Vignette of Blessed Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith
Vignette of Blessed Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith
Printed by the Blessed Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith.1632BY PERMISSION OF THE SUPERIORS.
It may be published if it please the Most Reverend Father,Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace.For the Archbishop of Umbria. The Vicar General.It may be published.Brother Nicolaus Riccardius, Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace,Order of Preachers.
It may be published if it please the Most Reverend Father,Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace.For the Archbishop of Umbria. The Vicar General.
It may be published if it please the Most Reverend Father,
Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace.
For the Archbishop of Umbria. The Vicar General.
It may be published.
It may be published.
Brother Nicolaus Riccardius, Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace,Order of Preachers.
Brother Nicolaus Riccardius, Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace,
Order of Preachers.
With Some Advice on the Correct Pronunciation of the Japanese Language
Long ago, at the beginning of the establishment of our orthodox faith in the Japanese kingdom, a grammar of this language was made by Father Ioannus Rodriguez of the Society of Jesus.[42]However, since things rarely turn out perfect at first attempt, and, because of the passing years that have made it difficult to find a copy of this grammar; I thought that it would honor God and the ministers who preach the faith (which cannot be taught without the use of language) if I were to select examples (and there are many) that are useful to this language, neglect those not accepted by the experts of the language, add, with the help of God (who gives words to the evangelists), the words that I have learned from experience, practice, and continuous reading, and by such means offer up a handbook of the Japanese language in which I would bring together in a brief span these examples with those precepts which the preachers (for whom I began this work) need to learn of the Japanese language. This is done because examples are necessary with the rules and precepts so that it is possible to demonstrate the rule which has just been explained. Not only have these examples been selected for the greater help and enjoyment of the students, but also their explanation has been added in Latin (which is the language most common to theologians); thus the teacher will have very little left to be desired. Even if all the elements included in this grammar, as in the dictionary (which with the help of God I plan to publish shortly),[43]are polished enough and sure enough to be used with trust; I would still want them to be submitted to the judgement of the reader so that the preaching of the faith, carried on with a more correct language, may become more fruitful.
When two vowels follow each other in any Japanese word, they are not pronounced as in the Latin wordvaleoor in the Spanish,vaca, but each is pronounced independently;v,a;v,o;v,i.
The lettersis pronounced assç; e.g.,susumuru,sçusçumuru.
The letterjis pronounced smoothly (blande), as in the Portuguesejoaõandjudeo.
The letterxis also pronounced smoothly, as in the Portuguese(4queixumes.
When there is the sign ˆ over the letteroit is pronouncedouwith the lips almost closed and the mouth partly closed; e.g.,buppô.
When there is the sign ˇ or ´ over the letteroit is pronounced with the mouth open as if there were two letters,oo; e.g.,tenxóorgacuxǒ.[44]
If the signs we have just shown are over the letteru, it is pronounced long as if there were two letters,uu; e.g.,taifúoraiaǔ.
When the sign ˜ is over the vowel, the sign should be pronounced like ann, not strongly but swiftly (cursim) and softly (leniter); e.g.,vãga.[45]
QeandQiare written withoutu, because whenufollowsqorcboth letters are pronounced as asinalepha;[46]e.g.,quódaiorquainin.
Whenufollowsgand immediately after theuis the lettereori, it should be pronounced as in the Spanish wordguenin; but if the lettereorifollowsgimmediately without theu, it should be pronounced as in the Italian wordgiorno; e.g.,xitãgi.
The letterzis pronounced with the same strength as in the Spanish wordzumbar; e.g.,mizu.
But if there are twozzthen they are pronounced more strongly;e.g.,mizzu.
When there are twott,xx,zz,qq,cq,ij, orpp[47]it is important to persist in order to obtain perfect pronunciation and the exact value of the word; formizumeans 'honey' andmizzumeans 'water.' Therefore, if the words are said with the same strength or the same gentleness they can mean either 'water' or 'honey.'
Whenchcomes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanishchimera; e.g.,fochó.
But ifnhcomes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanishmaña; e.g.,nhuva.
The letterfis pronounced in various regions of Japan as it is in Latin. In others it is pronounced as if it were an imperfecth. For both pronunciations the lips and the mouth should be nearly, but not completely, closed.
Whentçis in a word (and it appears quite frequently) the student should pray that God have mercy on his pronunciation because the word is very difficult, and its pronunciation is not to be found(5in any other language. It is not truly pronouncedtç, nor ass, nor ascalone, but rather by striking the tongue violently against the teeth in order to pronounce bothtandç, but with moreçthantseeming to be sounded; e.g.,tçutçumu.
The letterris said smoothly and softly everywhere it is found, either at the beginning or in the middle of a word; e.g.,ranguió, orcutabiruru.
Ya,ye,yo, andyuare pronounced as in Spanish.[48]
When words ending inioruare pronounced by the Japanese, the last letter is almost not heard by the student. For instance, if he hearsgozaruhe will think he hearsgozar, if he hearsfitotçuhe will believe he hears onlyfitotç, and when he hearsaxi no farahe will perceive onlyax no fara.
When a word ending in a vowel is followed immediately by a consonant, particularlybors,[49]between that vowel and consonant is pronounced the lettern, not perfectly, but softly; e.g.,sonõ gotoqu.
I have given special care to the accenting of words.[50]This has been done so that the signs that have been placed correctly over the accented letter will allow the listener to understand the meaning of the words and the sentences of the speaker. For instance,qèixèihas the accent on bothèè;fìbicàxihas it on the firstiand on thea.[51]This samearrangement will be respected in the dictionary, with the accent being written with the same degree of correctness as is able to be achieved with great attention. If at times I have made mistakes, I am prepared to correct them immediately. Concerning what has been explained too briefly or left out of this grammar and the dictionary, learned people will be able to do that when they add a third dictionary and a third grammar, since it is easy to supply this material. Because I wish neither to be criticized by the Head of our Order (pater familias) and the Lord our God, nor do I wish this knowledge to be wrapped up in a handkerchief;[52]I want by these two works to help and to cooperate in the salvation of the Japanese not only by preaching but also by offering to the preachers, if I can, the tools of the language and chiefly the method by which they might better learn the Japanese language, a task made very difficult by the persecutions in Japan. Farewell, Reader, and be of good cheer. Madrid, 30 August 1631.
