IT is an article of faith that to design entails the possession of the creative faculty, which may be taken for granted with the proviso, that the creative faculty is concerned rather with the association of elements common to all than with invention pure and simple.
To be more explicit, the human imagination is limited to personal or acquired experience. At no period has any form been created that is not traceable to some process of production, or natural suggestion; for instance, the artistic conception of an angel is merely a combination of human and bird form, and is in no sense an original creation.
The term originality is indeed generally misunderstood, and for the reasons already advanced it is impossible to be original. The real interest in artistic production of any kind is the expression of personality, in other words, the individual point of view of the artist; which is more or less interesting, as it is more or less personal in idea and expression.
In the training of the designer it is essential that the imagination be carefully cultivated and trained to accept suggestion from any possible source.
Design is distinct from any phase of realisticexpression inasmuch as the subject does not exist in any concrete form, but has to be mentally visualised.
Too much importance is attached to what is believed to be inspiration, but obviously if inspired, design is rather in the nature of an accident than of the deliberate intention it should be and cannot be credited to the individual exponent. What at first sight suggests inspired thought may be accounted for by sub-consciousness, which is really responsible for the evolution of an idea or the solution of some problem.
It would be beneficial to reject once and for all the idea of inspiration with its tendency to encourage the “artistic temperament” in the belief that it “does not feel like it.”
The designer must be ready to respond at any time, and this implies a logical and balanced mind, capable of grasping essentials, and conditions, and of evolving some desirable solution.
Another superstition is that a design is a drawing, and it only requires a facility in this form of expression to produce a design. This is a fallacy, as though many designs are for convenience expressed through this medium, any such drawing must be made with a knowledge of the technical details of the final method of production, to be a practical design.
Design is therefore inseparable from consideration of material and process, with which the designer must be acquainted; without this technical knowledge it isimpossible to take full advantage of the method of production either in the direction of economy or effect.
Other considerations are utilitarian and æsthetic, the former having regard to purpose, the latter to appearance.
That mere utility is not in itself sufficient is evident; the common enamelled saucepan and the medicine bottle are certainly utilitarian, but no one would assert that they are satisfying from the æsthetic point of view.
An important consideration in design is the “market” which is governed by popular or individual demand.
Those who pay the piper call the tune, and the designer has often to work to prescribed conditions.
This apparently implies restriction of individuality, but the designer who refuses to conform will probably find the market even more restricted.
It also implies that he must be well versed in the various styles or historic tradition, so that his work, if desirable, may be in harmony with existing environment; but in these circumstances it is quite possible to produce work that is individual and distinctive.
Designers, craftsmen and manufacturers are all dependent upon public demand, which must be taken into account, and their business is as far as possible to raise the general standard of taste, by producing of their best. Any attempt on their part to insist on what shall or shall not be done would undoubtedly result in failure.
To sum up, the designer must not only be an accomplished draughtsman well versed in traditional ornament and style, but it is necessary that he should cultivate the imaginative and perceptive faculties;and, in addition, the commercial qualities of promptness and business insight.
The question is often raised, can design be taught? If by this it is understood, can the designing faculty be created in the ordinary student, the answer is distinctly in the negative; but undoubtedly students can be directed through a course of training that will enable them to produce at least work that is good, though it may not be personally distinctive.
An intelligent study of the elements and basis of pattern and of traditional styles should result in the ability to produce work on safe traditional lines that will be in harmony with environment. Such work it may be claimed would only attain the level of mediocrity; how much farther the student will go depends largely upon application and natural faculty.
Natural faculty is fairly common, while genius is rare and can look after itself. The teacher is concerned with the rank and file, and the training and development of the natural faculty should be the aim.
Where this exists it should be carefully nursed, involving great responsibility in the choice and direction of the courses of study.
The able exponent does not always make the best teacher, as students are apt to be influenced by a strong personality and to be imitative.
Influence in the early stages is quite natural, and to some extent beneficial, but if permanent, the student becomes one of the crowd in failing to develop thepersonality, which is the sole interest, and is the teacher’s responsibility to preserve as far as possible.
Negative criticism is not teaching, and in any suggested modifications reasons should be given, so that the teaching be constructive; to which end it is desirable that the teacher be capable of analysis and possessed of method.
