Chapter 8

Atque in eam se consuetudinem adduxerunt, ut locis frigidissimis, neque vestitus, præter pelles, habeant quidquam, quarum, propter exiguitatem,magna est corporis pars operta, et laventur in fluminibus.Commentaria, l. 4. prin.

Commentaria, l. 4. prin.

Burnet, in the history of his own times, giving Lord Sunderland’s character, says,

His own notions were always good; but he was a man of great expence.I have seen a woman’s face break out in heats, as she has been talking against a great lord, whom she had never seen in her life; and indeed never knew a party-woman that kept her beauty for a twelvemonth.Spectator, Nº 57.

His own notions were always good; but he was a man of great expence.

I have seen a woman’s face break out in heats, as she has been talking against a great lord, whom she had never seen in her life; and indeed never knew a party-woman that kept her beauty for a twelvemonth.

Spectator, Nº 57.

Lord Bolingbroke, speaking of Strada:

I single him out among the moderns, because he had the foolish presumption to censure Tacitus, and to write history himself: and your Lordship will forgive this short excursion in honour of a favourite author.Letters on history, vol. 1. let. 5.It seems to me, that in order to maintain the moral system of the world at a certain point, far below that of ideal perfection, (for we are made capable of conceiving what we are incapable of attaining), but however sufficient upon the whole to constitute a state easy and happy, or at the worst tolerable: I say, it seems to me, that the author of nature has thought fit to mingle from time to time, among the societies of men, a few, and but a few, of those on whom he is graciously pleased to bestow a larger proportion of the ethereal spirit than is given in the ordinary course of his providence to the sons of men.Bolingbroke, on the spirit of patriotism, let. 1.

Letters on history, vol. 1. let. 5.

It seems to me, that in order to maintain the moral system of the world at a certain point, far below that of ideal perfection, (for we are made capable of conceiving what we are incapable of attaining), but however sufficient upon the whole to constitute a state easy and happy, or at the worst tolerable: I say, it seems to me, that the author of nature has thought fit to mingle from time to time, among the societies of men, a few, and but a few, of those on whom he is graciously pleased to bestow a larger proportion of the ethereal spirit than is given in the ordinary course of his providence to the sons of men.

Bolingbroke, on the spirit of patriotism, let. 1.

To crowd into a single member of a period, different subjects, is still worse than to crowd them into one period.

—————— Trojam, genitore AdamastoPaupere (mansissetque utinam fortuna) profectus.Æneid. iii. 614.

Where two things are so connected as to require but a copulative, it is pleasant to find a resemblance in the members of the period, were it even so slight as where both begin with the same letter:

The peacock, in all his pride, does not display half the colour that appears in the garments of aBritish lady, when she is either dressed for a ball or a birth-day.Spectator, Nº 265.

The peacock, in all his pride, does not display half the colour that appears in the garments of aBritish lady, when she is either dressed for a ball or a birth-day.

Spectator, Nº 265.

Had not my dog of a steward run away as he did, without making up his accounts, I had still been immersed in sin and sea-coal.Ibid.Nº. 530.

Had not my dog of a steward run away as he did, without making up his accounts, I had still been immersed in sin and sea-coal.

Ibid.Nº. 530.

My life’s companion, and my bosom-friend,One faith, one fame, one fate shall both attend.Dryden, Translation of Æneid.

There is obviously a sensible defect in neatness when uniformity is in this case totally neglected[84]; witness the following example, where the construction of two members connected by a copulative is unnecessarily varied.

For it is confidently reported, that two young gentlemen of real hopes, bright wit, and profound judgment, who upon a thorough examination of causes and effects, and by the mere force of natural abilities, without the least tincture of learning, have made a discovery that there was no God, andgenerously communicatingtheir thoughts for the good of the public, were some time ago, by an unparallelled severity, and upon I know not what obsolete law, broke for blasphemy[85]. [Better thus]: Having made a discovery that there was no God, and having generously communicated their thoughts for the good of the public, were some time ago,&c.He had been guilty of a fault, for which his master would have put him to death, had he not found an opportunity to escape out of his hands, andfledinto the deserts of Numidia.Guardian, Nº 139.

He had been guilty of a fault, for which his master would have put him to death, had he not found an opportunity to escape out of his hands, andfledinto the deserts of Numidia.

