CHAPTER XVII

I wander'd lonely as a cloudThat floats on high o'er vales and hills;When all at once I saw a crowd,A host of golden daffodils,Beside the lake, beneath the trees,Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

What is the difference between the sentences in this extract and ordinary prose sentences? If you read them over aloud, you will see that they are constructed on adefinite plan. You notice that, as in pronouncing aloud every word of more than one syllable, you accent one of them more than the others (páragraph, assúming), just so you accent some syllables in each line of the verse. Your voice naturally falls four times, thus, "Iwánder'dlónelyásacloúd" and in every line it falls the same number of times. The fact that there is a fixed and regular number of accents in each line makes it verse and not prose, and to write correct verse you must keep to a regular recurrence of accents in your lines. A line to which you naturally give three accents is said to have threefeet; four accents, fourfeet, etc. A foot or pattern of syllables which is repeated to make up the line consists of an accented syllable and one or more unaccented ones. The foot is named according to the arrangement of syllables in it, but it is not necessary for you now to know the names, which come from the Greek and are hard to remember. Four of the best-known feet are mentioned here, with examples. The accented syllable is marked ´ and the unaccented [)].

[)I] wánde[)r']d lónel[)y] ás [)a] cloúd.Iambic[) ´].Téll m[)e] nót [)in] moúrnf[)u]l númb[)e]rs.Trochaic[´ )].B[)u]t [)we] steádf[)as]tl[)y] gázed [)o]n t[)h]e fáce th[)a]t w[)a]s déad.Anapestic[) ) ´].Bírd [)o]f t[)h]e wíld[)er]n[)e]ss, blíthes[)o]me a[)n]d cúmb[)e]rl[)e]ss.Dactylic[´ ) )].

[)I] wánde[)r']d lónel[)y] ás [)a] cloúd.Iambic[) ´].

Téll m[)e] nót [)in] moúrnf[)u]l númb[)e]rs.Trochaic[´ )].

B[)u]t [)we] steádf[)as]tl[)y] gázed [)o]n t[)h]e fáce th[)a]t w[)a]s déad.Anapestic[) ) ´].

Bírd [)o]f t[)h]e wíld[)er]n[)e]ss, blíthes[)o]me a[)n]d cúmb[)e]rl[)e]ss.Dactylic[´ ) )].

These names refer to the arrangement of syllables in the foot. There are other names that refer to the number of times the foot is repeated in the line. Thesealso come from the Greek and are long and difficult, but are no more necessary for you to learn now than the names of feet. If you can pick out the arrangement of syllables which make up a foot, and the number of feet in a line, you can make a pattern for yourself out of any piece of poetry. The names and examples of the most common meters are here given for reference, however.

1. Three feet to the line, three-accent line or trimeter.H[)i]s voíce [)no] móre [)is] heárd.2. Four feet to the line, four-accent line or tetrameter.Buíld [)me] straíght, [)O] wórth[)y] Mást[)er].3. Five feet to the line, five-accent line or pentameter.[)At] lást, w[)i]th héad [)e]rect, th[)u]s críed [)a]loúd.4. Six feet to the line, six-accent line or hexameter.T[)h]e Ny['m]phs [)in] tángl[)e]d shádes of t['w]ilig[)ht] thíck[)et]s mou['r]n.

1. Three feet to the line, three-accent line or trimeter.

H[)i]s voíce [)no] móre [)is] heárd.

2. Four feet to the line, four-accent line or tetrameter.

Buíld [)me] straíght, [)O] wórth[)y] Mást[)er].

3. Five feet to the line, five-accent line or pentameter.

[)At] lást, w[)i]th héad [)e]rect, th[)u]s críed [)a]loúd.

4. Six feet to the line, six-accent line or hexameter.

T[)h]e Ny['m]phs [)in] tángl[)e]d shádes of t['w]ilig[)ht] thíck[)et]s mou['r]n.

Turn to any collection of poetry, and see how many of the feet and meters you can recognize. You will find, although the accent gradually recurs after a regular number of syllables, that it does not invariably do so; but you will also notice that this does not affect the accenting of the line. For instance, you give three accents to the line, "And I would that my tongue could utter," where there are ten syllables, but you also give three to the line, "Break, break, break." You must learn, therefore, to distinguish one variety of meter from another by the number of times your voice naturally makes an accent in reading it aloud; but for your ownverse making it is a simpler and better rule to arrange your line so that there is the same number of syllables between each accent. You will find this a very general rule in all poetry, and it is a good guide for beginners.

You can take, then, any piece of poetry which you admire and make from it a pattern for yourself. Suppose you wish to write a verse describing a rainy day. You turn to Whittier'sSnow-Boundas a suitable model:—

The sun that brief December dayRose cheerless over hills of gray,And, darkly circled, gave at noonA sadder light than waning moon.

Reading the lines aloud, you see that they have four accents or feet, and each foot has two syllables, the second of which is regularly accented. Marking the accented and unaccented syllables as shown above, and then taking away the words, you have left a pattern by which you can test your own lines, namely u — u — u — u —. Now, if you wish to write in metrical or verse form the statement that the rain resounding on the roof sounded as though a great many little drums were being beaten, you might write,—

The rain drummed loud as though the elvesWere playing soldier.