(6
In This Grammar We Have for the Most Part Observed the Arrangement Which Antonius Nebrissensis and Others Have Followed in Latin for the Treatment of Sentences, Namely Nouns, Pronouns, Etc.
The Noun—Its Declension and Its Gender
In the Japanese language there are no case declensions as there are in Latin; but there are certain particles, which when suffixed to nouns, determine the differences between the cases for both common and proper nouns. The particles which form the nominative are five;va,ga,cara,no, andiori. The particlevais used when we want to give a sort of reduplicative[53]and specific turn to the person or thing that is signified by such a noun. It indicates either the first, second, or third person; e.g.,Vatacuxi va mairanu'I, or those related to me, will not come.' The particlenois suffixed to the second and third person, especially if they are inferior in rank or in a sentence where there is a relative construction which does not indicate a transitive action; e.g.,sonata no móxita coto'that which you said.' The particlenois also used when some indefinite form is used; e.g.,iie no aru ca miió[...miio] 'see if there are houses.' The particlegais used usually for the first and third persons of inferior status as well as for the second person when he is the most lowly or is to be humiliated; e.g.,Pedro ga qita'Peter came.' This particle is also used to indicate something indefinite, as has been said of the particleno; e.g.,coco ni va iie ga nai ca?'aren't the houses here?' It is also used in sentences that have a relative construction which does not indicate a transitive action. If the reference is to something of inferior or humble status the particlegais also used; e.g.,soregaxi ga caita fumi'the letter which I wrote,'sochi ga iúta coto'what you said.' The particlescaraandioriare used to form thenominative case when the sentence shows a transitive action, especially if the sentence contains a relative construction; e.g.,Deus iori cudasareta gracia'the mercy which God gave,'tono cara core vo vôxe tçuqerareta'the Lord taught this.' Sometimes the words are in the nominative case without any particle; e.g.,Pedro Ioaõ vo iobareta'Peter called(7John.' There are two particles for the genitive; i.e.,noandga. The particlenois used for all persons of superior rank; e.g.,Padre no võ qiru mono'the priest's clothes, or habit.' The particlegais used for people of inferior rank; e.g.,Pedro ga fumi'Peter's letter,'sochi ga mono'your thing,'are ga cane'your money,'tono va iocu ga fucai fito gia'the Lord is of great cupidity, that is to say he is very eager.' Sometimes the particletois suffixed to the genitive; e.g.,Pedro no to degozaru'it belongs to Peter.' But since this is not a perfect way of speaking, it is better not to use it. I have cited it so that if you hear it you will understand. When two nouns are joined to form a single word, the one which is like an adjective does not require the genitive particle; e.g.,cocuxu'the Lord of the kingdom.' According to the ordinary rule we should saycocu no xu. This way of forming the genitive is very common in Japanese; e.g.,Maria coto'Mary's thing.'
Two particles form the dative; i.e.,niandie. For example,Pedro ni móxita'I told Peter,'Padre ie ague maraxita'I gave, or offered, it to the priest.'
There are five particles which form the accusative case; i.e.,vo,voba,va,ie, andga. The first,vo, is the most used; e.g.,Pedro vo iobe'call Peter.'Vais used when one wishes to express in particular a noun in the accusative; e.g.,niffon guchi va xiranu[54]'I don't know Japanese.' The endingvobais the same asvo va, changing the secondvtobthey use it asva; e.g.,fune voba nori sutete; cane bacari tori maraxita'abandoning ship, I took only money, or gold, with me.'Ieis used to indicate the place to which one goes; e.g.,Roma ie mairó'I go to Rome.'Gais used for nouns which indicate non-living or humble things; e.g.,are ie gozare, mono ga móxitai'go there! I have something to tell you.' The accusative is also formed without any particle, as hasbeen shown in the example second before last, where the second accusative is without a particle.
The vocative is formed with the particleicani. It is not suffixed to words as are the other particles but it is prefixed instead; e.g.,icani qimi core vo goronjerarei'look at this, My Lord.'[55]Usually, however, the vocative is formed without any particle; e.g.,Padre sama(8qicaxerareio'listen, Reverend Father.'
There are three particles for the ablative; i.e.,iori,cara, andni. The third indicates the place in which; e.g.,iglesia ni gozaru'he is in church.' Sometimesniis used afterno; e.g.,sonata no ni xi aru ca?'are you going to make it yours, or take it for yours?' But this seems much more a dative than an ablative. The particlescaraandioriare more common in the formation of the ablative; e.g.,Madrid cara maitta'I came from Madrid,'Pedro iori corosareta'he was killed by Peter.'
There are four particles used to form the plural. They are placed immediately after the noun they pluralize and before the particles which indicate case. These four particles aretachi,xu,domo, andra. The first,tachi, forms the plural of those noble things which one wishes to honor; e.g.,tono tachi'lords.' The particlexuforms the plural for noble things but not those of the highest rank; e.g.,samurai xu'nobles (nobiles), but not lords (domini).' The particledomois suffixed to words which indicate humble things, either abstract, animate, or inanimate; e.g.,fiacuxó domo'farmer,'ixi domo'stones,'mma domo'horses.' The particleraforms the plural of nouns which indicate very low things which are to be despised; e.g.,Iudeo ra'Jews.'[56]The case particles which are required by the sentence are placed after the pluralizing particles; e.g.,tono tachi no coto domo vo varú iú na'don't speak badly about the Lords' affairs.'
There are some words that are plural in themselves; e.g.,tomo garameans 'men,'Nan ban mono'European things,'Nan ban mono vo fomuru na'don't praise European things.'
The particleicani, which as has been indicated above forms the vocative, is not placed after but always before the pronouns which aremade plural, while the particles which form the plural are placed after; e.g.,icani Padre tachi vo qiqi nasare io'listen to the priests.'