Guardian, Nº 139.

If all the ends of the revolution are already obtained, it is not only impertinent to argue for obtaining any of them, butfactious designs might be imputed, and the name of incendiary be applied with some colour, perhaps, to any one who should persist in pressing this point.Dissertation upon parties, Dedication.

Dissertation upon parties, Dedication.

It is even unpleasant to find a negative and affirmative proposition connected by a copulative.

Nec excitatur classico miles truci,Nec horret iratum mare;Forumque vitat, et superba civiumPotentiorum limina.Horace, Epod. 2. l. 5.

If it appear not plain, and prove untrue,Deadly divorce step between me and you.Shakespear.

An artificial connection among the words, is undoubtedly a beauty when it represents any peculiar connection among the constituent parts of the thought; but where there is no such connection, it is a positive deformity, because it makes a discordance betwixt the thought and expression. For the same reason, we ought also to avoid every artificial opposition of words where there is none in the thought. This last, termedverbal antithesis, is studied by writers of no taste; and is relished by readers of the same stamp, because of a certain degree of liveliness in it. They do not consider how incongruous it is, in a grave composition, to cheat the reader, and to make him expect a contrast in the thought, which upon examination is not found there.

A light wife doth make a heavy husband.Merchant of Venice.

Here is a studied opposition in the words, not only without any opposition in the sense, but even where there is a very intimate connection, that of cause and effect; for it is the levity of the wife that vexes the husband.

—————— Will maintainUpon his bad life to make all this good.King Richard II. act. 1. sc. 2.

Lucetta.What, shall these papers lie like tell-tales here?Julia.If thou respect them, best to take them up.Lucetta.Nay, I was taken up for laying them down.Two Gentlemen of Verona, act 1. sc. 3.

Lucetta.What, shall these papers lie like tell-tales here?

Julia.If thou respect them, best to take them up.

Lucetta.Nay, I was taken up for laying them down.

Two Gentlemen of Verona, act 1. sc. 3.

To conjoin by a copulative, members that signify things opposed in the thought, is an error too gross to be commonly practised. And yet writers are guilty of this fault in some degree, when they conjoin by a copulative things transacted at different periods of time. Hence a want of neatness in the following expression.

The nobility too, whom the King had no means of retaining by suitable offices and preferments, had been seized with the general discontent, and unwarily threw themselves into the scale, which began already too much to preponderate.History of G. Britain, vol. 1. p. 250.

History of G. Britain, vol. 1. p. 250.

In periods of this kind, it appears more neat to express the past time by the participle passive, thus:

The nobility having been seized with the general discontent, unwarily threw themselves,&c.[or], The nobility who had been seized,&c.unwarily threw themselves,&c.

So much upon conjunction and disjunction in general. I proceed to apply the rule to comparisons in particular. Where a resemblance betwixt two objects is described, the writer ought to study a resemblance betwixt the two members that express theseobjects. For it makes the resemblance the more entire to find it extended even to the words. To illustrate this rule, I shall give various examples of deviations from it. I begin with the words that express the resemblance.

I have observed of late, the style of some greatministersvery much to exceed that of any otherproductions.Letter to the Lord High Treasurer. Swift.

I have observed of late, the style of some greatministersvery much to exceed that of any otherproductions.

Letter to the Lord High Treasurer. Swift.

This, instead of studying the resemblance of words in a period that expresses a comparison, is going out of one’s road to avoid it. Instead ofproductionswhich resemble not ministers great or small, the proper word iswritersorauthors.

If men of eminence are exposed to censure on the one hand, they are as much liable to flattery on the other. If they receive reproaches which are not due to them, they likewise receive praises which they do not deserve.Spectator.

Spectator.

Here the subject plainly demands uniformity in expression instead of variety; andtherefore it is submitted whether the period would not do better in the following manner:

If men of eminence be exposed to censure on the one hand, they are as much exposed to flattery on the other. If they receive reproaches which are not due, they likewise receive praises which are not due.I cannot but fancy, however, that this imitation, which passes so currently withother judgements, must at some time or other have stuck a little with yourLordship[86]. [Better thus:] I cannot but fancy, however, that this imitation, which passes so currently with others, must at some time or other have stuck a little with your Lordship.A glutton or mere sensualist is as ridiculous as the other two characters.Shaftesbury, vol. 1. p. 129.