Your idea is now completely stated, and if you were writing prose you could stop there; but on consulting your pattern you see that you need one accented syllable to finish the last foot you have written, and one more foot to finish your last line. In your effort to addthese three syllables, arranged in words which will complete the picture your lines suggest, you will readily hit upon some such phrase asoverhead,on the roof,in a crowd, ornoisily.

You will then have written two lines of correct verse; but in comparing them with the first two lines ofSnow-Bound, your model, you will notice one difference. Of the last words in each pair of lines fromSnow-Boundall but the first consonants are the same and have the same sound. These are called rhyming words. Nearly all verse rhymes. Words are considered to rhyme when they have the same accented vowel sound, different consonants preceding the accented vowel sound, and the same sounds following the accented vowel sound. One stumbling-block in the way of beginners in verse making is the fact that English words are spelled so differently from the way they are pronounced. Do not be misled by this. Remember that it is the accented vowel sound that must be the same in both words, and test your rhymes by saying them aloud. Thusvesselandwrestle,despairandbare,gazeandbays,birdandheard, rhyme perfectly, although they look so very different, butdoorandboorare not good rhymes, although they look just alike, nor aretroughandbough, andthroughandplough. Rhymes usually occur at the end of lines, but not always, as inSnow-Bound, at the end of each pair of lines.

Just as syllables are arranged in feet and feet are arranged in lines, so lines are arranged in stanzas. The shortest stanza is two lines rhymed. This is called a couplet.

Poets themselves must fall, like those they sung,Deaf the praised ear, and mute the tuneful tongue.

Somewhat more rarely, there are stanzas of three lines, called triplets, with all the lines rhyming.

Dark, deep, and cold the current flowsUnto the sea where no wind blows,Seeking the land which no one knows.

The most common form of English verse is written in stanzas of four lines each. The rhymes may be arranged in all the combinations possible. The first and third and the second and fourth may rhyme, as in ballads:—

O Brignal banks are wild and fair,And Greta woods are green;And you may gather garlands thereWould grace a summer queen.

Or the first and fourth lines and the second and third may rhyme:—

Now rings the woodland loud and long,The distance takes a lovelier hue;And drowned in yonder living blueThe lark becomes a sightless sound.

Or the second and fourth lines may be the only ones to rhyme:—

He prayeth best who loveth bestAll things both great and small,For the dear God who loveth usHe made and loveth all.

In longer stanzas the rhymes may be arranged in almost any way, provided that they follow some regular plan. Notice, for instance, the arrangement of rhymes in Browning's well-known song:—

The year's at the springAnd day's at the morn;Morning's at seven;The hillside's dew-pearled;The lark's on the wing;The snail's on the thorn:God's in his heaven—All's right with the world.

A convenient way of indicating briefly how the rhymes in a stanza are arranged is by the use of the letters of the alphabet: thus, a couplet would be said to have its rhymes arrangeda a; a quatrain like theBrignal banks,a b a b; the stanzaNow rings,a b b a.

There are, of course, many other combinations of syllables in feet, of feet in lines, and of lines in stanzas than have been given here, but these are the most common forms and those that you will be most likely to see in your reading and to use in your verse making.

Exercise 142.—I. Arrange the following in stanza form, letting yourself be guided by the recurrence of a regular number of feet in each line and by the rhyme.1. Tiger, tiger, burning bright in the forests of the night, what immortal hand or eye could frame thy fearful symmetry?2. The ship was cheer'd, the harbor clear'd, merrily did we drop below the kirk, below the hill, below the light-house top. The sun came up upon the left, out of the sea came he, and he shone bright and on the right went down into the sea.3. We watched her breathing through the night, her breathing soft and low, as in her breast the wave of life kept heaving to and fro. Our very hopes belied our fears, our fears our hopes belied—we thought her dying when she slept and sleeping when she died.4. Where the bee sucks, there suck I; in a cowslip's bell I lie; there I crouch when owls do cry. On the bat's wing I do fly after summer merrily. Merrily, merrily, shall I live now under the blossom that hangs on the bough.5. I loved the brimming wave that swam through quiet meadows round the mill, the sleeping pool above the dam, the pools beneath it never still, the meal sacks on the whiten'd floor, the dark round of the dripping wheel, the very air around the door made misty with the floating meal.II. Complete the rhymes in the following:—When I was sick and lay a-bedI had two pillows at my ——And all my toys beside me layTo keep me happy all the ——How do you like to go up in a swingUp in the air so blue!Oh, I do think it's the pleasantest ——Ever a child can ——Through all the pleasant meadow-sideThe grass grew shoulder highTill the shining scythes went far and ——And cut it down to ——.The fight did last from break of dayTill setting of the ——For when they rang the evening bellThe battle was scarce ——In summer time in BretonThe bells they sound so clear.Round both the shires they ring themIn steeples far and ——A happy noise to ——

Exercise 142.—I. Arrange the following in stanza form, letting yourself be guided by the recurrence of a regular number of feet in each line and by the rhyme.

1. Tiger, tiger, burning bright in the forests of the night, what immortal hand or eye could frame thy fearful symmetry?

2. The ship was cheer'd, the harbor clear'd, merrily did we drop below the kirk, below the hill, below the light-house top. The sun came up upon the left, out of the sea came he, and he shone bright and on the right went down into the sea.

3. We watched her breathing through the night, her breathing soft and low, as in her breast the wave of life kept heaving to and fro. Our very hopes belied our fears, our fears our hopes belied—we thought her dying when she slept and sleeping when she died.