But two of the four particles which form the plural,domoandra, are with certain words singular.Vareraandmidomomean 'I.' Sometimes both are found together in the singular; e.g.,midomora'I,'midomora ga'my, or mine.' The particlesdomoandraare also(9suffixed to the singular when one wishes to humiliate the thing mentioned; e.g.,hara domo ga itai'I have a stomach ache,'asu domo va aru mai'tomorrow will not come,'asu ra va naró mode'tomorrow will perhaps not come.'
The particlevais suffixed to singular and plural nouns which already have a particle; e.g.,coco ie va mairanu'he will not come here,'coco cara va denu'he did not go out from here,'coco ni va aru mai'he will not enter here.' Sometimesvareplaces the particles of the declension; e.g.,fune de saie ióió tçuita ni, cachi va nacanaca naru mai(119v) 'I arrived with such difficulty by ship: I would undoubtedly never have arrived had I come by foot, or on foot.'[57]The particlevahere replacescara.
Japanese does not have the genders feminine, masculine, and neuter as Latin does. There are, however, certain nouns which are feminine or masculine because of their meaning. Other nouns are common to both these genders. For things which do not have a proper gendervois placed before masculine nouns andmebefore feminine; e.g.,voivomeans 'male fish' andmeivo'female fish,'vojicameans 'roe-buck,'melica[mejica] 'roe-doe,'[58]comameans 'horse,'zoiacu'mare,'xômeans 'male hawk,'dai'female hawk,'cotoimeans 'bull,'meuxi'cow,'votocomeans 'man,'vonago,nhóbó, orvonna'woman.' All these words are placed in the dictionary as they come to mind.
The nominal adjectives have no gender or declension but make use of the same particles as the nouns. There are however many and diverse adjectives. Certain ones end inaiothers inoi,ei,uiandij. There are other, more proper adjectives, which are formed by addingnoto nouns. When the first five types of adjectives are placed before nouns they are then properly adjectives and do not in any way alter the composition ofthe sentence. But when they are placed after nouns they become more like verbs and are in fact conjugated like them; e.g.,tacai iama'a high mountain,'xiguei ideiri'frequent comings and goings,'caxicoi(10fito'a wise man,'cavaij mono'a wretched thing,'aiaui coto'a dangerous thing,'umare tçuqi no cuchi'one's natural, or mother tongue.' There are also adjectives ending innawhich, when they are placed before nouns, do not alter the construction; e.g.,qirei na coto'a clean thing.' All the adjectives, except those ending inno, change their form in some way when they occur before verbs. Those that end inaichange toó; e.g.,cono iama va tacó gozaru'this mountain is lofty.' Those ending ineichange toeô; e.g.,cono iama va xigueô gozaru'these mountains are dense.' Those ending inoichange toô; e.g.,caxicô gozaru'he is wise.' Those ending inuichange toú; e.g.,xei no ficú gozaru'he is small in stature.' Those ending inii[ij] change toiú; e.g.,caiú gozaru'it itches.'[59]Among those adjectives ending inijthere are many which come from verbs; e.g.,nozomi,umeans 'to wish,' and from it comesnozomaxij'which is to be wished for.' Other adjectives come from nouns; e.g.,varambemeans 'a child, or infant,' and from this comesvaramberaxijwhich means 'childish.' Other examples may be found in the dictionary.
Adjectives which end innachange thenatoniwhen they are placed before verbs; e.g.,fuxin ni zonzuru'I think it doubtful.' The adjectives that end innosometimes change thenotona; e.g.,bechi no fitochanges tobechi na fito'a different man.' Sometimes when it is followed by a verb thenachanges to ani; e.g.,bechi ni gozaru'it is different.' However, the meaning remains the same whether the word ends innaorno; e.g.,bechi no fito no cuhi cara qiita[...cuchi...] is the same asbechi na fito no cuchi cara qiita'I heard it from the mouth of a different person.'[60]The only difference in these forms is that when the word ends innono change occurs as a consequence of what follows. But, as has been said, those adjectives that end innachange toniwhen they come before a verb. If a substantive verb follows an adjective, it is an elegant statement; e.g.,cono iami va tacó gozaru'this mountain is high.' But if this kind of verb does not follow, the senseis not altered since the adjective is used as a substantive verb. But this is not used before superiors. To them we will not saycono iama va tacaibut rathercono iama va tacó gozaru. The same is true for the other adjectives.
Adjectives usually end inibut infrequently these adjectives change toxior toqu.Ioi, which means 'good,' changes toioqu, orioxi; e.g.,ioqu dancó xite, which has the meaning of 'offering good(11council.'[61]There areinnumerablenouns which become adjectives ifnais suffixed to them; e.g.,afomeans 'ignorance' and from it comes the wordafo nawhich means 'ignorant,'jiiumeans 'liberty' andjiiu nameans 'which is free.' Other examples are offered by the dictionary.
There are certain abstract nouns which become adjectives when they precede a vocable (vocabulis) with the meaning of 'man'; e.g.,jifimeans 'pity,' but when the wordjinis placed after it, it becomesjifijin'a pitiable person.'Finmeans 'poverty,' but when the wordninis suffixed to it, it becomesfinnin'a poor person.' In the same way, when one suffixesjatofin, it makesfinja, which also means 'a poor person.' The wordbanmeans 'watch,' but if the wordjais added to it, it becomesbanja'a careful person.' Many other examples can be found in the dictionary.
There are in Japanese certain words which are borrowed from Chinese, calledcobita[62]orcoie, and are written together to form by their union a noun and an adjective. Thus,tenmean 'heaven,'xumeans 'lord,' andtenxumeans 'lord of heaven.'
The preterit of verbs (which will be taken up in their place) seem to have the same strength and meaning as adjectives when they are used before nouns; e.g.,iogoreta te'dirty hands,' whereiogoretais the preterit of the verbiogore,uru'I became dirty.'Caita qiómeans 'a written book' andcaitais the preterit of the verbcaqi,uI write.' The abstract (abstracta), or root from which the verb is formed, is itself a noun which signifies the action of the verb in the abstract; e.g.,facarimeans 'measure,' and it comes from the verbfacari,u'I measure' whilefajimemeans 'beginning,' and comes from the verbfajime,uru'I begin.' Others will be found in the dictionary. The prepositional particlemono, when placed before an abstract or verbal noun, forms a noun which indicates the subject who does the action; e.g.,monobeforecaqimakesmonocaqi'one who writes.' This same particle when placed after a root forms a noun which indicates the effect of an action; e.g.,caqimono'a writing.'