Popular taste as a factor that has to be considered has already been suggested, but it is evident that the average member of the public has little knowledge of Art, and still less of design.
That Art is necessary to existence may be questioned, as life would be possible—if not very interesting—if regulated only by considerations of utility. In a less cultivated state we are satisfied with the gratification of merely physical wants; so in a more cultivated state Art becomes one of the mind’s necessities.
The dictionary definition of Art is “practical skill guided by rules,” and that of an artist as “one who practises an Art.”
Possibly the former might be better expressed by the statement that “Art is an appeal to the emotions by colour, form, rhythm and sound.”
Art exists not only in that which appeals to the vision, but also in that which is transmitted to the aural sense, as in declamation, oratory and music.
The dictionary particularises the fine arts of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, but to what extent is the possession of examples of these possible to the public at large except in the most general sense?
What is invariably lost sight of is that the personal environment, the furniture and domestic surroundings of the individual constitute the actual field for artistic expression.
It is questionable whether our present system of Art instruction is sufficiently far-reaching, devoted to the training of would-be artistic exponents rather than in the cultivation of the public at large.
There is still a superstitious belief in “natural taste,” and whereas the individual member of the public would immediately, in the ordinary affairs of life, consult a specialist, yet in a matter of artistic selection there is profound confidence in personal exercise of judgment.
It is not contended that taste may not be inherited, but taste may be good or bad.
Good taste is invariably our own; bad, the selection of others, but it is surely irrational to assume that we all naturally possess a knowledge which indisputably takes many years to acquire and cultivate.
It is often stated that the common inartistic environment is the result of commercial output, and it is true that the ordinary member of the public is restricted in choice to what is on the market; but it can be urged that the object of the manufacturer is to sell, and that he makes it his business to study and supply existing demand. The manufacturer’s standard is therefore regulated by the evidence of public taste, and as thisis improved so will the artistic quality of production be raised.
The buying public is influenced by what it believes to be the fashion of the moment rather than any conscious appreciation of fitness and purpose, or perception based on artistic education.
This is evidenced by a casual survey of the contents of shop windows in any neighbourhood, and it will be noticed that preponderance is given to the class of objects generally known as ornaments; objects that have no possible utility and intended solely for display.
It is conceded that many objects fall into this category, and the display of old brass candlesticks and Italian drug pots, for instance, may be excused as examples of a period when such utensils, strictly utilitarian, were incidentally made beautiful.
Modern furniture frequently offends—being too often constructed with less regard to utility than to external effect.
The present tendency is to hide in cupboards and remote regions the actual things we use, and to display objects that are only moved at the perennial spring-cleaning; one honest piece of furniture remains in the modern house—the kitchen dresser, of which we are apparently ashamed, as also of the dinner service with which it is occupied. To some extent the reason may be found in short tenancies, and the three years’ lease may have much to answer for. It is usually felt to be more convenient to move than to put up with the nuisance of re-decorating; and consequent on frequentchange of environment, is a lack of interest in furniture and other personal belongings.
The advent of the motor car is also to some extent a factor, resulting in the town flat and country cottage, which means the abandonment of the large house and its interests and responsibilities; bringing about a change in domestic life, with the growing tendency to entertain at hotels and restaurants.
This tendency to more public life naturally results in even less interest in personal possession and environment; still further fostered by the hire-furnish system which enables its patrons to indulge in frequent change of style and locality.
Lamentable as it may seem from the artistic point of view, it certainly appears that the general public are at least apathetic, and that Art appeals less to them than the facilities for change and personal indulgence; still there is plenty of scope for the designer and producer if they adapt themselves to the everchanging conditions and requirements.
The earliest design was probably due to materialistic causes, imperfect implements and difficulties and accidents turned to account.
It is conceivable that primitive man in his early essays in pottery found extreme difficulty in obtaining a smooth surface, which, notwithstanding all endeavours, would be, in the unbaked state, sensitive to scratches and other damage. This difficulty may have suggestedintentionally covering the surface with such scratches, etc., more or less arranged, thus making a virtue of necessity.
Examination of early pottery will reveal simple patterns scratched or incised, consisting mainly of straight lines arranged in zigzag or herringbone form; in some instances the pattern is apparently the result of pressure of some simple implement, resembling what is known in plastering as trowel point.