4. Where the bee sucks, there suck I; in a cowslip's bell I lie; there I crouch when owls do cry. On the bat's wing I do fly after summer merrily. Merrily, merrily, shall I live now under the blossom that hangs on the bough.

5. I loved the brimming wave that swam through quiet meadows round the mill, the sleeping pool above the dam, the pools beneath it never still, the meal sacks on the whiten'd floor, the dark round of the dripping wheel, the very air around the door made misty with the floating meal.

II. Complete the rhymes in the following:—

When I was sick and lay a-bedI had two pillows at my ——And all my toys beside me layTo keep me happy all the ——How do you like to go up in a swingUp in the air so blue!Oh, I do think it's the pleasantest ——Ever a child can ——Through all the pleasant meadow-sideThe grass grew shoulder highTill the shining scythes went far and ——And cut it down to ——.The fight did last from break of dayTill setting of the ——For when they rang the evening bellThe battle was scarce ——In summer time in BretonThe bells they sound so clear.Round both the shires they ring themIn steeples far and ——A happy noise to ——

When I was sick and lay a-bedI had two pillows at my ——And all my toys beside me layTo keep me happy all the ——

How do you like to go up in a swingUp in the air so blue!Oh, I do think it's the pleasantest ——Ever a child can ——

Through all the pleasant meadow-sideThe grass grew shoulder highTill the shining scythes went far and ——And cut it down to ——.

The fight did last from break of dayTill setting of the ——For when they rang the evening bellThe battle was scarce ——

In summer time in BretonThe bells they sound so clear.Round both the shires they ring themIn steeples far and ——A happy noise to ——

An excellent exercise for training your ear is to have some one read verse aloud to you, leaving you to complete the rhymed lines.

You have now learned a few simple rules about the construction of two or three of the most common forms of verse, and you may ask yourself what use you can make of them.

One way in which you can employ verse is in writing a short story or incident. The simplest anecdote is often so set off by telling it in verse that its interest is doubled; and you will find this sort of familiar, conversational verse unexpectedly easy to write. One very good variety of story to tell in verse is the fable:—

Miss Grasshopper having sungAll through summer,Found herself in sorry plightWhen the wind began to bite;Not a bit of grub or flyMet the little wanton's eye;So she wept for hunger soreAt the Ant, her neighbor's door,Begging her just once to bend,And a little grain to lendTill warm weather came again."I will pay you," cried she, then,"Ere next harvest, on my soul,Interest and principal."Now the Ant is not a lender.From that charge who needs defend her?"Tell me what you did last summer?"Said she to the beggar maid."Day and night to every comerI was singing, I'm afraid.""Sing! Do tell! How entrancing!Well then, vagrant, off! be dancing!"

"Day and night to every comerI was singing, I'm afraid.""Sing! Do tell! How entrancing!Well then, vagrant, off! be dancing!"

Exercise 143.—See if you can completeThe Hare and the Tortoisefrom the beginning and the skeleton given below.How everybody laughed to hearThe hare had planned a raceAgainst the tortoise, patient, dull,And very slow of ——.The hare assured them one and all,"It's but that I may showThat I can sleep till near the duskAnd beat the —u —— u — ran like the windAnd almost reached the goal,u — u — amid the hayAnd slept, the lazy ——!u — u — the hare still sleptu — u passed him by,u — u — u — againIt was too late to tryTo reach the goal, or win u —The tortoise by my trothu — u — u steadinessu — u — u sloth.Exercise 144.—Try to put into verse, on this model, The Fox and the Grapes, The City Mouse and the Country Mouse, The Wolf and the Lamb, The Frog and the Stork, The Woodchopper and Death, The Goose that laid the Golden Eggs,—or any other fable you have known in prose.

Exercise 143.—See if you can completeThe Hare and the Tortoisefrom the beginning and the skeleton given below.

How everybody laughed to hearThe hare had planned a raceAgainst the tortoise, patient, dull,And very slow of ——.The hare assured them one and all,"It's but that I may showThat I can sleep till near the duskAnd beat the —u —— u — ran like the windAnd almost reached the goal,u — u — amid the hayAnd slept, the lazy ——!u — u — the hare still sleptu — u passed him by,u — u — u — againIt was too late to tryTo reach the goal, or win u —The tortoise by my trothu — u — u steadinessu — u — u sloth.

How everybody laughed to hearThe hare had planned a raceAgainst the tortoise, patient, dull,And very slow of ——.

The hare assured them one and all,"It's but that I may showThat I can sleep till near the duskAnd beat the —u —

— u — ran like the windAnd almost reached the goal,u — u — amid the hayAnd slept, the lazy ——!

u — u — the hare still sleptu — u passed him by,u — u — u — againIt was too late to try

To reach the goal, or win u —The tortoise by my trothu — u — u steadinessu — u — u sloth.

Exercise 144.—Try to put into verse, on this model, The Fox and the Grapes, The City Mouse and the Country Mouse, The Wolf and the Lamb, The Frog and the Stork, The Woodchopper and Death, The Goose that laid the Golden Eggs,—or any other fable you have known in prose.

Sometimes it may be interesting to you to try to write a letter or to send an invitation in verse. Some of the greatest writers have amused themselves by making such playful use of verse in letters. Here is part of a letter written from India by Bishop Phillips Brooks to his little niece.