The particlegotoplaced after these same roots forms a noun(12which means a thing which is worthy of the action indicated by the verb; e.g.,miis the root of the verbmi,uru'I see,' andmigotois 'avisiblething, or a thing worthy of being seen'; whileqiqiis the root of the verbqiqi,u'I hear,' andqiqigotomeans 'a thing which can be heard, or is worthy of being heard.'
If we place certain substantive nouns after certain of the verbal nouns about which we have been speaking, there is formed a noun which has the meaning of the action; e.g.,foxiis the root of the verbfoxi,u'to dry under the sun'; but, ifivo'fish' is placed after it, the meaning of the expressionfoxiivobecomes 'fish dried in the sun.'
When the particledógu'instrument' is placed after the root of a verb it forms a noun meaning the cause or instrument of the action indicated by the verb; e.g.,varaidógu'the cause, or instrument of ridicule,'caqidógu'a writing instrument, or an instrument for writing.'
The particlemewhen suffixed to a verb forms a noun which indicates the terminus of the action; e.g.,avaxeis the root of the verbavaxe,uru'to unite or join two things,' andavaxememeans 'junction.' The same is true of other forms.
An abstract noun can be formed from those adjectives ending iniif theiis changed tosa; e.g.,nagaimeans 'is long,' andnagasameans 'length.' The adjectives ending innachange thenatosain order to form abstract nouns; e.g.,aqiraca nawhich means 'clear' will becomeaqiracasa'clarity.'
Sometimes from two nouns taken together, often with a change in the first or last letter, there is formed a third noun, which is quasi-descriptive (quasi connotativus), almost like an adjective or noun with agenitive; e.g., fromqi'wood' andfotoqe'idol' there resultsqibotoqe'wooden idol,' with thefchanged top[b]. But if the prefixed noun ends ine, thiseis changed toain the attributive of the compound; e.g.,tçumasaqi'the tip of the nail,'canacugui'iron nails.' A word which is placed second in these compounds may change its first letter; if it isfit becomesborp, if it issit becomesz, if it iscit becomesg, if it istçit becomeszz, if it isxit becomesj; e.g.,caribune,buppô,(13nigorizaqe,soragoto,qizzumari, andsorajeimon. See the dictionary.
Pronouns
In the Japanese language there are no derivative pronouns, such asmeus,a,um, etc.; but theprimitivepronouns, such asmei,tui, etc., are used. These primitive forms do not have declensions for case, but rather use the particles which are common to both nouns and pronouns.
Certain particles (about which we will speak later) when added to a word indicate honor and thereby form a pronoun or substitute for it in such circumstances as pronouns would normally be used. Thus, if I sayvon fumi, when speaking to someone else, it is immediately understood that I am speaking about his letter and not mine; for if I were speaking about mine I would not sayvon fumibut onlyfumi, since the particlevon, which indicates honor, signifies 'your letter.' This is also true for such particles asmiwhich also attributes honor to the noun to which it is joined.
First Person Pronouns—Ego, etc.[63]
There are eight particles which signify 'I, mine, to me, etc.' They arevatacuxi,soregaxi,vare,mi,varera,midomo,midomora,vare.[64]The first four indicate a degree of superiority on the part of those who use them. The others are more humble. Women use three other particlesmizzucara,varava, andvagamiwhich are not used by men. The people in the countryside use two others,vara[vora] andvorara, while priestswhen speaking of themselves usegusô, that is to say 'I, a worthless man of the cloth,' and old men when speaking of themselves useguró, 'I, a worthless and despicable old man.' The king (rex) sayschinormaruwhich means 'I, the King.'(14
To form the plural of these pronouns the pluralizing particlesdomoorraare added; e.g.,midomo ga maitta toqi'when we went.' To indicate the difference between the cases, the endings about which we have spoken are suffixed.
Second Person Pronouns—Tu, tui, tibi, etc.[65]
There are many particles that form the second person pronoun. They are differentiated to indicate those persons deserving no honor and respect, those deserving some, moderate, great, or maximal honor and respect. In speaking to inferiors there are three particles used for 'you';vare,vonore, andsochi. Ifmeormegais added as invaremeorvaremegait means we very much despise the person being spoken to. If we speak to people who are on our own level, or just a little inferior, we use one of the three particlessonata,sonofǒ, orvaresama. If we speak to a superior person, or someone on an equal level but with whom we must speak elegantly, we use one of the seven particlesconata,qixo,qifó,gofen,qiden,conatasama, andsonatasama. When speaking to persons of high rank, if we place the name of their office beforesama, it serves as a pronoun; e.g.,Padresama gozare'will the Father come.'
Conata,cochi, andconofǒmean 'I, mine,' but in the distributive sense of 'from me, or what concerns me.' In the same waysochi,sonofó, andsonatamean 'you, from you, or what concerns you.'
The plurals are formed by adding the particles listed above to the pronouns according to the different degrees of honor.Vonore domo,varera, andsochiramean 'you' when speaking to inferiors.Vare tachiandsonata domomean 'you' with persons of the same rank.Qifó tachi,vocatagata, andvono vonomean 'you' to persons requiring honor. The declension of these honorable expressions follows the declension(15of common particles.
Third Person Pronouns—Ille, illa, illud[66]
The two particlescare careandare aremean 'this (ille, illa, illud)' when speaking of inferior things.[67]There are four particles;aitçu,aitçume,areme, andcaitçumewhich mean 'this' when one wants to show disrespect for the things being spoken about. This idea is emphasized if one addsgato those forms that end inme; e.g.,aitçugaandaitçumega'this humble man.'Conomeans 'this (hic, haec, hoc),'sonomeans 'that (iste, ista, istud),' andanomeans 'that (ille, illa, illud).' These words require a noun after them; e.g.,cono fito'this man' withcono monohaving the same meaning but not being an honorific expression.Sono cotomeans 'that thing,'ano fito'that person,'conataorconofó'here,'sonataorsonofó'there,' andanofó'there, yonder.'Coremeans 'this (hic),'sore'that (istud),' andare'that (illud).' These forms are in the neuter gender and are not followed by nouns. Their plurals arecorera,sorera, andarera, while the others follow the common rules.Canomeans 'that which we have mentioned'; e.g.,cano fito'that person.' The pronoun 'a certain (quidam)' is made with the particlearu; e.g.,aru fito'a certain person,'aru tocoro ni'in a certain place.'