I cannot but fancy, however, that this imitation, which passes so currently withother judgements, must at some time or other have stuck a little with yourLordship[86]. [Better thus:] I cannot but fancy, however, that this imitation, which passes so currently with others, must at some time or other have stuck a little with your Lordship.

A glutton or mere sensualist is as ridiculous as the other two characters.

Shaftesbury, vol. 1. p. 129.

They wisely preferthe generous efforts of good-will and affection, to the reluctant compliancesof such asobey by force.Remarks on the history of England. Letter 5. Bolingbroke.

They wisely preferthe generous efforts of good-will and affection, to the reluctant compliancesof such asobey by force.

Remarks on the history of England. Letter 5. Bolingbroke.

Titus Livius, concerning the people of Enna demanding the keys from the Roman garrison, makes the governor say,

Quas simul tradiderimus, Carthaginiensium extemplo Enna erit, fœdiusque hic trucidabimir, quam Murgantiæ præsidium interfectum est.L. 24. § 38.

Quas simul tradiderimus, Carthaginiensium extemplo Enna erit, fœdiusque hic trucidabimir, quam Murgantiæ præsidium interfectum est.

L. 24. § 38.

Quintus Curtius, speaking of Porus mounted on an elephant, and leading his army to battle:

Magnitudini Pori adjicere videbatur bellua qua vehebatur, tantum inter cæteras eminens, quanto aliis ipse præstabat.L. 8. cap. 14.

Magnitudini Pori adjicere videbatur bellua qua vehebatur, tantum inter cæteras eminens, quanto aliis ipse præstabat.

L. 8. cap. 14.

It is a still greater deviation from congruity, to affect not only variety in the words, but also in the construction. Describing Thermopylæ, Titus Livius says,

Id jugum, sicut Apennini dorso Italia dividitur, ita mediam Græciam deremit.L. 36. § 15.

Id jugum, sicut Apennini dorso Italia dividitur, ita mediam Græciam deremit.

L. 36. § 15.

Speaking of Shakespear:

There may remain a suspicion that we over-rate the greatness of his genius; in the same manner as bodies appear more gigantic on account of their being disproportioned and mishapen.History of G. Britain, vol. 1. p. 138.

There may remain a suspicion that we over-rate the greatness of his genius; in the same manner as bodies appear more gigantic on account of their being disproportioned and mishapen.

History of G. Britain, vol. 1. p. 138.

This is studying variety in a period where the beauty lies in uniformity. Better thus:

There may remain a suspicion that we over-rate the greatness of his genius, in the same manner as we over-rate the greatness of bodies which are disproportioned and mishapen.

Next as to the length of the members that signify the resembling objects. To produce a resemblance betwixt such members, they ought not only to be constructed in the same manner, but as nearly as possible be equal in length. By neglecting this circumstance, the following example is defective in neatness.

As the performance of all other religious duties will not avail in the sight of God,without charity, so neither will the discharge of all other ministerialduties avail in the sight of menwithout a faithful discharge of this principal duty.Dissertation upon parties, dedication.

Dissertation upon parties, dedication.

In the following passage all the errors are accumulated that a period expressing a resemblance can well admit:

Ministers are answerable for every thing done to the prejudice of the constitution, in the same proportion as the preservation of the constitution in its purity and vigour, or the perverting and weakening it, are of greater consequence to the nation, than any other instances of good or bad government.Dissertation upon parties, dedication.

Dissertation upon parties, dedication.

The same rule obtains in a comparison where things are opposed to each other. Objects contrasted, not less than what are similar, require a resemblance in the members of the period that express them. The reason is, that contrast has no effect upon the mind, except where the things compared have a resemblance in their capital parts[87]. Therefore, in opposing two circumstances to each other, it remarkably heightens the contrast, to make as entire as possible the resemblance betwixt the other parts, and in particular betwixt the members expressing the two circumstances contrasted. As things are often best illustrated by their contraries, I shall also give examples of deviations from the rule in this case.

Addison says,

A friend exaggerates a man’s virtues, an enemy inflames his crimes.Spectator, Nº 399.

A friend exaggerates a man’s virtues, an enemy inflames his crimes.

Spectator, Nº 399.

Would it not be neater to study uniformity instead of variety? as thus:

A friend exaggerates a man’s virtues, an enemy his crimes.