Little Mistress Josephine,Tell me, have you ever seenChildren half as queer as theseBabies from across the seas?See their funny little fists,See the rings upon their wrists.One has very little clothes,One has jewels in her nose;And they all have silver banglesOn their little heathen ankles.In their ears are curious things,Round their necks are beads and strings,And they jingle as they walk,And they talk outlandish talk:Do you want to know their names?One is called Jee Fingee Hames;One Buddhanda Arrich Bas,One Teehundee Hanki Sas.Aren't you glad then, little Queen,That your name is Josephine?That you live in Springfield, orNot at least in old Jeypore?That your Christian parents areJohn and Hattie, Pa and Ma?That you've an entire noseAnd no rings upon your toes?In a word, that Hat and youDo not have to be Hindu?

Exercise 145.—1. Try writing a rhymed letter, describing an expedition in which you have taken part,—a railway journey, a picnic, a ride. Or write an invitation, from your class to the class below, to a spelling match, or entertainment you are giving.2. ReadThe One-Hoss Shay,John Gilpin's Ride,Lochinvar,The Legend of Bishop Hatto,The Falcon—or any poem you know which tells a story, and try your own hand at turning into verse one of the stories you wrote in your study of narration.

2. ReadThe One-Hoss Shay,John Gilpin's Ride,Lochinvar,The Legend of Bishop Hatto,The Falcon—or any poem you know which tells a story, and try your own hand at turning into verse one of the stories you wrote in your study of narration.

The uses of verse which have been pointed out as possible to you are not out of the question for any one who can write at all. This is verse making and not poetry. But there may be times when you find that you can say what you mean better in a few words of verse than in many of ordinary prose, that you can express some aspect of out of doors, or some sensation, more vividly in verse than in any other way. You will notice that words seem often to have a greater force and life in poetry than in prose, and if you make use of this quality, you will be writing real poetry.

For instance, one day a third-grade class was asked to write a description of the conditions that morning in the woods near the school. It had rained and snowed the night before and everything was coated in ice. The wind was high and, shaking the branches violently, sent down a continuous shower of tiny pieces of ice, glistening in the sun and tinkling on the ice-covered snow. Many long compositions were written in the attempt to describe the effect such a day made on the observer; every one agreed that a little boy, eight years old, who wrote the following lines, had best expressed the singular spirit of the morning:—

The trees are all so silveryAnd the fairies dance around;They make a pretty tinkleAs they step upon the ground.They dance upon the tree topsAnd dance upon the ground.

Of course, that is not perfect verse, but it has a quality of real poetry in it.

You cannot expect great results from your verse making, but you will certainly profit by some practice in managing meters. You will have a greater interest in the construction of the poetry you read, you will have greater ease in writing prose, and you may perhaps succeed in expressing some feeling of your own in a simple stanza which will be worth writing for its own sake.

95. General Theory of Punctuation.—Punctuation is a way of showing by various signs (or points) which words in a written composition bear a close relation to one another. Read, for example, the following passage:—

As Pandora raised the lid, the cottage grew very dark and dismal; a black cloud had swept over the sun, and seemed to have buried it alive. But Pandora, heeding nothing of all this, lifted the lid nearly upright, and looked inside. It seemed as if suddenly a swarm of winged insects brushed past her, taking flight out of the box, while at the same instant she heard a voice. It was that of Epimetheus, as if he were in pain."Oh, I am stung!" cried he. "I am stung! Naughty Pandora! Why have you opened this wicked box?"

"Oh, I am stung!" cried he. "I am stung! Naughty Pandora! Why have you opened this wicked box?"

The period at the end of the first sentence shows that all the words preceding it are to be taken together. Notice the similar use of the other periods.

Notice the semicolon which is used to separate the two clauses of the first sentence. Each clause is complete in itself and might be taken separately; yet they are sufficiently related to be included in one sentence. The semicolon is therefore used to show a slighter separation between the thoughts than would be indicated by the use of the period.

The commas show a still slighter separation, being used to divide the lesser groups of words. Notice this use of the two commas in the first sentence. In the second sentence the commas before and after "heeding nothing of all this" show that these words belong together, and that "But Pandora" belongs to "lifted the lid," etc.

Notice the use of the interrogation point and the exclamation point in the last paragraph.

These various marks, then, are used to help the reader. They show the grammatical structure or grouping. Let us now study these marks in detail, beginning with those that indicate the close of the larger groups,—the period, the exclamation point, the interrogation point.

96. The Period.—The period marks the end of a declarative or imperative sentence.

The period is also used after an abbreviation. (For a list of common abbreviations, see p. 267.)

97. The Question Mark.—The question mark is placed at the end of every direct question. It is not used with an indirect question.

Shall I go?

I ask you, "Shall I go?"

I asked whether I should go.

98. The Exclamation Point.—The exclamation point is used after exclamatory words, phrases, and sentences. When an exclamatory sentence begins with an interjection, it is usually sufficient to place a comma after the interjection and to reserve the exclamation point untilthe end of the sentence. When an unemphatic interjection begins a declarative sentence, it is frequently possible to omit the exclamation point entirely. As a ruleOis used only in direct address.

Help! You rascal! Be off with you!Ah, you are back again!Oh, what a mess I have made of it!Oh, I didn't see you.Hear me, O King! Oh! I am wounded!