The pronoun 'each (unusquisque)' is formed with the particlesmen menandsore sore.
The pronoun 'each and every (universi & singuli)' is formed withtare mo mina.
The pronoun 'anyone (quicumque)' is formed withtare nite mo,tare nite mo are, andtare nari tomo.
The particletare mo, when placed before a negative, forms the pronoun 'no one, or nobody'; e.g.,tare mo mairananda'nobody went.' The particlenani taru coto nari tomomeans 'whatever happens, or whichever thing happens.' The particlemei meimeans 'to each, or everyone in particular.'
The particlegotomakes the distributive pronoun meaning 'every.' This form is used after vocables which are proper to the Japanese language; i.e.,iomi. The same results are achieved by placing the(16particlemaibefore vocables which come from the Chinese language; i.e.,coie. For example,fimeans 'day,' andfigoto nimeans 'daily.'Nenis a Japanese borrowing from a Chinese word meaning 'year,' andmainenmeans 'every year, or all year.' The same result is obtained by the repetition of the noun; e.g.,fitomeans 'person,' andfitibitomeans 'all the people, or many people,'fimeans 'day,' andfibi nimeans 'all of the days, or every day.'
The indefinite pronoun 'some (aliqui)' is formed withniiotte; e.g.,toqi niiotte'some times,'fito niiotte'some men.'
The pronoun 'the same (idem)' is formed withvonaji; e.g.,vonaji tocoro cara'from the same place.' The particledôjenmeans the same thing but in the neuter ; e.g.,dôjen degozaru'it is the same.' This word is used in reply to some one who has congratulated you, etc.
The pronoun 'himself (ipse)' is formed with the particlesnuxi,sono mi, andvaga. The particlevareto miforms the pronoun 'himself (ipsemet)'; e.g.,vareto mi ni ata vo nasu(96) 'he brings harm to himself,'mi vo vasurete; ta vo tasuquru'he forgets himself and saves others.' The particlevatacuximeans 'a thing which belongs to oneself (re propria)'; e.g.,vatacuxi no coto'ones own thing,'vatacuxi ni ivareta'he spoke for himself.'
The pronoun 'somebody (aliquis)' is made with the particlestare zoandtaso; e.g.,tare zo maittaraba'if somebody were to come,'taso sacana ga aru ca tói ni iqe[...toi...] 'let someone go and ask if there is food.'
The neuter pronoun 'something (aliquid)' is formed with the particlesnan zoandnanica; e.g.,nan zo ga araba cuvózu'I would eat if there were something,'ima faia te ga jiiú ni gozaru fodo ni nanica caqi maraxô'I would write something if I were to have my hands free, or untied.'
The interrogative 'who (quis)' is translated with the three particlestare,taga, andtaso. The particlestagaortare noform the genitive; e.g.,taga mono ca'whose thing is this.' When someone comes to the door and knocks, he saysmono mó.[68]To this one respondstaso,taga, ortare'who is it?'Nanimeans 'what (quid)'; e.g.,nani vo suru(17caornani goto vo suru ca?'what are you doing?'nani ni sore vo totte iqu ca?'for what reason do you bring this to me?'
Relative Pronouns
The relative pronoun is formed by placing the noun, in connection with which there is a relative (relativum), after the verb; e.g.,ten ni maximasu varera ga von voia'Our Father who is in Heaven,'deta tocoro va'the place from which he came out,'te ni sumi no tçuita fito(88) 'a man to whose hands ink is adhering.' If the sentence (oratio) requires a nominative before the verb it must be formed with one of the particles which indicate the nominative;ga,no, oriori. For example,vatacuxi ga caita fumi'the letter which I wrote,'conata no vôxerareta coto'the thing which Your Lordship says.' The third particle,iori, is used when there is movement in the sentence; e.g.,Deus iori ataie cudasareta gracia'the grace which God provided, or gave,'ano tocoro ni amata no qió atta vo torareta(87v.) 'he brought what many books there were in that place.' When two sentences containing a relation come together the first is placed second by general rule,[69]and the second uses either a past, present, or future particle according to what is required by the sense of the sentence; e.g.,qesa Oracio vo móxita qió ga tçucuie no uie ni aru vo motte coi'bring the book which is on the desk (sedila) at which I said my prayers this morning.' In this sentenceqió ga, which is the first relative, comes after the verbmóxita; and thevowhich stands for the second relative comes after the verbaru. When we want to be more specific about that of which we are speaking we place the particletocoro nobetween the thing itself and the verb; e.g.,vare to dôxin xita tocoro no mono domo va mina buguen ni natta'all those who agreed with me became rich.' Sometimes the relative, because of the difficulty in understanding it, is expressed by expositions (per exponentes). Thus, in place ofima corosareta Pedro no co va sonata no chijn giawhich means 'the son of Peter who has just been killed was your friend,' we sayima Pedro corosareta sono co va sonata no chijn de gozaru.
Sometimes they join two particles, as determined by the case, and form a kind of relative pronoun which is placed before the relative; e.g.,sono tocoro de no dancó'the consultation at that place,'(18Marsella ie no fune'the ship to Marseille,'maire to no móxi goto dearu[ ...gia] 'it is said that I should go.'
Mairu mai to no dancó ni qivamatta'it was resolved that he not go,'maitte nochi no dancó'the consultation he arrived after,'varambe cara no catagui'a custom from youth,'xô tame no chôgui gia(22) 'this is the plan (ars) according to which it will be done,'anofito no vo toró'I shall take what belongs to that man.' This ends the note on relative pronouns.