Such details are simply those that could be produced by means of some form of point, stone, stick or finger nail, and are not representative of any known form; and it is not till a much later period that any indication occurs suggestive of a growth line or natural type.
Curves seldom occur, certainly not in the scroll form, though rings singly or concentric are among the early details; but these could easily be the result of pressure by the ends of hollow reeds.
The evolute wave and scroll that figures so largely in later ornament was presumably in imitation of wire-work, forms which the material would readily suggest, particularly the continuous line of the evolute.
Development in the direction of relief ornament in primitive pottery is indicated in the decoration consisting of incrusted pellets and slithers of clay.
There is ample evidence that human appreciation and desire for expression in art is natural and instinctive, as is demonstrated by the marvellous work of the Paleolithic etchers and bone carvers, who may well be considered the first impressionists.
They could have only studied many of their subjects at a respectful distance, and this adds to the merit of the successful embodiment of characteristics.
The work is invariably realistic, that is, imitative of natural form, and is evidence of insight and appreciation that for the time and working condition is quite extraordinary, and is in distinct contrast with the earlier ornament, which is not in any way imitative of, or traceable to, any natural suggestion.
On investigation it will be found that artistic expression has generally three phases; the first where purely inorganic details are employed such as directly arise from the process and material involved.
The second phase is realistic or imitative of natural form, and the third—conventional, where the details are probably derived from natural suggestion but are treated with restraint; the last being the result of cultured appreciation of process and æsthetic considerations.
It is essential to assume that originally it was customary to personally produce whatever was considered necessary in the way of pottery or weapons, but that eventually certain workers would devote themselves more or less exclusively to producing for the community, being compensated by immunity from other labour, and that this developed in course of time into patronage, and the producer being entirely supported by his craft.
Appreciation from would-be possessors stimulated
No. 1.A. Cup, Barrow, Denzell, Cornwall.B. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Stanlake, Oxon.C. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.D. Jug, German sepulchral mounds, Bronze Age.E. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.F. Early English puzzle jug.G. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Bloxworth Down, Dorset.H. Food Vessel, sepulchral mounds, earliest Bronze Age, Ireland.
No. 1.A. Cup, Barrow, Denzell, Cornwall.B. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Stanlake, Oxon.C. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.D. Jug, German sepulchral mounds, Bronze Age.E. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.F. Early English puzzle jug.G. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Bloxworth Down, Dorset.H. Food Vessel, sepulchral mounds, earliest Bronze Age, Ireland.
No. 2. A. B. Palaeolithic Bone Carvings.C. " Etching on Bone.
No. 2. A. B. Palaeolithic Bone Carvings.C. " Etching on Bone.
No. 2. A. B. Palaeolithic Bone Carvings.C. " Etching on Bone.
the primitive craftsmen who, in proportion to their individual skill, would be rewarded, and this naturally led to the establishment of the professional worker and artist.
To appreciate the evolution of art it is necessary to consider the early social conditions.
The primitive life was insular and nomadic, the family or tribe staying in any locality only so long as food was available for themselves and herds; such communities were necessarily pastoral and predatory.
The simple requirements under these conditions would be vessels for storage, conveyance, or cooking, probably pottery; weapons, and doubtless jewellery or objects of personal adornment.
Later by necessity and under favourable conditions they would develop agriculture, which would result in fixity of abode; and this would entail precautionary measures for protection from predatory tribes.
The original camp or stockade for this purpose in time led to the fortress or castle for the protection of the town, and the more substantial nature of these gave rise to architecture.
With comparative security more pacific conditions would prevail, and the simple communal life develop into more complex social distinctions.
The military class established for protective reasons would be dependent upon the general community for their upkeep, thus imposing taxation on the various workers, and necessitating a system of government and of officials for effective collection and distribution.Social distinctions would be drawn between the various classes, governing, administrative, military, and non-combatant; the latter would furnish the bulk of the workers and be further divided into craftsmen, agriculturists and traders.
In process of time from the executive class would develop the nobility, priestly and legal classes.
Art was originally local, that is, confined to the community, but later was subjected to various influences—Political, Religious, and Commercial.