99. The Semicolon.—Semicolons have two uses:—

1. To separate the principal clauses in a compound sentence.

To our left we beheld the towers of the Alhambra beetling above us; to our right we were dominated by equal towers on a rocky eminence.

Some suppose them to have been built by the Romans; others, by the Phœnicians.

He received only ten guineas for this stately, vigorous poem; but the sale was rapid and the success complete.

There was now a sound behind me like a rushing blast; I heard the clatter of a thousand hoofs; and countless throngs overtook me.

When his men had thus indemnified themselves, in some degree, for their late reverses, Cortes called them again under their banners; and, after offering up a grateful acknowledgment to the Lord of Hosts for their miraculous preservation, they renewed their march across the now deserted valley.

The principal clauses in a compound sentence may also be separated by acomma, provided that a coördinate conjunction is present.

It was a moonlight night,andthe fresh north wind rustled solemnly in the palm trees.

We examined their sculptures by the aid of torches,andour Arab attendants kindled large fires of dry corn-stalks, which cast a strong red light on the walls.

The forehead and nose approach the Greek standard,butthe mouth is more roundly and delicately carved,andthe chin and cheeks are fuller.

When a coördinate conjunction isnotpresent, it is incorrect to separate such clauses by a comma. See § 6.

When a coördinate conjunctionispresent, and the choice lies between a comma and a semicolon, the semicolon is to be used:—

(a) When the writer wishes the break or separation between the principal clauses to be emphatic.

(b) When the principal clauses are long and already divided into their parts by commas.

2. To separate clauses or phrases from each other in a series of similar phrases or subordinate clauses, when commas would not be sufficient to indicate clearly where each clause or phrase began and ended.

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with inherent and inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundations on such principles and organizing its power insuch form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their happiness.Exercise 146.—(1) Find three sentences in which the principal clauses are separated by the semicolon. (2) Write three such sentences of your own composition. (3) Write three sentences in which the semicolon is used to separate similar phrases or subordinate clauses in a series. Let the sentences be of your own composition.

Exercise 146.—(1) Find three sentences in which the principal clauses are separated by the semicolon. (2) Write three such sentences of your own composition. (3) Write three sentences in which the semicolon is used to separate similar phrases or subordinate clauses in a series. Let the sentences be of your own composition.

100. The Colon.—The colon indicates that what follows it is an explanation or specification of what precedes it. It is used:—

1. To introduce a list, a quotation, or an explanatory proposition. When the explanation begins a new paragraph, a dash is usually placed after the colon, as in the second sentence of this section.

He provided himself with the following books: Worcester's dictionary, a Latin grammar, an atlas, and a Bible.We hold these truths to be self-evident: that, etc. [See example under § 99, 2 above.]He read, on a marble tablet in the chapel wall opposite, this singular inscription: "Look not mournfully into the past."

He provided himself with the following books: Worcester's dictionary, a Latin grammar, an atlas, and a Bible.

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that, etc. [See example under § 99, 2 above.]

He read, on a marble tablet in the chapel wall opposite, this singular inscription: "Look not mournfully into the past."

2. In a compound sentence in which the principal clauses are not connected by a conjunction, to show that the following clause explains or illustrates the preceding clause.

I am no traveler: it is ten years since I have left my village.The general refused to believe him: the risk was too great.

I am no traveler: it is ten years since I have left my village.

The general refused to believe him: the risk was too great.

3. After such phrases of address asDear Sir,[2]Ladies and Gentlemen,etc.

Exercise 147.—I. Write five examples of your own composition of (1); five of (2); and three of (3).II. Explain the use of the semicolons and colons in the following:—1. Sin has many tools; but a lie is the handle which fits them all.2. In Bryant'sTo a Waterfowl,we find the following lines:—"He who, from zone to one,Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight,In the long way that I must tread alone,Will lead my steps aright."3. Speech is silver; silence is gold.4. There are three great virtues: faith, hope, and charity.

Exercise 147.—I. Write five examples of your own composition of (1); five of (2); and three of (3).

II. Explain the use of the semicolons and colons in the following:—

1. Sin has many tools; but a lie is the handle which fits them all.

2. In Bryant'sTo a Waterfowl,we find the following lines:—

"He who, from zone to one,Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight,In the long way that I must tread alone,Will lead my steps aright."

3. Speech is silver; silence is gold.

4. There are three great virtues: faith, hope, and charity.

101. The Comma.—As we have seen, the period is used to close a declarative sentence, and the semicolon and colon are used to mark off the greater divisions of a sentence. The office of the comma is to point off the smaller divisions of a sentence. It is used in the following ways:—

1. In a compound sentence, to separate the different clauses, when there is not a sufficient break in the thought to make the semicolon necessary. See above, §99, 1.

He rested himself in the Chancellor's room till the debate commenced, and then, leaning on his two relatives, he limped to his seat.His exertions redeemed his own fame, but they effected little for his country.

He rested himself in the Chancellor's room till the debate commenced, and then, leaning on his two relatives, he limped to his seat.

His exertions redeemed his own fame, but they effected little for his country.

2. To separate the different parts of a compound predicate, unless the connection between them is very close.

The slightest particulars of that day were remembered, and have been carefully recorded.He lost the thread of his discourse, hesitated, repeated the same words several times, and was so confused that, in speaking of the Act of Settlement, he could not recall the name of the Electress Sophia.I see and hear you.

The slightest particulars of that day were remembered, and have been carefully recorded.