The Formation of the Verb and Its Conjugation[70]
The verbs in Japanese have no number or person. These distinctions are indicated instead by the particles used in the formation of the plurals and in the declensions. There are three affirmative conjugations and the same number of negative.
The root (radix) of the verb does not by itself indicate tense. For this reason it is necessary to conjugate the verb in order to show the tenses.
All the verbs of the first conjugation[71]end ine. Those ending ingiorji, together withxiandmaraxi, although they end ini, are also in the first conjugation. If the root ends indeorgi, the present form is made by changing them tozzuru; e.g.,fagiforms its present infazzuruand means 'to blush,'debecomeszzuruand means 'to leave.' If the root ends injeorjiit changes in the present tozuru; e.g.,maje:mazuru'to mix,'anji:anzuru'to consider.' If they end inxethey change tosuru; e.g.,avaxe:avasuru'to join.'Xiandmaraxi, which (as we have said) are in the first conjugation,[72]changexitosuru; e.g.,xi:suru'to do,'maraxi:marasuruwhich also means 'to do.' If the root ends inteit changes totçuru; e.g.,sodate:sodatçuru'to nourish, or support.' The remaining roots which end inechange, in their separate ways, theetouru; e.g.,ague:aguru'to offer,'nigue:niguru'to run away.'
There are certain verbal preterits which have present tense meanings. They are those which are passive in form but active in(19meaning; e.g.,cocoroieta'to understand,'qicoieta'to hear,'voboieta'to remember,'qiqiieta'to understand,'zonjita'to know,' and there maybe many others. The verbs which follow belong to the first conjugation even though their roots do not end as previously stated.[73]If the present tense of these forms does not change theitouruthey are exceptional; e.g.,abi,uru'to wash oneself,'fotobi,uru'to become soft,'focorobi,uru'to become unstitched,'cabi[cabi,uru] 'to be moldy,'[74]sabi[sabi,uru] 'to rust,'deqi[deqi,uru] 'to be finished, or ended,'cuchi:cutçuru'to rot,'michi:mitçuru'to be filled in by the sea,'ini,uru'to leave,'nobi:nobiruornoburu'to be spread out,'tçuqi,uru'to be used,'vori:uru'to descend from above,'xij:xijru[75]'to invite to dine, by compulsion,'ni:niru'to resemble,'mochij:mochiiuru'to evaluate,'ni:niru'to cook,'mi:miru'to look at,'cori,uru'to correct,'vochi:votçuru'to fall,'i:iru'to exist, or be present,'fugui,uru'to pass, as time passes,'vabi,uru'to beg for mercy,'carabi,uru'to become dry,'iqi:iquru'to live,'fi:firu'to become dry,'qi:quru'to come,'qi:qiru'to dress oneself,'voqi,uru'to get out of bed.' The following four verbs have irregular, as well as regular, present tenses;[76]ataiehasatóru'to give,'vaqimaiehasvaqimǒru'to discriminate,'tonaiehastonóru'to bless,'sonaiehassonóru'to place in a high position.'
The Preterit, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect
In Japanese there is no imperfect. In its place the perfect is used. The perfect is formed in two ways. The first is by suffixingtato the root of a verb ; e.g.,aguetais the preterit of the verbague,uru'to offer.' The second is by suffixingteto the root and to that addinggozari,uorari,uwhich is then conjugated in the present or the preterit of the second conjugation; e.g.,aguete gozaruoraguete gozatta, oraguete aruoraguete atta'offered, or had offered.' If the particlefáia[faia] is placed before the verb the expression is strengthened; e.g.,(20fáia aguete gozatta[faia...] 'I had already offered it.' When the verbari,uis suffixed to the perfect it is not as elegant a way of speaking aswhengozari,uis used. Therefore when speaking one must be careful about what one says, or in front of whom one speaks, so as to give each person the honor he deserves.
The Future of the First Conjugation
If the root of the verb ends intethis syllable is changed toteôorchôto form the future; e.g.,tate,uruwill becometateôortachô'I shall build.'[77]If the root ends injithe future is formed by changingjitojô; e.g.,xenjibecomesxenjô'I shall prepare, or brew, the medicine.' If the root ends inxe[xi] it changes toxô; e.g.,xibecomesxô, andmaraxibecomesmaraxô'I shall do.' If it ends inieit is changed toio[iô]; e.g.,voxiiebecomesvoxiio[vaxiiô] 'I shall teach.' The remaining roots ending inesuffix the particlesô,ôzu, orôzuru; e.g.,agueô,agueôzu, oragueôzuru'I shall offer.' These endings are used for the first conjugation[78]even when the roots end ini; e.g.,deqiôzu'I shall be finished.'
The future is also formed by taking the syllablenufrom the negative present (see below) and putting in its place the particlebaia. Thus, by takingnuaway fromaguenuand putting in its placebaia, we obtainaguebaia'I will offer.' Forminuif you take away thenuand put in its placebaiait will becomemibaia'I will see, or behold.'
The future perfect is formed by suffixing the particleste arózuortarózuto the root; e.g.,aguete arózuoraguetarózu'I shall already have offered.' The same results are obtained iffaiais placed before the simple future; e.g.,faia agueôzu.
(21
The Imperative of the First Conjugation
The imperative of the first conjugation is formed with the root of the verb alone, or with the addition of the particleio; e.g.,agueorague io'offer!'[79]The future of the imperative is the future absoluteagueôoragueôzu. This is a more elegant and polite way of speaking than giving a command with the regular imperative. The imperative is also formed by taking thenufrom the negative present (see below) andputting in its place the particlesai. Thus, if one takes thenufromaguenuand replaces it withsaiit becomesague saiwhich means 'offer!' If the particletaiis placed after the root there is formed a kind of future or optative by which the wish of the speaker is expressed. It is therefore an elegant imperative; thusmizzu fitotçu nomitai'I would like to have a drink of water' is the same as 'give me some water to drink.' When a relative [clause] concerns a precept, rule, admonition, or prohibition the imperative is expressed word for word in whatever the conjugation, affirmative or negative; e.g.,Christiani naru na to no xógun no fatto ga aru[Christian ni...] 'it is the law of the Shōgan (imperator) that no one should become a Christian,'Padre core vo coxiraie io to voxerareta niiotte[...vôxerareta...] 'because the Priest told me to do it.'