Political, by treaty or intermarriage, when imported taste or interchange would result, or by conquest.
Judging by the past, the conquered have invariably imposed their taste on their conquerors, as instanced in the Greek conquest of Persia; that of the Romans of the Greeks, and later the perpetuation of the Roman influence after their subjugation at the hands of the Goths.
The Crusades resulted in the importation of fabrics of Eastern and Sicilian origin, and may be classed as a religious influence; an earlier example of which may be cited in the edict of Pope Leo III inA.D.726 in response to the iconoclastic movement, by reason of which the Byzantine art workers, deprived of their living, emigrated to the Rhine district.
No. 3. 14th Century Textile showing Heraldic influence.
No. 3. 14th Century Textile showing Heraldic influence.
No. 3. 14th Century Textile showing Heraldic influence.
The establishment of commercial intercourse had great influence on the arts, and did much to modify local character, as it was found necessary to studymarket conditions in order to secure sales; and goods were therefore made to suit foreign requirements and taste, thereby resulting in confusion and difficulty in defining the original source.
Notable, for instance, were the Sicilian weavers, who, contrary to their local traditions, introduced heraldry into the patterns of their fabrics, so as to conform to the taste of the crusaders.
The Phœnicians were the early merchant adventurers, and traded in work of Tyrian and Sidonian production with remote parts of Europe, taking back local produce in exchange. Later on, through the medium of the Hanseatic league, brass work from Flanders and cast-iron fire-backs from Sussex were distributed through-out the area of their operations; of which surviving examples demonstrate that local taste and requirement were considered and embodied.
Apart from this cause of loss in local character, Artproduction was further influenced by the rise in social position of the worker.
When the craftsman remained the sole factor, his design and work was invariably true to materialistic conditions; but with increasing emolument incidental to appreciation and patronage, the designer emerged as a professional.
In the early times the craftsman was independent to a great extent of architectural influence, but later he was compelled to study the architectural environment and adapt his designs in accordance.
Even then he was true to his craft conditions until the designing was taken out of his hands by the newly evolved professional who, in many instances had little knowledge of, or was indifferent to the technical side of the craft.
Possibly the greatest offender in this respect was the French designer of the Rococo period, whose woodwork design is regardless of constructive detail, and it is to the everlasting credit of the workmen that they overcame the difficulties thrown in their way, and that so much of this work is still in existence.
Art is also reflective of the ethics and morals of the time; compare, for instance, the robust character of Gothic work with the lack of meaning and insincerity of the later Renaissance, degenerating into the license of the Rococo.
Much that is commonly regarded as ornament in traditional work was originally invested with symbolic meaning, in later times lost sight of, with resultant loss of character and interest.
The study of traditional work is essential to the designer, not merely for reproduction but on account of its value as reflective of the experience and point of view of past exploiters.
The present is marked by a feverish anxiety to be new, but the old worker had a more humble spirit and was content to carry on a tradition a little further if possible.
Much that appears to be new will on investigation prove to be an old friend in disguise, and in venturing on what is apparently a new idea it may be well to reflect as to whether it may not have occurred to others, and whether it is worth doing.
“Novelty,” a detestable word, should have no place in artistic considerations. That which is really good should be good for all time; but the sporadic outbreaks that occur from time to time in so-called new phases, have their little day and relapse into the limbo of the forgotten. In the meantime tradition still goes on, sometimes progressing, now and then retrogressing, but at all times unbroken.
History as written is misleading, dealing as it does with personalities and conquests; the real history of the world can be read in its artistic development.
SOME of the factors in the evolution of Art have already been briefly suggested, but to thoroughly appreciate artistic production a passing acquaintance, at least, with the various phases of historic developments is essential. The scope of the present work obviously renders it impossible to deal with the subject in detail, but libraries are accessible to those who are desirous of extending their knowledge.
It has already been stated that the earlier crafts were independent of any influence other than that of material and process, and this has continued in some of the crafts to the present time; but those more closely allied to building, particularly those associated with furniture and decoration, eventually became subject to the architectural phase or style of the period, which dominated form and detail.
Style may be described as manner of expression, either individual or local, and for convenience is defined by nationality and period. It is usual to speak of Greek, Roman, Gothic, etc., of such a century; in the case of the Renaissance, it is customary to particularise the variants, as Italian, French, English, etc., also with the period or century.