He lost the thread of his discourse, hesitated, repeated the same words several times, and was so confused that, in speaking of the Act of Settlement, he could not recall the name of the Electress Sophia.

I see and hear you.

3. In a complex sentence in which the dependent clause precedes, to separate the dependent clause from the principal clause. When the dependent clause follows, the comma is, as a rule, not needed.

If you are wise, you will trust him implicitly.Although I saw him, I could not wait.I would not stop until he called out to me.

4. To mark off an explanatory relative clause.

Note.—Relative clauses may be roughly divided into explanatory clauses and restrictive clauses. An explanatory relative clause describes or gives information about its antecedents. A restrictive relative clause narrows the meaning of its antecedent. An explanatory clause might usually be omitted without affecting the thought of the principal clause. A restrictive clause cannot usually be omitted without affecting the thought of the principal clause. No comma is used before a restrictive clause.Examples.(a)Explanatory Clauses.—1. The twenty-four columns, each of which is sixty feet in height, are oppressive in their grandeur.2. Beyond lay various other apartments, which receive no light from without.3. This churchman rode upon a well-fed, ambling mule, whose bridle was ornamented with silver bells.4. His companion, who was a man past forty, was tall and muscular.(b)Restrictive Clauses.—1. The two who rode foremost were persons of importance.2. This is not the book that I ordered.3. There is no reason which can be urged in favor of such a bill.4. Such was the appearance of the man who was about to receive into his hand the destinies of half the world.5. We walked through the inner halls under the spell of a fascination which we had hardly power to break.

Examples.(a)Explanatory Clauses.—1. The twenty-four columns, each of which is sixty feet in height, are oppressive in their grandeur.

2. Beyond lay various other apartments, which receive no light from without.

3. This churchman rode upon a well-fed, ambling mule, whose bridle was ornamented with silver bells.

4. His companion, who was a man past forty, was tall and muscular.

(b)Restrictive Clauses.—1. The two who rode foremost were persons of importance.

2. This is not the book that I ordered.

3. There is no reason which can be urged in favor of such a bill.

4. Such was the appearance of the man who was about to receive into his hand the destinies of half the world.

5. We walked through the inner halls under the spell of a fascination which we had hardly power to break.

5. In general, to indicate the beginning and the end of a group of words, whether a phrase or a clause, which must be regarded as a unit, particularly if it occurs parenthetically.

Let us go together through the low gateway,with its battlemented top and small window in the center, into the inner road.And now I wish that the reader,before I bring him into St. Mark's Place, would imagine himself in a little English town.

Let us go together through the low gateway,with its battlemented top and small window in the center, into the inner road.

And now I wish that the reader,before I bring him into St. Mark's Place, would imagine himself in a little English town.

6. To separate similar words or phrases used, in a series, in the same construction, and not joined by conjunctions.

It was done quickly, neatly, artistically.It was done quickly and neatly.He was a big, hearty, happy fellow.The horse was a quiet, sensible old beast. [Herequietandsensiblelimitold beast, notbeastalone.]He was gay and jovial, gloomy and despondent, as the weather indicated.

It was done quickly, neatly, artistically.

It was done quickly and neatly.

He was a big, hearty, happy fellow.

The horse was a quiet, sensible old beast. [Herequietandsensiblelimitold beast, notbeastalone.]

He was gay and jovial, gloomy and despondent, as the weather indicated.

If the members of the series are joined by conjunctions, commas are unnecessary. When, however, a conjunction joins the last two members of the series, the comma is employed.[3]

Bread and butter.She was good and true and beautiful.They visited Rome, Florence, and Venice.

Bread and butter.

She was good and true and beautiful.

They visited Rome, Florence, and Venice.

7. To indicate the omission of words logically necessary to the construction.

One was tall; the other, short.Admission, twenty-five cents.

One was tall; the other, short.

Admission, twenty-five cents.

8. To mark off phrases when they open a sentence or are not closely connected with the context. Phrases occurring in their usual places and closely connected with the context are, however, not marked off by commas.

Following the dim path, we proceeded slowly.On his arrival in England, he found himself an object of general interest and admiration.With rare delicacy, he refused to receive this token of gratitude.The case was heard, according to the usage of the time, before a committee of the whole house.From a child he hated the English.He refused with emphasis this token of gratitude.

Following the dim path, we proceeded slowly.

On his arrival in England, he found himself an object of general interest and admiration.

With rare delicacy, he refused to receive this token of gratitude.

The case was heard, according to the usage of the time, before a committee of the whole house.

From a child he hated the English.

He refused with emphasis this token of gratitude.

9. To mark off adverbs and adverb phrases which have a connective force. Notice the difference between (a) "you will see, then, that you have been misled," and (b) "you will then see that you have been misled."

This, on the other hand, was his purpose.My mission, too, is one of peace.He recalled, however, his motive.

This, on the other hand, was his purpose.

My mission, too, is one of peace.

He recalled, however, his motive.

10. To mark off words or phrases (a) in direct address or (b) in apposition. Notice, however, that in expressions like "the Emperor William,"Williamis rather a noun limited byEmperorthan a noun in apposition withEmperor.

(a) I do not understand you, sir.I apologize, ladies and gentlemen, for my apparent discourtesy.(b) His romantic novel, theCastle of Otranto, is now unread.He is like me in this, that he cannot resist entreaty.

