person and number, the verb should agree with the nearer of the two: [Neither they nor Iamto blame].
3. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected byor, either … or, neither … nor, the verb is singular: [Either this book or thatismine].
4. Words joined to the subject bywith, together with, as well as, etc., do not affect the number of the verb. The same is true of any modifier of the subject: [John, as well as the girls,isplaying house. One of my booksislying on the table. Neither of usisto blame].
5. When the articletheprecedes the wordnumber, used as a subject, the verb should be in the singular; otherwise the verb is plural: [Thenumber of pupils in our schoolsison the increase.Anumber of childrenhavebeen playing in the sand pile].
6. The pronounyoualways takes a plural verb, even if its meaning is singular: [Youwerehere yesterday].
7. A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb, according as the collection is thought of as a whole or as composed of individuals.
+59. Tense.+—The power of the verb to show differences of time is calledtense. Tense shows also the completeness or incompleteness of an act or condition at the time of speaking. There are threeprimarytenses:present, preterite(past), andfuture; and threesecondarytenses for completed action:present perfect, past perfect(pluperfect), andfuture perfect.
English has only two simple tenses, the present and the preterite:I love, I loved. All other tenses are formed by the use of the auxiliary verbs. By combining the present and past tenses ofwill, shall, have, be, ordowith those parts of the verb known as infinitives and participles, the various tenses of the complete conjugation of the verb are built up. The formation of thepreteritetense, and the consequent division of verbs intostrongandweak, will be discussed later.
+60. The Future Tense.+—The future tense is formed by combiningshallorwillwith the root infinitive, withoutto.
The correct form of thefuture tensein assertions is here given:—
1. I shall fall 1. We shall fall 2. Thou wilt fall 2. You will fall 3. He will fall 3. They will fall
Will, in thefirstperson, denotes not simple futurity, but determination: [I will (= am determined to) go].
Shall, in thesecondandthirdpersons, is not simply the sign of the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used to denote the determination of the speaker with reference to others.
Notice:—
1. In clauses introduced bythat, expressed or understood, if the noun clause and the principal clause havedifferentsubjects, the same auxiliary is used that would be used were the subordinate clause used independently: [I fear weshallbe late. My friend is determined that her sonshallnot be left alone].
2. In all other subordinate clauses,shall, for all persons, denotes simple futurity;will, an expression of willingness or determination: [He thinks that heshallbe there. He promises that hewillbe there].