The development of style, intimately involved as itis in the social, religious and political history of nations, must ever be powerful in its interest and far-reaching in its appeal.
The first idea in the mind of man is undoubtedly that of utility, but in succeeding stages of culture there comes a natural craving for something more than this. And so with the progress of a race we can trace the progress of its decorative art.
Then there is the consideration of the effect that one race or community inevitably has on another with which it comes in contact—either through conquest or through the establishment of commercial relations. Naturally the market is captured by the workmanship displaying the finest qualities, æsthetic and practical, and these qualities advance with the development of society and with progress in mechanical skill. As a result of conquest the civilisation of either conqueror or conquered must become the dominant influence, and the possible fusion and interchange of ideas may modify style to a considerable extent.
Locality has always been a determining factor, particularly in architecture where the material available is of necessity utilised, and in most cases is the one best suited to the climatic conditions; for instance, where wood abounds we find it successfully employed.
Climate is also largely responsible for architectural form. In the North, owing to heavy snows, the roofs are high-pitched. The early Egyptian buildings wereof mud and wattle, the readiest material to hand, and form ample protection from the sun in a practically rainless district. It is interesting to note that the character of these structures was imparted to their later work in stone. This was used in the most important buildings, and was readily obtainable from the Nubian quarries and transported down the Nile on rafts.
It must be remembered that although broad classifications can be made in styles, yet there are intermediate stages which are transitional, and which are usually due to the importation of some foreign influence. The phases of a transitional period can usually be defined; at first the new style is slavishly imitated or else executed by the foreign worker exploiting it. This is followed by its being used in conjunction with the native construction, and lastly, the native interpretation of the foreign style is possibly grafted on to older forms.
It should be understood that at no time was there any great immediate change in style, but that there are phases which can be described as typical, connected by periods of gradual change or transition; due, doubtless, to individual expression of taste, either on the part of exponent or patron, or as previously suggested, by influences political, religious or commercial.
Careful study will show that the change in the majority of instances was due to reaction from a florid to a more severe treatment, which in its turn became redundant in character and detail. Apart from the artistic point of view, these changes are interesting as reflective of the character of the times.
From the constructive point of view there are two distinct principles to be appreciated, the Lintel and the Arch. The Lintel, which is the earlier, may be described as a large stone style, and consists of the bridging of apertures by means of horizontal slabs, supported by vertical columns or piers. This is a method of construction with distinct limitations, as it was impossible to bridge large areas or spaces without frequent support.
No. 4. The Lintel.
No. 4. The Lintel.
No. 4. The Lintel.
The joints of the Lintel necessarily occur over the centres of the supporting columns, and the space between was controlled by the size of the obtainable material and the imposed weight it could bear; the result being, as in the great hall at Karnak, a forest of closely spaced columns. It was not until the principle of the Arch was developed into vaulting that interiors of any considerable dimension with clear floor spaces were possible.
Lintel construction was employed in the Egyptian, Chaldean and Greek styles.
The Arch, as a constructive form, did not appear until a later period, and possibly was due to some extent to the employment of brick and stones of small size.
No. 5. Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia. Vault form, but not vault construction.
No. 5. Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia. Vault form, but not vault construction.
No. 5. Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia. Vault form, but not vault construction.
Form or shape is not involved, as it is quite possible to so shape the Lintel as to give the appearanceof the Arch by cutting the underside to the required curve. In the early Greek architecture examples have been found of both Arch and vault appearance, but these are the result of horizontal courses, successively projecting; that is, built in the form of inverted steps, the underside being cut to the arch curve, and is a form of construction restricted to bridging relatively small areas.
No. 6. A. Structural Arch. B. Arch appearance, result of cutting away.
No. 6. A. Structural Arch. B. Arch appearance, result of cutting away.
No. 6. A. Structural Arch. B. Arch appearance, result of cutting away.
The principle of the Arch depends upon the separate pieces of material being formed to a wedge shape, the joints corresponding to radial lines drawn through the centre from which the Arch curve is struck.
The weak part of the Lintel is the centre of the span which may have a tendency to give way under pressure, but the wedged construction of the Arch renders the centre strong enough to bear the imposed weight.
