CHAPTER XXVI.

Plan No. 42

PlanNo. 42belongs to the centre hall type, which is less common now than in years past. The parlor, as here lettered,is in reality the sitting-room. A bedroom is shown on the first floor. In each of the four principal rooms a grate is indicated. A hall communicating with the second floor from the cellar is shown in the rear. The kitchen, pantry, and china-closet arrangements are such as have been fully described in other chapters. The side-porch, next to the pantry, affords means of putting ice into the refrigerator without coming into the room. The reception-hall and dining-room are connected by sliding doors. Five bedrooms and a bath-room and liberal closets are shown on the second floor. The front stairway to this floor is broad and easy. The details of the exterior of this structure were carefully rendered, and the appearancealtogether satisfactory. An outline drawing of the front is shown. Small gables, similar in design to the one in front, show from the sides. The building, according to schedule “B,” cost $2,800, without the appurtenances.

Fig. 23

EIGHT PLANS.—EACH SUITED TO FAMILY REQUIREMENTS.—DOUBLE HOUSES.—AN ELABORATE FLOOR PLAN.—A SHINGLE HOUSE.—A BRICK HOUSE.

PlanNo. 43, while not economical as to arrangement, is well suited to the requirements of the people who own it. There are no children. The lady does not employ a servant. The cost of the building would be about $2,200.

PlanNo. 44. Double houses are not easy to plan where they are very long. This house was built, one part to live in and the other to rent. The living part has an entrance to the front; and the rental part one, removed from it, at the side. The centre partition is lined on both sides with sheathing lath; that is, sheathing with dovetails cut into it, so that the plastering will stick to it, which makes it solid, and, to a certain extent, deadens the sound. The lettering of the plan clearly indicates its arrangement. The cost, without appurtenances, as by schedule “B,” is $5,000.

Most of the plans given that are only two rooms deep may be made into double houses by enlarging the amount of window space front and rear, and placing the bath-room side of the house on the exposed side. This gives direct light.

Fig. 24Figure 24

PlanNo. 45. This house is built on a plat of ground having about seventy feet frontage. The side-hall arrangements give two entirely independent rooms in front. There is a good closet in the hall. From here we pass to the dining-room,library, or parlor, and to the second floor. Only one stairway is used. The pantry and china arrangements are shown. We enter the cellar stairway from the pantry passage. The kitchen is planned according to the general principles previously set forth.

Plan No. 43

On the second floor are four bedrooms and a bath-room. Each room, including the bath, is supplied with closets, and there is a linen closet in the hall. A stairway leads to the attic, in which there is an abundance of room for other chambers, should they be needed. The building, without appurtenances, according to schedule “B,” cost $2,100.Fig. 24is a photographic view of exterior.

Plan No. 44

Plan No. 45

PlanNo. 46is not greatly different in its general arrangement from others that have been shown. The details, however, are more complete, and it is generally more satisfactory than other houses of the same type. The vestibule arrangement in the front hall is very satisfactory. There is a window-seat under the stairs. The china-room arrangement is convenient. It has an open stairway running out of it to the rear of the second story. There is a laundry in the basement, and large closets on the second floor.

Plan No. 46

Fig. 25is an elevation. It is a very picturesque house. Cost, as by schedule “B,” $3,400.

Plan 47. This house was designed for a west frontage. It has a porch in front, a pagoda extension on the south side, and a carriage-porch on the north side. There are a set of storm doors and double inside doors. The reception-hall is thirteen by fifteen feet in the clear. At one side of this hall is a grate.There is an archway over the front window. On each side of the mantel are shown seats, which may be treated as a part thereof.

The stairway may be seen from this reception-hall. It is separated from it merely by an open-work screen. The parlor connects with the reception-hall by sliding doors. It has a large window in front, and two smaller ones at the side.

Fig. 25

The parlor connects with the sitting-room by sliding doors, as shown. There is a similar sliding door connecting the stair-hall and sitting-room. Thus the reception-hall and stair-hall, sitting-room and parlor, may be thrown together.

There is a bay end at the south side of the sitting-room. Sliding doors are not indicated between the dining-room and sitting-room, or between the dining-room and hall. They could be so placed, if desired.