(a) I do not understand you, sir.

I apologize, ladies and gentlemen, for my apparent discourtesy.

(b) His romantic novel, theCastle of Otranto, is now unread.

He is like me in this, that he cannot resist entreaty.

11. Before a direct quotation. See the more formal use of the colon, § 100, 1.

He kept crying, "On! on!"As he fell, he heard some one say, "There goes another."

He kept crying, "On! on!"

As he fell, he heard some one say, "There goes another."

12. In dates, addresses, as in the following examples:—

Jan. 1, 1899.Dr. C. H. Smith, Salem, Essex County, Mass.[4]

13. To prevent ambiguity or to make a sentence more easily understood.

Exercise 148.—I. Write two sentences (of your own composition) illustrating each of the uses described in the preceding section.II. Give reasons for the marks of punctuation used in the following:—One day, when he was looking for wild flowers, of which he was very fond, he heard a rustling in some thick bushes near by, and saw that some animal was moving among them. He took his gun and fired, and, going to the place, found that he had shot a lion's cub.When his colored gun-bearer saw this, he screamed with terror, and ran away shouting, "Run, Benana! run!" Almost at the same instant, Bishop Hannington heard a fearful roar; turning, he saw a huge lion and a lioness rushing furiously towards him.

Exercise 148.—I. Write two sentences (of your own composition) illustrating each of the uses described in the preceding section.

II. Give reasons for the marks of punctuation used in the following:—

One day, when he was looking for wild flowers, of which he was very fond, he heard a rustling in some thick bushes near by, and saw that some animal was moving among them. He took his gun and fired, and, going to the place, found that he had shot a lion's cub.

When his colored gun-bearer saw this, he screamed with terror, and ran away shouting, "Run, Benana! run!" Almost at the same instant, Bishop Hannington heard a fearful roar; turning, he saw a huge lion and a lioness rushing furiously towards him.

III. Supply commas where needed, giving reasons.

In Holland children have very few playthings. The shoes are shaped very much like the canal-boats of the country. The children recognize this fact and have a custom of sailing them on the water. This is fine sport except when the little craft is loaded with too many stones causing it to sink and insuring them punishment from their parents.I was told of a small lad who going out one morning to sail his wooden shoe put into it his knife a small brass cannon a top and some marbles that had been given him on the previous Christmas.His tiny vessel which had a paper sail ran firmly until an old man came down to the canal to dip up a pail of water. This made such waves that the heavily laden shoe was overwhelmed and sank suddenly before the knife or cannon or marbles could be rescued.

I was told of a small lad who going out one morning to sail his wooden shoe put into it his knife a small brass cannon a top and some marbles that had been given him on the previous Christmas.

His tiny vessel which had a paper sail ran firmly until an old man came down to the canal to dip up a pail of water. This made such waves that the heavily laden shoe was overwhelmed and sank suddenly before the knife or cannon or marbles could be rescued.

102. Parentheses and Brackets.—Parentheses are to inclose explanatory matter which is independent of the grammatical construction of the sentence. Brackets have the same general office, but are generally used only to inclose corrections, explanations, or similar matter, introduced by the author into the statement of some one else.

Prescott (1796-1859) was a brilliant historian.It is said (and I can believe that it is true) that many still believe in witches.It was at that moment [10A.M.], the colonel goes on to say, that his superior officer [General Smith] met him.

Prescott (1796-1859) was a brilliant historian.

It is said (and I can believe that it is true) that many still believe in witches.

It was at that moment [10A.M.], the colonel goes on to say, that his superior officer [General Smith] met him.

103. The Dash.—The dash is used to indicate a sudden change in thought or construction. Two dashes have the general effect of parentheses.

Yes—no—I scarcely know what to say.You were saying that—I suppose—but why should I tell you?His father, his mother, his brothers, his sisters,—all are dead.At last he succeeded in opening the box and found in it—nothing.He had two constant motives—love of man and love of God.The two motives—love of man and love of God—were constant.

104. The Apostrophe.—The apostrophe is used (1) to indicate the omission of a letter or letters, (2) in forming the possessive case, and (3) in forming the plurals of letters and figures.

Don't, shan't, o'er, John's, horses', his abc's.

105. Quotation Marks.—Double inverted commas indicate that the inclosed matter is a quotation. Single inverted commas indicate a quotation within a quotation. Double quotation marks are also sometimes used to indicate the title of a book, magazine, or newspaper, or the name of a ship. See also § 106.

A direct quotation is one in which the exact words of a speaker or writer are repeated. When a direct quotation is broken by words of the author, each part of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.

A short informal quotation, if it constitutes a sentence, is preceded by a comma or a comma and a dash. If a quotation is long, or if it is desired to give it with a little more formality, it may be preceded by a colon. If the quotation begins a paragraph, it is preceded by a colon and a dash. See § 100, 1.

"To be or not to be."The word "coward" has never been applied to me."Sir," said I, "you insult me."I said to him, "Sir, you insult me."This was his reply: "I tell you that he said only last night, 'You will never see me again.'"This "History of English Literature" is worth reading.The wreck of the "Polar Star."

An indirect quotation repeats the thought of some speaker or writer without giving his exact words. Quotation marks are not used to indicate indirect quotations.

[Direct quotation] "Well, my boys," said Mr. Webster, "I will be the judge."

[Indirect quotation] Mr. Webster told his boys that he would be the judge.