In contrast with the Lintel, material of small size could be employed, not only stone, but brick being used in Arch construction.
No. 7. Section of Gothic Vault showing courses of stone and centering.
No. 7. Section of Gothic Vault showing courses of stone and centering.
No. 7. Section of Gothic Vault showing courses of stone and centering.
The Lintel, in relatively small spans, is sometimes composed of separate small stones, shaped to fit each other in the form of Joggled joints.
No. 8.A. Lintel in one piece.B. C. D. Various forms of Joggled joints.
No. 8.A. Lintel in one piece.B. C. D. Various forms of Joggled joints.
No. 8.
A. Lintel in one piece.
B. C. D. Various forms of Joggled joints.
No. 9. Gothic Vaulting showing intersecting ribs forming framework of structure.
No. 9. Gothic Vaulting showing intersecting ribs forming framework of structure.
No. 9. Gothic Vaulting showing intersecting ribs forming framework of structure.
The outward and manifest appearance suggests to the lay observer a striking divergence in the style known as Gothic from the Roman manner of building; but the main difference is in proportion and treatment of detail, the underlying principle being much the same. The use of the Arch and vaulting was common to both, but in the Gothic development greater strength was obtained, with even greater economy of material. The archivolts andintersecting ribs of vaults, with their supports, literally formed the bones of the building, constituting a framework to which the bays of walls and roofing were only a matter of filling in.
In the words of Mr. C. H. Moore, in his work on “Development and Character of Gothic Architecture”—“the Gothic style developed into a system where stability depends not upon any inert massiveness except in the outermost abutments, but upon a logical adjustment of active parts whose opposing forces produce a perfect equilibrium. It is thus a system of balanced thrusts, as opposed to the former system of inert stability.”
The Egyptian buildings, in common with those of Palestine, were frequently of mud, strengthened by wattle or reeds interwoven, evidence of which is apparent in later incised decoration. Buildings were also of sun-baked bricks, those of an important character being faced with stone; the exteriors of these latter were simple and severe, the walls being slightly tapered and surmounted by a simple cove cornice, with gateways and entrances of massive form.
The internal effect was of mystery, doubtless due to the comparative absence of light, and to the many columns necessary to carry the roofings. The columns which were mostly employed in the interiors, were squat and stunted in proportion, being from four to seven diameters in height, with capitals of the Lotus, Papyrus or Hathor variety. Mouldings were of the simplest character and sparsely used, and thedecoration included renderings of the Lotus and Papyrus plants, either painted or incised in stone with the addition of colour.
No. 10. Longitudinal section and half plan of Egyptian Temple.
No. 10. Longitudinal section and half plan of Egyptian Temple.
No. 10. Longitudinal section and half plan of Egyptian Temple.
Egyptian architecture may be generally described as monumental, while the ornament was apparently inspired by religious feeling and desire for symbolic expression, rather than by more æsthetic considerations.
In Egyptian Art ornament is subordinated to the architecture, and the employment of wall pictures and of inscriptions in the hieroglyphic character, added considerably to the decorative effect. In the wall pictures the figures were depicted in silhouette, in conventional attitudes, the head and limbs being displayedin severe profile, while the torso is represented in full front view. The methods of expression were painting, or incised in outline on stone, invariably filled in with colour, the effect in both being of flatness, with little suggestion of modelling or rotundity, the various features being defined by local colour.
No. 11. Entrance Façade of Egyptian Temple.
No. 11. Entrance Façade of Egyptian Temple.
No. 11. Entrance Façade of Egyptian Temple.
Though much of the Egyptian work was in the round, and evident of great sculptural ability and appreciation of form, yet generally their decorative work may be described as a colour style, rather than one in which light and shade were important factors.
No. 12. Egyptian Capital from Philae.
No. 12. Egyptian Capital from Philae.
No. 12. Egyptian Capital from Philae.
With regard to the domestic life, the examples of furniture in the British Museum convey some idea, and these bear a remarkable similarity to forms with which we are familiar at the present day, both in detail and construction, which is simple and direct, with mortise and tenon joints. Turning was frequently employed, and, in the decoration offurniture, inlays of ivory, ebony and glass, the Egyptians being expert workers in both glass and enamels.