There are two doors from the sitting-room to the dining-room, one on each side of the fireplace. There is sufficient wall space in the dining-room that these doors may be folded out of the way. The library connects with the stair-hall and rear hall.

Plan No. 47

There is a large closet room under the stairway. In it is a small closet, and places for a chest of drawers, and a wash-stand. This would be particularly useful in case the library were to be used as a bedroom.

There is a door separating the rear from the front hall.There are two doors between the kitchen and the rear hall. The passageway between these doors is lighted by a window.

The sideboard in the dining-room is built into one end of this room. The windows are placed about five feet above the floor, and would look well of stained glass.

The kitchen is sixteen by sixteen feet. On one side are a table, sink, drain, and table, successively arranged as here named. In the china-closet is an extension of the last-named table. There is a slide which cuts off communication between the china-closet and the kitchen when this table is not in use. In the china-closet are another sink, table, etc., which could be used for washing and caring for the china, glass, and silver that one does not care to take into the kitchen.

There is good ventilation in the kitchen. Back of the range are shown two flues. A dry-box is placed on a level with the top of the range, and has openings in the bottom and into the flue. In this way, any articles placed therein will be readily dried and ventilated. The warm air from the range passes through the box and into the flue.

In the pantry are a dough-board and flour-bins, a cupboard for stores, and one for utensils. There is space for an ice-box or refrigerator next to the rear porch. It has a drain connection with the outside.

The landing of the front stairway is in the front of the building, as shown. The rear stairway is separated by a door from the rear hall. In the bedrooms, the beds, dressing-cases, and wash-stands are indicated on the plan. The front chamber has a circular window in front. Each room can be entered from the hall without going through any other room. There is a grate in each chamber. The closets are all very large; in each of the front rooms they are three and one-half by four and one-halffeet. In the south-side chambers one is three and one-half by four feet, and the other is four by four feet. In the rear hall there is a large closet which may be used for general purposes. In all closets on this floor there is abundant room for drawers, hooks, shelves, etc.

Plan No. 48

The bath-room arrangement is somewhat different from that in general use. It will be noticed that the water-closet is separated from the bath-room proper, though connected with it by a door. One can enter either the bath-room or this water-closet room from the rear hall. In the bath-room is a large closet in which may be arranged a chest of drawers, and, if desired, a ventilated receptacle for soiled linen. This closet is lighted by a window. Cost, as by schedule “B,” $10,000.

Plan No. 48 is of a house well suited to the requirements of the people who live in it.Fig. 26is a view of the exterior. It is a shingle house of a severe type. The side projection is a combination of brick and stone. Cost, without appurtenances, $3,400.

Plan No. 49

PlanNo. 49, without appurtenances, has been built for $3,400. It is finished in both stories in hard wood, has a front and rear stairway, and a side entrance. A central chimney contains four grates. The closet arrangement is as good as in any plan in this collection.

Fig. 26Figure 26

Figs. 27and28are elevations.Fig. 28shows how the conservatory at the side is finished so as to appear with, and as a part of, the porch.

Fig. 27 and Fig. 28

Plan No. 50

PlanNo. 50. This is a plan of a brick house, built, without appurtenances, as per schedule “B,” for $10,000. The external walls are of selected dark cherry red brick, laid in red mortar. The stone work, where exposed above grade, is of Ohio red sandstone, quarry face. There is very little detail to the exterior. The general style of design is quiet and unobtrusive. Red sandstone is selected to go with the brick-work in order to present a solid mass of color, rather than a variation between a light stone and brick work. The interior is complete in all its details; the attic is finished as well as the parlor; all is of quartered oak. Over the butler’s pantry, in the rear of the hall, is a balcony. Above this balcony is a large window, twelve feet wide and ten feet high, divided with narrow mullions, and glazed with artistic patterns of stained glass. At one side of the hall is a large fireplace, with panelled wood-work above to ceiling. The sides of the hall are wainscoted to the height of six feet with small panels.The ceiling is of oak. The dining-room and library are finished the same as hall, with oak ceiling omitted. Other details of the plan, in the light of what has been said in previous chapters, are self-explanatory. All has been planned according to the general principles set forth. The butler’s pantry is arranged so that all china and glassware are cared for in that room rather than in the kitchen.Fig. 29is an exterior view of this plan.