For here the contrast is only betwixt a friend and an enemy; and betwixt all the other circumstances, including the members of the period, the resemblance ought to be preserved as entire as possible.

Speaking of a lady’s head-dress:

About ten years ago it shot up to a very great height, insomuch that the female part of our species were much taller than the men.Spectator, Nº 98.

About ten years ago it shot up to a very great height, insomuch that the female part of our species were much taller than the men.

Spectator, Nº 98.

It should be,

Than the male part.The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation; the fool when he recommends himself to the applause of those about him.Ibid.Nº 73.

Than the male part.

The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation; the fool when he recommends himself to the applause of those about him.

Ibid.Nº 73.

Better:

The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation; the fool when he gains that of others.Sicut in frugibus pecudibusque, non tantum semina ad servandum indolem valent, quantum terræ proprietas cœlique, sub quo aluntur, mutat.Livy, l. 38. § 17.

The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation; the fool when he gains that of others.

Sicut in frugibus pecudibusque, non tantum semina ad servandum indolem valent, quantum terræ proprietas cœlique, sub quo aluntur, mutat.

Livy, l. 38. § 17.

Sallust, in his history of Catiline’s conspiracy:

Per illa tempora quicumque rempublicam agitavere, honestis nominibus, alii, sicuti populi jura defenderent, pars, quo senati auctoritas maxumaforet, bonum publicum simulantes, pro sua quisque potentia certabant.Cap. 38.

Cap. 38.

We proceed to a rule of a different kind. During the course of a period, the same scene ought to be continued without variation. The changing from person to person, from subject to subject, or from person to subject, within the bounds of a single period, distracts the mind, and affords no time for a solid impression. I illustrate this rule by giving examples of deviations from it.

Honosalit artes,omnesqueincenduntur ad studia gloriâ; jacentqueeasemper quæ apud quosque improbantur.Cicero, Tuscul. quæst. l. 1.

Honosalit artes,omnesqueincenduntur ad studia gloriâ; jacentqueeasemper quæ apud quosque improbantur.

Cicero, Tuscul. quæst. l. 1.

Speaking of the distemper contracted by Alexander bathing in the river Cydnus and of the cure offered by Philip the physician:

Inter hæc à Parmenione fidissimo purpuratorum, literasaccipit, quibus eidenunciabat, ne salutem suam Philippo committeret.Quintus Curtius, l. 3. cap. 6.

Inter hæc à Parmenione fidissimo purpuratorum, literasaccipit, quibus eidenunciabat, ne salutem suam Philippo committeret.

Quintus Curtius, l. 3. cap. 6.

Hook, in his Roman history, speaking of Eumenes, who had been beat down to the ground with a stone, says,

After a short timehecame to himself; and the next day,theyput him on board his ship,whichconveyed him first to Corinth, and thence to the island of Ægina.

I give another example of a period which is unpleasant, even by a very slight deviation from the rule.

That sort of instruction which is acquired by inculcating an important moral truth,&c.

This expression includes two persons, one acquiring, and one inculcating; and the scene is changed without necessity. To avoid this blemish, the thought may be expressed thus:

That sort of instruction which is afforded by inculcating,&c.

The bad effect of this change of person is remarkable in the following passage.

TheBritains, daily harassed by cruel inroads from the Picts, were forced to call in the Saxons for their defence,whoconsequently reduced the greatest part of the island to their own power, drove the Britains into the most remote and mountainous parts, andthe rest of the country, in customs, religion, and language, became wholly Saxons.

Letter to the Lord High Treasurer. Swift.

The following example is a change from subject to persons.

This prostitution of praiseis not only a deceit upon the gross of mankind, who take their notion of characters from the learned; but alsothe better sortmust by this means lose some part at least of that desire of fame which is the incentive to generous actions, when they find it promiscuously bestowed on the meritorious and undeserving.

Guardian, Nº 4.

Even so slight a change as to vary the construction in the same period, is unpleasant:

Annibal luce prima, Balearibus levique alia armatura præmissa, transgressus flumen, ut quosquetraduxerat, ita in acie locabat; Gallos Hispanosque equites prope ripam lævo in cornu adversus Romanum equitatum; dextrum cornu Numidis equitibus datum.