The Optative of the First Conjugation
The optative, both present and future, is the present tense of the imperative with the particlesnegavacu vaoravareplaced before it and the particlesganaorcaxiplaced after it. Sometimes it is formed by adding the particleganawithout any prefix; e.g.,negavacu va ague io caxi?oravare aguei gana[80]'would that you were to offer?'avare icanaru tengu, bangue mono nari tomo vare vo totte, fiie no iama ni noboxe io caxi!(15v)[81]'Oh! if there were some one, either devil or soothsayer, who could make me ascend the mountain called Hie.' The particleganawhen it is placed after a noun indicates a wish for the thing specified by the noun; e.g.,saqe gana'oh! sake'; and if(22one is asked if he would like something to drink, the answer isnani gana'would that I had some.'
The perfect of the optative is the second form of the future followed by the particlemono vo!; e.g.,niqueozu mono vo![nigueôzu...] 'would that I had fled!' The same is achieved byniguetaraba iocaró mono vo. Sometimes they say onlyniguetaró vaorniguete aró ni va iocaró mono vo.
The Subjunctive of the First Affirmative Conjugation
The present tense of the subjunctive is formed by changing theuin which the present indicative ends toeba; e.g.,agurubecomesagureba'since I offer.' It is also formed from the present by addingni,de,vo, orvato the particletocoroaccording to the case requirements of the verb that follows, with the first verb being controlled by the noun; e.g.,aru toqi Pedro chinsui xite iraruru tocoro ie fito ga qite(16v)[82]'since a certain man came to the place where Peter was when he was drunk,'nhóbó ni tachi vacarete iru tocoro ni(16v)[83]'since they were separated and divorced,'có aru tocoro ni'since things are this way,'ioso ie zzuru tocoro va fito ni corosareta(16v)[84]'when he went outside, he was killed by someone,'go misa vo asobaruru tocoro vo uchi coroita(121)[85]'he killed him while he was celebrating mass.' This is a general rule which applies to all conjugations.
The perfect and the pluperfect of the subjunctive are formed from these same tenses in the indicative with the addition of the particlereba; e.g.,agueta reba'since he had offered.' It is also formed by taking awaygozarufrom the preterit pluperfect and putting in its placeatta rebaoratta; but, whenattais used, the particlesni,vo,va, oriemust be added according to the requirements of the following verb, just as withtocoroin the present tenses; e.g.,aguete atta rebaoraguete atta ni,vo,va, orie'since I had already offered it.'
The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding the particletoqito the future indicative; e.g.,agueô toqi'since he would offer it later.'
The pluperfect subjunctive, with all the expressions (vox) which signify that which comes after a completed action, is formed by(23placingcara,nochi, origoafter the pluperfect indicative, minusgozaru;e.g.,aguete cara, nochi, origo, mairó'I shall leave after he has offered it.' This is likeaguetaró toki mairó'I shall leave after he has already offered it.'Agueôzuru nioragueôzuru tocoro nimeans 'since he was already prepared to offer it.'Agueôzuru coto no saqi nimeans 'a little while before he offered it.'
The present tense of the permissive subjunctive is formed in two ways. The first is by changing theuof the present indicative toedomo; e.g.,aguredomo'although I could offer it.'
The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by addingredomoto the preterit indicative; e.g.,agueta redomo'although he had offered it.' The future permissive is formed by addingredomoto the second form of the future indicative; e.g.,agueôzu redomo'although he would be able to offer it.' The second form of the permissive subjunctive is formed by adding the particletomoto the present indicative; e.g.,aguru tomo'although he could offer it.' The particlesmamaioormadeiomay also be added to the present tense; e.g.,sore vo voxiiuru mamaioorsore vo voxiiuru madeio'although he could teach this.'
The preterit of the second permissive is formed by suffixingritomoto the preterit indicative; e.g.,agueta ritomo'although he had offered it.' The same meaning is achieved by adding the particlesmamaioormadeioto the preterit indicative; e.g.,agueta mamaiooragueta madeio; or by addingtoteto the preterit subjunctive; e.g.,aguetareba tote.
The future permissive is formed by addingtomoto the second form of the future indicative; e.g.,agueozu tomo[agueôzu tomo'although he would offer it']. It is also formed by addingmamaioormadeioto the same future form. If the particletatoiis placed before the forms of the permissive subjunctive great strength is added to the sentence; e.g.,tatoi vôxeraruru tomo'even though you may state this.' The same meaning is obtained by removing the verbsgozaruorarufrom the pluperfect indicative and replacing it with the particlemo; e.g.,aguete mo'although he may offer it.' The samemowhen placed after the present indicative gives the same meaning; e.g.,doco de qiqi marasuru mo, sono sata va mósanu'although he hears that everywhere, he does not pay any attention.' The same meaning is obtained by the sentencesague mo xeio caxi?,aguete mo xô madeio, andnanto mo ague caxi?[...aguei caxi?][86]'although he offers.'Aguru ni saxerarei,(24agueta ni saxerarei, oragueo ni saxerarei[agueô...] have the meanings of 'although he could have offered, although he could offer, or although he would offer'; or one might say 'let us offer' or 'let us give.'
The Infinitive
The present infinitive is formed by addingcotoortoto the present indicative; e.g.,aguru cotooraguru to'to offer.'
The preterit infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the preterit indicative; e.g.,agueta cotooragueta to'to have offered.' The future infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the future indicative; e.g.,agueô cotooragueô to'to be about to offer.' The same meaning is obtained by addingiónito the present, preterit, or future indicative; e.g.,nai nai guioi ni caqerareô ióni va vare mo zonzuru fitobito mo zonjita(22v) 'I think and others believed me to have been favored by you with many benefits,'qeccu vare ni voxiie marasuru ióni gozaru(117v) 'he is truly able to teach me,'agueta ióni gozaru'he is said to have offered it.'
To ask or answer a question the infinitive is often subordinate to the verb which follows; e.g.,nhóbógata ni vochita coto ga atta ca?'did you fall into the sin of adultery with this woman? is this what happened?' etc. All the tenses of the infinitive are used in the same way.