Fig. 29

PRACTICAL POINTS.—WATER.—LOCATION OF HOUSE ON LOT.—DRAINING THE CELLAR.—MASON WORK.—FOUNDATIONS.—WALKS.—PIERS.—FLUES.—CISTERNS.—DAMP COURSE.

In this section of the book it is proposed to consider, in as plain a manner as possible, the construction of all the details of a house.

First is the placing of the house on the lot. If it have an east or a west front, it is common to set the north side of the house within a few feet of the north line. On a small lot this gives more south and sun exposure. The distance the house is set back from the front of the lot depends largely upon what one’s neighbors have done or may do. In the case of a north or south frontage, the west side of the house is usually placed to the west line. This brings the east side of the house in the afternoon shade. Under any circumstances, there should never be less than eighteen inches of space beyond the north or west wall. If the projection of cornice is greater, there should be more than this.

The next thing to do when one begins to build, is to provide water for the builder. This is from the city water service, if any; otherwise from a well. If a driven well is used, it is best to locate it on the inside of the house, nearthe kitchen sink, and allow the builder to provide a common pump for use during building operations. The cistern and well pumps should go into the plumber’s contract. It is not necessary that all the plumbing contract be let at the time the city water service is supplied. The method of letting contracts is explained in another part of the book.

In excavating for a house, the loam, or upper strata of earth, should be separated from that which comes below. After the walls are placed, the openings around the outside should not be filled at once; certainly not until the wall is dry and the mortar set. After this, the grading and filling should begin. The grade line of the house should be slightly above that of the sidewalk, and there should be a general slope to it. If there is an alley in the rear, the slope should be divided to reach it, if possible. The drainage, excavating and filling connected with the plumbing, gas supplies, etc., should be done early in the building period. Thus the entire surface becomes compact and natural by the time the building is finished. If it should become apparent that there will be superfluous earth, it should be removed from the lot.

Where there is a clay soil, and in sections of the country where cellars are inclined to be damp, they should be drained. This is done in various ways; usually by running an open farm tile around and below the level of the cellar wall, which should have connection preferably with a dry well; but if nothing better presents itself, with the sewer drain, although a connection of this kind is not safe. The air which will come into this drainfrom the sewer will contaminate the soil, and in that way affect the health of the occupants of the building. In some instances a sewer connection from this drain is necessary, but only then should it be used.

Another method of draining a cellar is to excavate below the level of lowest mason-work, and fill in a depth of about twelve inches with broken stone, which is given a drain connection with proper outlet. The space between stone particles acts as a drain.

Fig. 30

The mason-work should be of brick or stone. First, we will consider that of brick, which is common to frame houses and is sometimes used for brick buildings. The foundations, walks, piers, and flues should be of hard burned brick. All should be laid wet, excepting in freezing weather, with lime mortar. The outside exposed brick should be preferably of a dark cherry-red color, laid in white or red mortar. The latter is in most general use. The joints for exposed work should be in form as indicated in Fig. 30; in mason’s parlance, these are called “rodded joints.” The joint is first cut down from above, with trowel, then the rod is placed along the upper edge of the joint, and the mortar is cut away with a knife in the form indicated. Then the vertical joints are trimmed in the same way; thus no mortar projects beyond the face of the brick. This form of joint is desirable for all kinds of exposed work, where one desires better work than is usual in foundations and other exposed brick work. Brick work should have struck or common joints in the cellar and outside exposed walls, onlywhere small cost is of great importance. Brick work should be left rough where it is desired to plaster. Foundation walls and piers usually continue from sixteen to thirty inches above grade; twenty or twenty-four inches is most common. On this is placed a sill in most frame houses. Outside walls and piers generally begin from eighteen to thirty inches below grade line, where not influenced by the cellar. In an ordinarily cold climate the freezing line is four or five feet. Eighteen inches or two feet is usual, however, in the construction of frame buildings, and the results are not unsatisfactory. A damp-course of slate or hard limestone is sometimes placed just above the grade line, to prevent the passage of moisture from the brick wall below to that above. These general statements as to brick work apply alike to that used in brick and frame buildings, as do also the statements as to interior walls, chimneys, etc., which follow.