Tit. Liv. l. 22. § 46.

Speaking of Hannibal’s elephants drove back by the enemy upon his own army:

Eo magis ruere in suos belluæ, tantoque majorem stragem edere quam inter hostes ediderant, quanto acrius pavor consternatam agit, quam insidentis magistri imperio regitur.Liv. l. 27. § 14.

Eo magis ruere in suos belluæ, tantoque majorem stragem edere quam inter hostes ediderant, quanto acrius pavor consternatam agit, quam insidentis magistri imperio regitur.

Liv. l. 27. § 14.

This passage is also faulty in a different respect, that there is no resemblance betwixt the members of the expression, though they import a comparison.

The present head, which relates to the choice of materials, shall be closed with a rule concerning the use of copulatives. Longinus observes, that it animates a period to drop the copulatives; and he gives the following example from Xenophon.

Closing their shields together, they were push’d, they fought, they slew, they were slain.Treatise of the Sublime, cap. 16.

Closing their shields together, they were push’d, they fought, they slew, they were slain.

Treatise of the Sublime, cap. 16.

The reason I take to be what follows. A continued sound, if not strong, tends to lay us asleep. An interrupted sound rouses and animates by its repeated impulses. Hence it is, that syllables collected into feet, being pronounced with a sensible interval betwixt each, make more lively impressions than can be made by a continued sound. A period, the members of which are connected by copulatives, produceth an effect upon the mind approaching to that of a continued sound: and therefore to suppress the copulatives must animate a description. To suppress the copulatives hath another good effect. The members of a period connected by the proper copulatives, glide smoothly and gently along; and are a proof of sedateness and leisure in the speaker. On the other hand, a man in the hurry of passion, neglecting copulatives and other particles, expresses the principal image only. Hence it is, thathurry or quick action is best expressed without copulatives:

Veni, vidi, vici.———————— Ite:Ferte cite flammas, date vela, impellite remos.Æneid.iv. 593.

Veni, vidi, vici.

———————— Ite:Ferte cite flammas, date vela, impellite remos.Æneid.iv. 593.

Quis globus, O Cives, caligine volvitur atra?Ferte cite ferrum, date tela, scandite muros.Hostis adest, eja.Æneid.ix. 36.

In this view Longinus[88]justly compares copulatives in a period to strait tying, which in a race obstructs the freedom of motion.

It follows from the same premisses, that to multiply copulatives in the same period ought to be avoided. For if the laying aside copulatives give force and liveliness, a redundancy of them must render the period languid. I appeal to the following instance, though there are not more than two copulatives.

Upon looking over the letters of my female correspondents, I find several from women complaining of jealous husbands; and at the same time protesting their own innocence, and desiring my advice upon this occasion.Spectator, Nº 170.

Spectator, Nº 170.

I except the case where the words are intended to express the coldness of the speaker; for there the redundancy of copulatives is a beauty.

Dining one day at an alderman’s in the city, Peter observed him expatiating after the manner of his brethren, in the praises of his sirloin of beef. “Beef,” said the sage magistrate, “is the king of meat: Beef comprehends in it the quintescence of partridge, and quail, and venison, and pheasant, and plum-pudding, and custard.”Tale of Tub, § 4.

Tale of Tub, § 4.

And the author shows great taste in varying the expression in the mouth of Peter, who is represented more animated.

“Bread,” says he, “dear brothers, is the staff of life, in which bread is contained,inclusivè, the quintescence of beef, mutton, veal, venison, partridge, plum-pudding, and custard.”

We proceed to the second kind of beauty, which consists in a due arrangement of the words or materials. This branch of the subject is not less nice than extensive; andI despair to put it in a clear light, until a sketch be given of the general principles that govern the structure or composition of language.

Every thought, generally speaking, contains one capital object considered as acting or as suffering. This object is expressed by a substantive noun. Its action is expressed by an active verb; and the thing affected by the action is expressed by another substantive noun. Its suffering or passive state is expressed by a passive verb, and the thing which acts upon it, by a substantive noun. Beside these, which are the capital parts of a sentence or period, there are generally under-parts. Each of the substantives as well as the verb, may be qualified. Time, place, purpose, motive, means, instrument, and a thousand other circumstances, may be necessary to complete the thought. And in what manner these several parts are connected together in the expression, will appear from what follows.