Sometimes the preterit infinitive is replaced by the pluperfect withgozaruoraruremoved; e.g.,Deus no minori vo firomete iocaró'it is good to spread the Gospel.' Sometimes the present or preterit indicative plusgareplaces the present or preterit of the infinitive; e.g.,sore vo vôxeraruru ga varú gozaró'it will be bad to say that,'maitta ga maxi gia(21) 'it is better to have come, or it was better to come.'
When the substantive verb follows the infinitive, the particlecotois not required; e.g.,cosacazzuqi de va saqe vo nomu devanai(23) 'to drink sake from a small glass is not to drink sake,'core coso caqu de gozare'this we are able to say, or better, write,'caqu de gozatte coso'this is not the way for it to be written,'sore va aguru devanai'that is not to offer it.' Some of these examples are taken from other(25conjugations but the general rule applies to all. The idea of theinfinitive is also obtained by the following means of expression;ague va,aguredomo'although I offered, or even if I made it so that it was offered.' Because this is a general rule for all the conjugations, they also sayqiqi va tçucamatçure domo gatten xenu'although I have listened, or done everything necessary to hear; I still don't understand.' They also sayaguru vo motte'by offering, or with the fact that he is to offer,'aguru iori'from the fact that he is to offer,'aguru nitçuite'about the fact that he is to offer.'
The gerund inDiis the present or future indicative followed by the particlejibun, or less frequently some other particle meaning 'time'; e.g.,aguru jibun'the time for offering,'agueô ni qivamatta'he made the decision that it be offered,'niguru jibun gia'it is time to flee,'corosareôzuru ni aisadamatte arǒzu(13) 'it will have been decided that he will be killed, or will have to be killed.'
The gerund inDois formed in two ways. The first is by adding the particlesniortoteto the present indicative; e.g.,agurunioragurutote iurusareta'I was freed by it being offered.' The second way is by removing the verbgozarufrom the pluperfect; e.g.,aguete cutabireta'I became tired by offering, or raising up,' that is to say, 'from the action of presenting, or raising up, I suffered the result of becoming tired.' There is also another elegant, and frequently used, way to form the gerund inDo. It is done by placing the root of the verb in front of another verb making a compound; e.g.,fiqi iosuru'to approach, pulling.' The roots which are used in this way do not change with respect to their function. The gerund inDois also used to express purposetaixó to xite'since he was a commander (dux), or was fulfilling the function of a commander,'von rei to xite'giving thanks,'rǒtai nomi ni xite'since he was an old man,'tçucai xite ivaruru'he said it as a messenger.'
The gerund inDumis formed by adding the particlestameortoteto the present or future indicative; e.g.,aguru tameoragueo tote[agueô tote] 'in order to offer.' The same meaning is obtained byaguru ni fatto ga aru'there is a law about offering,' unless this should be considered a gerund in ni [Di].
The supine inTumis formed in two ways. The first is by addingnito the root. The second is by addingtamenito the present indicative;e.g.,tazzune ni maittaortazzunuru tameni maitta'I came in order to obtain it.'
The supine inTuis the root of the verb alone. To obtain the same meaning they also usemósu ni voiobanu'it is not necessary to(26speak.'
The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding the particlesfitoormonoto the indicative. Whenfitois used the result is a more honorable way of speaking; e.g.,aguru fitooraguru mono'he who offers,'agueta fito'he who offered,'agueô mono'he who will offer,'Buppôgacu suru tomogara ni voite va(73v) 'as for those who devote themselves to the study of the laws of idolatry,'von vo xiru vo fito to va iúzo; von vo xiranu voba chicuxó to coso iie(96v). In this last sentence thevotakes the place of the participle, and the sentence therefore means 'those who know kindness (beneficia) are correctly called men; those who do not know it are truly called beasts.' This is a general rule for all the conjugations and therefore the example contains a verb from the second conjugation. The participle is also made by addingte['hand'] to the root of the verb; e.g.,aguete'one who offers.'
The First Negative Conjugation
The negative root is formed by addingzuto the affirmative root; e.g.,aguezu.
The present tense is formed withnuinstead ofzu; e.g.,aguenu'I do not offer.' This is a general rule no matter how the root ends. The only exceptions arexiandmaraxiwhich form the negative present inxenuandmaraxenu'I do not do.' The roots that end injichange thejitojeand then suffix the particlenuto the present; e.g.,zonjiin the negative present becomeszonienu[zonjenu] 'I do not know.' In some areas of Japan they form the negative by removing the finalufrom the negative root and addingari,u, which is then conjugated according to the required tense; e.g.,aguezaru'I do not offer,'aguezatta'I did not offer,'aguezatta reba'since I did not offer.' They also sayaguezu xite'by not offering.'[87]
The negative of the preterit is formed in like manner by adding the particlenandainstead ofnu; e.g.,aguenanda'I did not offer,'zonjenanda'I did not know,'vorinanda'I did notdescend.'
The pluperfect is formed by changing the lastaof the preterit toeand adding the verbgozaruin the present andgozattain the preterit; e.g.,aguenande gozaruoraguenande gozatta'I have not offered.' It is also formed by addingide gozaruoride gozattainstead of(27nande gozaru; e.g.,agueide gozaruoragueide gozatta'I had not offered,'zonzeide gozaru[zonjeide... ][88]'I had not known,'vochiide gozatta'I had not fallen.'
The negative future is formed by addingmaiormajito the affirmative root or the affirmative present tense; e.g.,ague maioraguru maji'you will not offer.'
The imperative is formed by placingnaafter the present indicative;aguru na'do not offer.'
It is also formed by placingnabefore the root andsoafter it; e.g.,na ague so'do not offer.'
It is also formed by placingnaafter the root; e.g.,ague na'do not offer,'mixe na'do not show,'mesare na'do not do.' The roots which end inxiorji, but are in the first conjugation,[89]change theitoeto form the negative imperative; e.g.,sǒ xe naorsó maraxe na'do not do that,'sǒ zonze na[só zonje na] 'do not think that.'