To prevent the passage of moisture through brick walls below grade from the outside, a coating of Portland cement is sometimes used. Coal-tar is also used, but is not as good as the cement.

BRICK FOUNDATIONS.—LAYING BRICK.—COLORED MORTARS.—COLORED BRICKS.—BRICK VENEERING.—HOT-AIR FLUES.—DETAILS OF BRICK CONSTRUCTION.—CHIMNEYS AND FLUES.—HOLLOW WALLS.—CELLAR.—ASH-PITS.—GRATES.

A brick wall under a frame house is ordinarily nine inches thick; that is, it is called a nine-inch wall. In reality, it is the thickness of the length of a brick. Under these walls are placed footings. For a two-story frame house there are usually two footings of two courses each projecting two inches. Thus a nine-inch wall would have the bottom footing seventeen inches wide. In ordinary American brick work there is what is called a bond to each seventh course. The bond is made by laying the brick crosswise the wall rather than lengthwise. In that way it ties or bonds the wall together in the direction of its length. Below grade, where the brick work is not exposed, the bond is made by laying a continuous course of brick in this way. Above the grade, the bond is made by laying each alternate brick across the wall. This is called a header and stretcher bond. The stretcher is the brick which lies lengthwise the wall in the common way, and the header is the one which shows its head and runs crosswise the wall to form the bond. Thus there is a continuous row of alternating headers and stretchers in the bond course, which occurs, as said before, each seventh course. Another bond, by some brick-layers called the American bond, does not show on the outside. The corners of the inside of the outer row of bricks are clipped, so that the bond brick runs partway into the outside course, and thus is out of sight. It is an artificial arrangement and not satisfactory; it is not good construction. The header and stretcher bond is the best for exposed work, where both appearance and solidity are to be considered. There are other forms of bond,—the old English and the Flemish,—but they need not be considered here.

All brick should be thoroughly “slushed” with mortar; that is, all spaces between brick should be thoroughly filled. The ideal condition would be to have all brick excepting the exposed faces entirely surrounded by mortar.

The selection of the brick for the exposed fronts in a frame as well as a brick house should be made before the brick work is begun; at least a large supply should be selected and piled up. While the brick cannot all be of the same shade, different shades can be selected for different walls—a lighter shade for a north wall, and a darker for a south wall, a different shade for an east and a west wall. Very slight variations can be made in the ells and projections. This would apply to pressed, stock, or common brick, though pressed brick is usually selected before delivery.

The best color for exposed work is a dark cherry red. The best-appearing work with indifferent brick can be made with the use of a reddish brown mortar. The use of this kind of mortar is increasing. White putty mortar is made in the ordinary way, excepting that white sand, similar to that from Lake Pontchartrain, rather than gray sand, is used. It contains more lime than ordinary mortar. The mortar is said to be richer.

Black brick are made by heating and then dipping in coal-tar. Enamelled, glazed, and colored brick can be purchased in the larger markets as desired. Various forms of ornamental brick work are possible even where only the common brick areused. Moulded pressed brick are quite common, and the results of their use very satisfactory.

Brick veneering is not unusual in sections of the country where brick is very expensive and the effect of a brick house desired. It is a four-inch brick wall anchored to a frame structure. The anchoring is sometimes accomplished by driving twenty-penny nails into wood-work in a way to project into joints.

Hot-air flues in brick walls are sometimes tin-lined, though this is not necessary when they are smoothly plastered, providing it is possible to make them eight inches square. If they cannot be made deeper than the width of a brick, four inches, they should be tin-lined. A four-inch hot-air flue can be placed in a nine-inch wall by setting the two outside rows of brick on edge.

Hollow walls have not been regarded with great favor during recent years, for the reason that it is difficult to secure their proper construction. A hollow wall is usually twelve inches in thickness, with the middle course of brick omitted excepting at the corners and adjacent to openings. Suitable ties are placed across the open space.