In a complete thought or mental proposition, all the members and parts are mutually related, some slightly, some more intimately. In communicating such a thought, it is not sufficient that the component ideas be clearly expressed: it is also necessary, that all the relations contained in the thought be expressed according to their different degrees of intimacy. To annex a certain meaning to a certain sound or word, requires no art. The great nicety in all languages is, to express the various relations that connect together the parts of the thought. Could we suppose this branch of language to be still a secret, it would puzzle, I am apt to think, the greatest grammarian ever existed, to invent an expeditious method. And yet, by the guidance merely of nature, the rude and illiterate have been led to a method so perfect, that it appears not susceptible of any improvement. Without a clear conception of the manner of expressing relations, one at every turn must be at a loss about the beauties of language; and upon that subject therefore I find it necessary to say a few words.

Words that import a relation, must be distinguished from those that do not. Substantives commonly imply no relation, suchasanimal,man,tree,river. Adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, imply a relation. The adjectivegoodmust be connected with some substantive, some being possessed of that quality. The verbwritemust be applied to some person who writes; and the adverbsmoderately,diligently, have plainly a reference to some action which they modify. When in language a relative term is introduced, all that is necessary to complete the expression, is, to ascertain that thing to which the term relates. For answering this purpose, I observe in Greek and Latin two different methods. Adjectives are declined as well as substantives; and declension serves to ascertain the connection that is betwixt them. If the word that expresses the subject be, for example, in the nominative case, so also must the word be that expresses its quality. Example,vir bonus. Again, verbs are related, on the one hand, to the agent; and, on the other, to the subject upon which the action is exerted. A contrivance similar to that now mentioned, serves to express this double relation. The nominative case is appropriated to the agent, the accusative to the passive subject; and the verb is put in the first second or third person, to correspond the more intimately with both. Examples:Ego amo Tulliam;tu amas Semproniam;Brutus amat Portiam. The other method is by juxtaposition, which is necessary with respect to words only that are not declined, adverbs for example, articles, prepositions, and conjunctions. In the English language there are few declensions; and therefore juxtaposition is our chief resource. Adjectives accompany their substantives[89]; an adverb accompanies the word it qualifies; and the verb occupies the middle place betwixt the active and passive subjects to which it relates.

It must be obvious, that those terms which have nothing relative in their signification,cannot be connected in so easy a manner. When two substantives happen to be connected, as cause and effect, as principal and accessory, or in any other manner, such connection cannot be expressed by contiguity solely; for words must often in a period be placed together which are not thus related. The relation betwixt substantives, therefore, cannot otherwise be expressed than by particles denoting the relation. Latin indeed and Greek, by their declensions, go a certain length to express such relations, without the aid of particles. The relation of property, for example, betwixt Cæsar and his horse is, expressed by putting the latter in the nominative case, the former in the genitive;equus Cæsaris. The like in English,Cæsar’s horse. But in other instances, declensions not being used in the English language, relations of this kind are commonly expressed by prepositions.

This form of connecting by prepositions, is not confined to substantives. Qualities, attributes, manner of existing or acting, and all other circumstances, may in the same manner be connected with the substantivesto which they relate. This is done artificially by converting the circumstance into a substantive, in which condition it is qualified to be connected with the principal subject by a preposition, in the manner above described. For example, the adjectivewisebeing converted into the substantivewisdom, gives opportunity for the expression “a manofwisdom,” instead of the more simple expression,a wise man. This variety in the expression, enriches language. I observe beside, that the using a preposition in this case, is not always a matter of choice. It is indispensable with respect to every circumstance that cannot be expressed by a single adjective or adverb.

To pave the way for the rules of arrangement, one other preliminary must be discussed, which is, to explain the difference betwixt a natural style, and that where transposition or inversion prevails. There are, it is true, no precise boundaries betwixt these two; for they run into each other, like the shades of different colours. No person however is at a loss to distinguish them in their extremes: and it is necessary to makethe distinction; because though some of the rules I shall have occasion to mention are common to both, yet each has rules peculiar to itself. In a natural style, relative words are by juxtaposition connected with those to which they relate, going before or after, according to the peculiar genius of the language. Again, a circumstance connected by a preposition, follows naturally the word with which it is connected. But this arrangement may be varied, when a different order is more beautiful. A circumstance may be placed before the word with which it is connected by a preposition; and may be interjected even betwixt a relative word and that to which it relates. When such liberties are frequently taken, the style becomes inverted or transposed.