No. 13. Egyptian Furniture.A. Stand Inlaid.B. Ebony seat inlaid with ivory.C. Folding stool.D. Ebony box inlaid with porcelain and ivory.
No. 13. Egyptian Furniture.A. Stand Inlaid.B. Ebony seat inlaid with ivory.C. Folding stool.D. Ebony box inlaid with porcelain and ivory.
No. 13. Egyptian Furniture.
A. Stand Inlaid.B. Ebony seat inlaid with ivory.C. Folding stool.D. Ebony box inlaid with porcelain and ivory.
Illustrations taken from bas reliefs and wall painting give a good idea of the furniture, which is often depicted as gilded.
The Egyptian couch was straight like an ottoman. Sometimes the couch took the form of an animal with the head and tail at either end, and the legs and feet carved to complete the effect.
Chaldean art in character had much in common with that of Egypt, the difference being more that ofexpression than in idea, probably due to intercourse and mutual influence. The buildings, which were mostly in brick, often faced with a form of terra-cotta, stamped with relief or ornament, were pyramidal in general form, raised on terraces forming a succession of platforms, approached by steps or inclined planes. Columns were employed, but the capitals were distinctive in the use of volutes culminating in the Persian renderings at Persepolis.
No. 14. Egyptian Chairs.A. Wall painting in British Museum, B.C. 1500-1400.B. at Thebes.
No. 14. Egyptian Chairs.A. Wall painting in British Museum, B.C. 1500-1400.B. at Thebes.
No. 14. Egyptian Chairs.
A. Wall painting in British Museum, B.C. 1500-1400.B. at Thebes.
Compound animal and human forms, analagous to the Egyptian sphinx, were employed, such as the winged lion and bull with human heads, generally to flank the gateways. Wall pictures in low relief formed part of the interior decoration, these being arranged in successive rows and representing historic episodes were, like the Egyptian decoration, probably coloured. A prominent detail in the decoration is that of the date palm which, symbolical in meaning, was the prototypeof the Greek anthemion; the volute also occurs in much of the decoration in the form of the evolute scroll.
Our conclusions regarding Assyrian woodwork are drawn from the sculptured bas-reliefs of stone or alabaster with which the Assyrians faced their brick structures internally and externally. The examples in the British Museum are about 888B.C.
Furniture, such as tables, thrones and couches, was evidently made of wood, and was probably inlaid with ivory and other precious materials.
No. 15. Assyrian Seat.
No. 15. Assyrian Seat.
No. 15. Assyrian Seat.
On the monuments of Khorsabad representations have been discovered of chairs, supported by animals and human figures. The intention in the use of figures was probably to depict prisoners taken in war.
Chairs, thrones, stools and tables were square in shape. The ends of the rails and legs were carved, and the ornamentation employed for these and similar positions included the heads of lions, bulls and rams, the sacred palm and pine cone.
No. 16. Capitals from Persepolis.
No. 16. Capitals from Persepolis.
No. 16. Capitals from Persepolis.
The seats of chairs and thrones were much higher than is now customary, and necessitated the use of foot-stools. In some cases both chairs and tables were made to fold on a central pivot.
In some cases metal was used either for part or for the complete structure.
Exact chronology is a matter of surmise, but at an early period, about 4000B.C., in the valley of the Nile and in Mesopotamia, civilization had attained a very high level, extremely favourable to the development of architecture and the artistic crafts.
The early Greeks, as a result of the peculiar formation of their coast line, like the later Scandinavians, were adventurers on the sea, piratical and trading, and were thus brought into communication with, and influenced by, the arts of Egypt and Chaldea.
No. 17. Early Treatment of Doric Order. Tomb of Beni Hassan.
No. 17. Early Treatment of Doric Order. Tomb of Beni Hassan.
No. 17. Early Treatment of Doric Order. Tomb of Beni Hassan.
Though, in their architecture, the Greeks progressed no further than the Lintel, yet they must be credited with the development of the system of the orders, which formed the basis of subsequent styles.
The two prominent orders were the Doric and the Ionic; the former has its prototype in the tomb of Beni Hasan, the date of which is 1740B.C., while the latter is evidently derived as to the voluted form of the capital, from Assyrian and Persian originals.