It now is in order to consider various features of interior brick work and details which come in connection therewith. Cellars are usually from seven to eight feet deep. As this does not give all the height necessary for furnace or other heating apparatus, it is usually pitted; that is, it is let down into the cellar floor, and a brick area built around the opening to the furnace-door. Because of the necessity for pitting the furnace, the walls of the house adjacent thereto should continue eighteen inches below the level of other walls.

Walls inside of cellar should continue to the top of joist. This completely separates the different compartments of the cellar, or from that part of the house where there is no cellar.

There should be a man-hole opening to the parts under the house where there is no cellar.

Lintels or wooden supports should be provided over all openings in cellar, and over all openings in inside brick walls.

Wooden brick should be provided and built in where it is necessary to attach wood work to brick work. Usually this is about two feet six inches apart in a vertical or horizontal direction. The wooden brick should be the thickness of the brick itself and the mortar joints; that is, there should be no mortar above or below a wooden brick. Iron ventilators should be provided; one in each outside wall under each room where cellar windows are not provided. Windows are not usually provided where there is no cellar.

It is known that wood-work should not come directly in contact with chimneys. The framework should never rest on a chimney. There are reasons for this other than those which have a regard for safety from fire, one of which is that the chimney is not liable to settle. If it does not, the shrinkage of the wood-work, which in a two-story frame house will sometimes amount to two inches in the height of the building, makes a high place around the flues, where the frame comes in contact with or rests on the chimney. All chimney-stacks should extend above highest point of ridge of roof, and the extreme tops should be laid in Portland cement. All the exposed brick of the chimney should be hard-burned. If due regard were paid to these points, there would be no rickety chimney-tops. All fluesshould be thoroughly plastered on the inside. If chimneys were plastered on the outside, wherever they come in contact with the wood-work, the complaint of fires from defective flues would be hushed.

Fig. 31illustrates the common form of constructing a chimney breast where a grate is to be used. The flues are eight and one-half inches square. A passage to the ash-pit is shown. The grate opening is two feet wide; the jambs on each side are one foot six inches wide; thus the entire width of the breast is five feet. Other dimensions as indicated. Where there are grates on two floors of the house, one above the other, or where it is desirable for any reason to have a flue pass around a grate, it is necessary that the breast should be five feet wide. It is clear that the grate from below must have its own flue out to the top of the chimney. Thus the grate flue from the first story must pass around the grate of the second story, if there be one. If there is no grate above, or if it is not desired to pass a flue around the first-story grate, the chimney breast need be only four feet wide; that is, it would have the usual two-feet opening to the grate, and twelve rather than eighteen inch jambs on each side. On one side of the dotted line is indicated flue construction for a brick wall, and on the other for a wood wall.

Fig. 31

The hearth should rest on what is called a trimmer arch, which is made of brick. It springs from the chimney breast to the header of wood in front. It is four inches in thickness. It is laid in the ordinary way, and at the proper time is filled on the top with concrete by the mantel-setter. In case a grate on thesecond floor connects with the ash-pit, one of the flues at the side is used for this purpose.

Fig. 32

Fig. 32indicates a common form of corner grate. The flues in this as well asFig. 31are drawn close together and come out through the attic and roof in a smaller stem. There should be distinct separation of flues.

Ash-pits are frequently made of four-inch brick walls strengthened by brick pilasters. These pits are usually from three to four feet in depth and the width of the chimney breast, and nearly as high as the depth of the cellar. Where more than one grate empties into an ash-pit, it is common to divide it into compartments, one for each fire. The top of the pit is crowned with a brick arch. Ash-dumps are sometimes provided for the grate, depending, of course, upon the kind of grate used, and ash-pit doors of iron for the pits themselves.

The side walls of an outside cellar-way should continue to the bottom of cellar. It should be floored the same as the cellar itself.

Areas of brick should be provided around all cellar openings that continue below grade. The bottoms of these areas should be floored with paving-brick. This is better than cement, as it admits of natural drainage.

STONE MASONRY.—CUT STONE.—TERRA COTTA.—PRIVY VAULTS.—CISTERNS.—FILTERS FOR CISTERNS.—BRICK PAVEMENTS.—CEMENT PAVEMENTS.