But as the liberty of inversion is a capital point in handling the present subject, it will be necessary to examine it more narrowly, and in particular to trace the several degrees in which an inverted style recedes more and more from that which is natural. And first, as to the placing a circumstance before the word with which it is connected, I observe,that it is the easiest of all inversion, even so easy as to be consistent with a style that is properly termed natural. Witness the following examples.

In the sincerity of my heart, I profess,&c.By our own ill management, we are brought to so low an ebb of wealth and credit, that,&c.On Thursday morning there was little or nothing transacted in Change-alley.At St Bride’s church in Fleetstreet, Mr Woolston, (who writ against the miracles of our Saviour), in the utmost terrors of conscience made a public recantation.

In the sincerity of my heart, I profess,&c.

By our own ill management, we are brought to so low an ebb of wealth and credit, that,&c.

On Thursday morning there was little or nothing transacted in Change-alley.

At St Bride’s church in Fleetstreet, Mr Woolston, (who writ against the miracles of our Saviour), in the utmost terrors of conscience made a public recantation.

The interjecting a circumstance betwixt a relative word and that to which it relates, is more properly termed inversion; because, by a violent disjunction of words intimately connected, it recedes farther from a natural style. But this liberty has also degrees; for the disjunction is more violent in some cases than in others. This I must also explain: and to give a just notion of the difference, I must crave liberty of my reader to enter alittle more into an abstract subject, than would otherwise be my choice.

In nature, though a substance cannot exist without its qualities, nor a quality without a substance; yet in our conception of these, a material difference may be remarked. I cannot conceive a quality but as belonging to some subject: it makes indeed a part of the idea which is formed of the subject. But the opposite holds not. Though I cannot form a conception of a subject devoid of all qualities, a partial conception may however be formed of it, laying aside or abstracting from any particular quality. I can, for example, form the idea of a fine Arabian horse without regard to his colour, or of a white horse without regard to his size. Such partial conception of a subject, is still more easy with respect to action or motion; which is an occasional attribute only, and has not the same permanency with colour or figure. I cannot form an idea of motion independent of a body; but there is nothing more easy than to form an idea of a body at rest. Hence it appears, that the degree of inversion depends greatlyon the order in which the related words are placed. When a substantive occupies the first place, we cannot foresee what is to be said of it. The idea therefore which this word suggests, must subsist in the mind at least for a moment, independent of the relative words afterward introduced; and if it can so subsist, that moment may without difficulty be prolonged by interjecting a circumstance betwixt the substantive and its connections. Examples therefore of this kind, will scarce alone be sufficient to denominate a style inverted. The case is very different, where the word that occupies the first place, denotes a quality or an action; for as these cannot be conceived without a subject, they cannot without greater violence be separated from the subject that follows. And for that reason, every such separation by means of an interjected circumstance belongs to an inverted style.

To illustrate this doctrine examples being necessary, I shall begin with those where the word first introduced does not imply a relation.

—————— Nor Eve to iterateHer former trespass fear’d.———— Hunger and thirst at once,Powerful persuaders, quicken’d at the scentOf that alluring fruit, urg’d me so keen.Moon, that now meet’st the orient sun, now fli’stWith the fix’d stars, fix’d in their orb that flies,And ye five other wand’ring fires that moveIn mystic dance not without song, resoundHis praise.

—————— Nor Eve to iterateHer former trespass fear’d.

———— Hunger and thirst at once,Powerful persuaders, quicken’d at the scentOf that alluring fruit, urg’d me so keen.

Moon, that now meet’st the orient sun, now fli’stWith the fix’d stars, fix’d in their orb that flies,And ye five other wand’ring fires that moveIn mystic dance not without song, resoundHis praise.

In the following examples, where the word first introduced imports a relation, the disjunction will be found more violent.