Exercise 149.—Rewrite the following story,Daniel Webster's First Case, changing the direct quotations to indirect and the indirect quotations to direct:—

The father of Daniel Webster was a farmer. His garden had suffered somewhat from the visits of a woodchuck that lived in a hole close by. One day Daniel and his brother Ezekiel set a steel trap for the trespasser, and caught him alive. And now the great question was, "What shall be done with the rogue?"

"Kill him," said Ezekiel.

"Let him go," said Daniel, looking with pity into the eyes of the dumb captive.

"No, no!" replied Ezekiel, "he'll be at his old tricks again."

The boys could not agree; so they appealed to their father to decide the case.

"Well, my boys," said Mr. Webster, "I will be judge. There is the prisoner, and you shall be counsel, Daniel for him and Ezekiel against him. It rests with you whether the woodchuck shall live or die."

Ezekiel opened the case. The woodchuck, he said, was a thief by nature. He had already done much harm, and would do more, if he were set free. It had cost a great deal of labor to catch him. It would be harder to catch him a second time; for he would have gained in cunning. It was better on every account to put him to death. His skin would be worth something, although it would not half repay the damage he had done.

The father looked with pride upon his son, little dreaming, however, that he was then showing signs of that power that made him so sound a jurist in his manhood.

"Now, Daniel, it is your turn. I'll hear what you have to say."

Daniel saw that the argument of his brother had sensibly moved his father the judge. The boy's large, black eyes looked upon the timid woodchuck, and, as he saw the poor thing trembling with fear, his heart swelled with pity.

God, he said, had made the woodchuck. He made him to live, to enjoy the air and sunshine, the free fields and woods. The woodchuck had as much right to live as any other thing that breathes. God did not make him or anything in vain. He was not a destructive animal like the wolf or the fox. He ate a few common things, to be sure; but they had plenty of them, and could well spare a part. And he destroyed nothing except the little food needed to sustain his humble life. That little food was as sweet to him, and as necessary to his existence, as was the food on their mother's table to them.

God gave them their food. Would they not spare a little for the dumb creature that really had as much right to his small share of God's bounty as they themselves to theirs? Yea, more; the animal had never broken the laws of his nature or the laws of God, as man often did, but had strictly lived up to the simple instincts that had been given him by the good Creator of all things. Created by God's hands, he had a right from God to his life and his liberty, and they had no right to deprive him of either.

The young orator then alluded to the mute but earnest entreaties of the animal for his life, as sweet, as dear to him, as their own was to them; and to the just penalty they might expect, if, in selfish cruelty, they took the lifethey could not restore,—the life that God Himself had given.

During this appeal for mercy tears had started to the father's eyes, and were fast running down his sunburnt cheeks. Every feeling of his manly heart was stirred within him,—gratitude for the gift of so eloquent and noble a boy, pity for the helpless and anxious prisoner at the bar.

The strain was more than he could bear. While Daniel was yet speaking, without thinking that he had won his case, his father sprang from his chair, and, in entire forgetfulness of his character as judge, exclaimed to his elder son, "Zeke! Zeke! let that woodchuck go!"

Sometimes you may wish to quote, not a whole sentence, but a word or two. Such a partial quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks, but you should not begin it with a capital or place a comma before it, unless the comma is needed there for some other reason.

She was "born to blush unseen."We listened with pity to this tale of "man's inhumanity to man."Exercise 150.—Construct sentences using the following partial quotations:—"Waste her sweetness on the desert air," "simple and heart-felt lay," of "night's candles," "lowly thatched cottage," "sweet bells out of tune."Exercise 151.—Rewrite the following so that you will have in each instance a quotation within a quotation. You will be obliged to make introductions using the name of the author.1. Had it not been the season when "no spirit dares stir abroad," I should have been half tempted to steal from my room at midnight.—Washington Irving.2. The story-teller paused for a moment and said, "There is no situation in life but has its advantages and pleasures."—Diedrich Knickerbocker.3. We are in that part of the year which I like best—the Rainy or Hurricane Season. "When it is good, it is very, very good; and when it is bad, it is horrid."—Robert Louis Stevenson.

She was "born to blush unseen."

We listened with pity to this tale of "man's inhumanity to man."

Exercise 150.—Construct sentences using the following partial quotations:—

"Waste her sweetness on the desert air," "simple and heart-felt lay," of "night's candles," "lowly thatched cottage," "sweet bells out of tune."

Exercise 151.—Rewrite the following so that you will have in each instance a quotation within a quotation. You will be obliged to make introductions using the name of the author.

1. Had it not been the season when "no spirit dares stir abroad," I should have been half tempted to steal from my room at midnight.—Washington Irving.

2. The story-teller paused for a moment and said, "There is no situation in life but has its advantages and pleasures."

—Diedrich Knickerbocker.

3. We are in that part of the year which I like best—the Rainy or Hurricane Season. "When it is good, it is very, very good; and when it is bad, it is horrid."

—Robert Louis Stevenson.

106. Italics.—The term "italics" refers to a special kind of type used in printing; thus,italics. Ordinary type is referred to as "roman." In writing, a single line drawn underneath a word is understood to be the equivalent of italics. Italics are used for (1) words especially emphasized, for (2) words from a foreign language, and, sometimes, as in this volume, for (3) names of books, newspapers, magazines, and ships. See § 105, ¶ 1.

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