Stone foundations for dwelling-houses are usually made of native stone, and anything that may be said here must necessarily conform to general rather than special conditions. The best stone that can be used for this purpose is hard, non-absorbent limestone. There are many varieties of stone conglomerates throughout the country which are valuable for foundation uses. Stone should be laid up in lime mortar in the direction of its natural bed in the quarry, with a sufficiency of bond stone. For ordinary dwelling-house work there should be at least one footing eight inches in depth, and six inches projection on each side of the wall. Stone walls for foundations are usually made not less than eighteen inches in thickness. It is not easy to lay a good stone wall less than eighteen inches in thickness. While the same number of cubic feet of stone work may cost less than brick work, a stone foundation ordinarily would cost more than one of brick for the reason that a brick wall does not have to be so thick. It usually takes about half the number of cubic feet of brick work that it does of stone work to answer the same purpose. Where stone is available at low cost it is best to use it. Interior brick walls may rest on stone footings. The inside of stone walls should be neatly pointed after other work has been finished. Stone work above grade may be finished inmany ways—random range work, rubble work, regular course range work, etc. After the other work has been finished, the mortar should be raked out a short distance and a finish joint added.

Cut-stone work is too large a subject to consider in detail. There are several points which cannot be overlooked. There should be drips cut under all projections, so that the water will not run down the other stone or brick work and stain it. A drip is merely a little V-shaped channel cut on the under side of the stone work. They are found on the under side of most window-sills. In door, window, or other openings, the stone work should underlie or overlie all wood work at least two inches. This may be explained by stating that the stone window-sill should underlie the wood sill two inches, and the window cap should overlie the wood cap at least two inches. Generally speaking, coping should project on each side of the wall about two inches. Sills should extend at least one inch beyond the face of the wall. Window-sills should be no less than five inches in thickness. Door-sills should generally be about seven or eight inches, and extend at least one inch beyond the face of the wall, and through its full thickness. The water table of the stone foundation usually forms the window cap of the cellar windows, and the cap course, which comes at the grade line, the cellar window-sills. In this case it is necessary that the stone should run farther into the wall where the openings occur.

Stone steps are not over six and one-half to seven and one-half inches in thickness, with from nine to twelve inch treads. They underlie and lap about one inch, and have walls, the samematerial as the foundation, for lower supports. These walls should go to the full depth of the house walls with which they come in contact. Thus there is no danger of settling. Stone steps are frequently used in the front of the yard from the side-walk to the grade level where there is considerable elevation. In such cases it is necessary to use stone side pieces for the steps, to prevent caving and to make a neat finish. Where flagging is cheap, it is well to use it for walks and porch floors.

Terra cotta is the perfection of brick-making. It is the only building material which is not affected by changes of temperature, or other natural or artificial conditions to which the building may be subject. It may be described as being a very plastic material; that is, anything can be done with it. It can be worked into any form that is desired, excepting long lintels, and even in that case there are means of arriving at the desired result and giving a lintel form in a very proper manner. Ornamental terra cotta is modelled by artists before being burned, and the best results may naturally be expected.

The size of the privy vault is usually three and one-half by four and one-half feet, elliptical, and from ten to twenty feet deep, according to the character of the soil. Usually it is walled up with four-inch dry brick wall. Piers should be provided at corners for privy building. In some instances it is required that the privy vault should be made water-tight. In that case it should be built the same as a cistern, with round bottom and cemented interior surface. When it is desired to connect the privy vault with the sewer, it should be cemented in the mannerjust described, with a siphon vitrified pipe connection with the drain to the sewer. The siphon prevents solid rubbish, which may be thrown into the vault, from getting into the drain and clogging it.

The cistern is generally located near the rear kitchen wall, say ten or twelve feet therefrom. The walls, arch, and neck are usually four inches in thickness when capacity of cistern does not exceed one hundred and twenty-five barrels. Otherwise the brick work mentioned should be eight inches in thickness. The brick should be laid in domestic cement, and smoothly coated with Portland cement. It should be connected with the down spouts of the house by means of vitrified drain-pipe, the same as described in connection with plumbing work, though it has no connection therewith.