Of man’s first disobedience, and the fruitOf that forbidden tree, whose mortal tasteBrought death into the world, and all our wo,With loss of Eden, till one greater manRestore us, and regain the blessful seat,Sing heav’nly muse.———— Upon the firm opacous globeOf this round world, whose first convex dividesThe luminous inferior orbs, inclos’dFrom chaos and th’ inroad of darkness oldSatan alighted walks.———— On a sudden open fly,With impetuous recoil and jarring sound,Th’ infernal doors.—————— Wherein remain’d,For what could else? to our almighty foeClear victory, to our part loss and rout.————;Forth rush’d with whirlwind soundThe chariot of paternal Deity.

———— Upon the firm opacous globeOf this round world, whose first convex dividesThe luminous inferior orbs, inclos’dFrom chaos and th’ inroad of darkness oldSatan alighted walks.

———— On a sudden open fly,With impetuous recoil and jarring sound,Th’ infernal doors.

—————— Wherein remain’d,For what could else? to our almighty foeClear victory, to our part loss and rout.

————;Forth rush’d with whirlwind soundThe chariot of paternal Deity.

Language would have no great power, were it confined to the natural order of ideas. A thousand beauties may be compassed by inversion, that must be relinquished in a natural arrangement. I shall soon have an opportunity to make this evident. In the mean time, it ought not to escape observation, that the mind of man is happily so constituted as to relish inversion, though in one respect unnatural; and to relish it so much, as in many cases to admit a violent disjunction of words that by the sense are intimately connected. I scarce can say that inversion has any limits; though I may venture to pronounce, that the disjunction of articles, conjunctions, or prepositions,from the words to which they belong, never has a good effect. The following example with relation to a preposition, is perhaps as tolerable as any of the kind.

He would neither separatefrom, nor act against them.

I give notice to the reader, that I am now ready to enter upon the rules of arrangement; beginning with a natural style, and proceeding gradually to what is the most inverted. And in the arrangement of a period, as well as in a right choice of words, the first and great object being perspicuity, it is above laid down as a rule, That perspicuity ought not to be sacrificed to any other beauty whatever. Ambiguities occasioned by a wrong arrangement are of two sorts; one where the arrangement leads to a wrong sense, and one where the sense is left doubtful. The first being the more culpable, shall take the lead, beginning with examples of words put in a wrong place.

How much the imagination of such a presence must exalt a genius, we may observemerelyfromthe influence which an ordinary presence has over men.Characteristics, vol. 1. p. 7.

How much the imagination of such a presence must exalt a genius, we may observemerelyfromthe influence which an ordinary presence has over men.

Characteristics, vol. 1. p. 7.

This arrangement leads to a wrong sense: The adverbmerelyseems by its position to affect the preceding word; whereas it is intended to affect the following wordsan ordinary presence; and therefore the arrangement ought to be thus.

How much the imagination of such a presence must exalt a genius, we may observe from the influence which an ordinary presence merely has over men.The time of the election of a poet-laureat being now at hand, it may be proper to give some account of the rites and ceremonies anciently used at that solemnity, and only discontinued through the neglect and degeneracy of later times.Guardian.

How much the imagination of such a presence must exalt a genius, we may observe from the influence which an ordinary presence merely has over men.

The time of the election of a poet-laureat being now at hand, it may be proper to give some account of the rites and ceremonies anciently used at that solemnity, and only discontinued through the neglect and degeneracy of later times.

Guardian.

The termonlyis intended to qualify the noundegeneracy, and not the participlediscontinued; and therefore the arrangement ought to be as follows.

———— and discontinued through the neglectand degeneracy only, of later times.Sixtus the Fourth was, if I mistake not, a great collector of books at least.Letters on history, vol. 1. let. 6.Bolingbroke.

———— and discontinued through the neglectand degeneracy only, of later times.

Sixtus the Fourth was, if I mistake not, a great collector of books at least.

Letters on history, vol. 1. let. 6.Bolingbroke.

The expression here leads evidently to a wrong sense. The adverbat least, ought not to be connected with the substantivebooks, but withcollector, thus:

Sixtus the Fourth was a great collector at least, of books.

Speaking of Lewis XIV.

If he was not the greatest king, he was the best actor of majesty at least, that ever filled a throne.Ibid. letter 7.

If he was not the greatest king, he was the best actor of majesty at least, that ever filled a throne.

Ibid. letter 7.

Better thus:

If he was not the greatest king, he was at least the best actor of majesty,&c.

This arrangement removes the wrong sense occasioned by the juxtaposition ofmajestyandat least.

The following examples are of the wrong arrangement of members.

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