The following table gives capacity of cisterns of various sizes.

CAPACITY OF CISTERN IN GALLONS FOR EACH TEN INCHES IN DEPTH.

DIAM.IN FEETGALLONS.DIAM.IN FEETGALLONS.DIAM.IN FEETGALLONS.219·506½206·8512705·02½30·507239·8813827·4344·607½275·4014959·63½59·978313·33151,101·6478·338½353·72201,958·44½99·149396·56253,059·95122·409½461·40304,406·45½148·1010489·60355,990·06176·2511592·40407,831·0

There are various ways of forming a filter. One is to have a small cistern of eight or ten barrel capacity, located between the main cistern and house. It should be divided by a brick wall laid in mortar, but not cemented on either side. The water enters on one side, passes through the brick wall in the middle, and from thence to the cistern beyond. Another plan is to cement the wall, leave an opening at the bottom, and pack the side on which the water enters with charcoal, sand, and gravel. The water passes through this packing and the opening below to the other side of the filter, and then to the cistern. Still another plan is to build the partition as first described on the inside of the cistern proper. All of the water passes to one side of the divided cistern, and through the partition before being drawn out. Thus it has to pass through the brick before it is to be drawn out. Still another filter is made by building what is called a beehive in the bottom of the cistern. It is a beehive form of brick work, with the pump pipe leading to the inside, so that all water has to be drawn through the brick beehive before it is pumped out. According to this plan, as well as the others mentioned, the water is strained through the brick.

It is best that the cistern and independent filter, when used, should be provided with iron rims and cast-iron covers. It is good practice to connect the cistern with a dry well, which is constructed the same as an open vault excepting that the top is arched. This dry-well connection is by means of five-inch vitrified pipe laid in the same manner as sewer pipe.

There is a practice, altogether too common among builders, of connecting the cistern overflow with the vault or sewer. Nothing could be worse than this. The water is certain to be polluted.

Brick pavements are used for walks around the house, and sometimes for cellar floors. Cement floors, however, are better for cellars. Brick pavement of all kinds should be made of hard-burned bricks, laid on a six or eight inch bed of sand. The brick walk should not be laid until after all the grading and filling of the lot has been done. It is best to leave the brick walks out of the general contract, so that this work can be delayed until after the house is finished. It is a good thing to have the sodding and the paving in the same contract. The contractor who attends to the sodding can work the two together to a better advantage than if the walks were placed and the sodding done afterwards.

Cement pavements are used for walks around the house, and for cellar floors. Cement is more expensive than brick. The surface to be covered should, first, be levelled, then saturated with water; after which is laid a three-inch bed of cement concrete, made of gravel, sand, and cement in proper proportions. Upon this is placed a three-fourth-inch layer of cement mortar. Ordinary American, hydraulic cement may be used for concrete, but for the three-fourth-inch layer nothing but best Portland cement should be considered. Sometimes the cement work in the cellar is done by the plasterer. Outside cement work for walks requires special skill. In most large cities there are those who make a business of doing this work. They have different formulas and methods of reaching the proper results.

CARPENTER WORK.—FRAMING.—SIZE OF TIMBERS.—HEIGHT OF STORIES.—JOIST.—STUD WALLS.—OUTSIDE SHEATHING.—BUILDING-PAPER.—ROOFS.—OUTSIDE FINISH.—OUTSIDE SHINGLE WALLS.—OUTSIDE CASINGS.—WINDOWS WITH BOX FRAMES.—HINGED OR PIVOTED WINDOWS.—OUTSIDE SHUTTERS.—PORCHES.—LATTICE PORCHES.

In considering carpenter work, we will first take up framing, and everything which pertains to the outside of the house. All material used for framing should be sound, square-edged material, free from imperfections tending to impair its use, durability, or strength. In different parts of the country, different kinds of lumber are standard for framing purposes. In the South and sections contiguous to it, yellow pine is used; in the North, white pine, hemlock, Norway spruce, poplar, and even hard wood. It is neither profitable nor desirable in this connection to indicate any particular material; it is natural to use the cheapest that is sufficiently strong for framing. The following table indicates the sizes of timber in common use in framing an ordinary dwelling.

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