I have confined myself to those methods for the advancement of piety, which are in the power of a prince limited like ours by a strict execution of the laws.A project for the advancement of religion.Swift.
I have confined myself to those methods for the advancement of piety, which are in the power of a prince limited like ours by a strict execution of the laws.
A project for the advancement of religion.Swift.
The structure of this period leads to a meaning which is not the author’s,viz.power limited by a strict execution of the laws. This wrong sense is removed by the following arrangement.
I have confined myself to those methods for the advancement of piety, which, by a strict execution of the laws, are in the power of a prince limited like ours.This morning when one of Lady Lizard’s daughters was looking over some hoods and ribands brought by her tirewoman, with great care and diligence, I employed no less in examining the box which contained them.Guardian, Nº 4.
I have confined myself to those methods for the advancement of piety, which, by a strict execution of the laws, are in the power of a prince limited like ours.
This morning when one of Lady Lizard’s daughters was looking over some hoods and ribands brought by her tirewoman, with great care and diligence, I employed no less in examining the box which contained them.
Guardian, Nº 4.
The wrong sense occasioned by this arrangement, may be easily prevented by varying it thus:
This morning when, with great care and diligence, one of Lady Lizard’s daughters was looking over some hoods and ribands,&c.A great stone that I happened to find after a long search by the sea-shore, served me for an anchor.Gulliver’s Travels, part 1. chap. 8.
This morning when, with great care and diligence, one of Lady Lizard’s daughters was looking over some hoods and ribands,&c.
A great stone that I happened to find after a long search by the sea-shore, served me for an anchor.
Gulliver’s Travels, part 1. chap. 8.
One would think that the search was confined to the sea-shore; but as the meaning is, that the great stone was found by the sea-shore, the period ought to be arranged thus:
A great stone, that, after a long search, I happened to find by the sea-shore, served me for anchor.
A great stone, that, after a long search, I happened to find by the sea-shore, served me for anchor.
Next of a wrong arrangement where the sense is left doubtful; beginning, as in the former sort, with examples of the wrong arrangement of words in a member.
These forms of conversationby degreesmultiplied and grew troublesome.Spectator, Nº 119.
These forms of conversationby degreesmultiplied and grew troublesome.
Spectator, Nº 119.
Here it is left doubtful whether the modificationby degreesrelate to the preceding member or to what follows. It should be,
These forms of conversation multiplied by degrees.Nor does this false modesty expose usonlyto such actions as are indiscreet, but very often to such as are highly criminal.Spectator, Nº 458.
These forms of conversation multiplied by degrees.
Nor does this false modesty expose usonlyto such actions as are indiscreet, but very often to such as are highly criminal.
Spectator, Nº 458.
The ambiguity is removed by the following arrangement.
Nor does this false modesty expose us to such actions only as are indiscreet,&c.The empire of Blefuscu is an island situated to the north-east side of Lilliput, from whence it is partedonlyby a channel of 800 yards wide.Gulliver’s Travels, part 1. chap. 5.
Nor does this false modesty expose us to such actions only as are indiscreet,&c.
The empire of Blefuscu is an island situated to the north-east side of Lilliput, from whence it is partedonlyby a channel of 800 yards wide.
Gulliver’s Travels, part 1. chap. 5.
The ambiguity may be removed thus:
———— from whence it is parted by a channelof 800 yards wide only.
———— from whence it is parted by a channelof 800 yards wide only.
———— from whence it is parted by a channelof 800 yards wide only.
In the following examples the sense is leftdoubtful by a wrong arrangement of members.
The minister who grows less by his elevation,like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal, will always have his jealousy strong about him.Dissertation upon parties, dedication.Bolingbroke.
The minister who grows less by his elevation,like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal, will always have his jealousy strong about him.
Dissertation upon parties, dedication.Bolingbroke.
Here, so far as can be gathered from the arrangement, it is doubtful, whether the object introduced by way of simile, relate to what goes before or to what follows. The ambiguity is removed by the following arrangement.
The minister who, like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal, grows less by his elevation, will always,&c.Since this is too much to ask of freemen, nay of slaves,if his expectation be not answered, shall he form a lasting division upon such transient motives?Ibid.
The minister who, like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal, grows less by his elevation, will always,&c.
Since this is too much to ask of freemen, nay of slaves,if his expectation be not answered, shall he form a lasting division upon such transient motives?
Ibid.
Better thus:
Since this is too much to ask of freemen, nay of slaves, shall he, if his expectation be not answered, form,&c.
Since this is too much to ask of freemen, nay of slaves, shall he, if his expectation be not answered, form,&c.
Speaking of the superstitious practice of locking up the room where a person of distinction dies:
The knight, seeing his habitation reduced to so small a compass, and himself in a manner shut out of his own house,upon the death of his motherordered all the apartments to be flung open, and exorcised by his chaplain.Spectator, Nº 110.
The knight, seeing his habitation reduced to so small a compass, and himself in a manner shut out of his own house,upon the death of his motherordered all the apartments to be flung open, and exorcised by his chaplain.
Spectator, Nº 110.
Better thus:
The knight, seeing his habitation reduced to so small a compass, and himself in a manner shut out of his own house, ordered, upon the death of his mother, all the apartments to be flung open.
The knight, seeing his habitation reduced to so small a compass, and himself in a manner shut out of his own house, ordered, upon the death of his mother, all the apartments to be flung open.
Speaking of some indecencies in conversation:
As it is impossible for such an irrational way of conversation to last long among a people that make any profession of religion, or show of modesty,if the country-gentlemen get into it, they will certainly be left in the lurch.Spectator, Nº. 119.
As it is impossible for such an irrational way of conversation to last long among a people that make any profession of religion, or show of modesty,if the country-gentlemen get into it, they will certainly be left in the lurch.
Spectator, Nº. 119.
The ambiguity vanishes in the following arrangement.
—— the country-gentlemen, if they get into it, will certainly be left in the lurch.
—— the country-gentlemen, if they get into it, will certainly be left in the lurch.
Speaking of a discovery in natural philosophy, that colour is not a quality of matter:
As this is a truth which has been proved incontestably by many modern philosophers, and is indeed one of the finest speculations in that science,if the English reader would see the notion explained at large, he may find it in the eighth chapter of the second book of Mr Locke’s essay on human understanding.Spectator, Nº 413.
As this is a truth which has been proved incontestably by many modern philosophers, and is indeed one of the finest speculations in that science,if the English reader would see the notion explained at large, he may find it in the eighth chapter of the second book of Mr Locke’s essay on human understanding.
Spectator, Nº 413.
Better thus:
As this is a truth,&c.the English reader, if he would see the notion explained at large, may find it,&c.A woman seldom asks advice before she has bought her wedding-cloaths. When she has made her own choice,for form’s sakeshe sends aconge d’elireto her friends.Ibid.Nº 475.
As this is a truth,&c.the English reader, if he would see the notion explained at large, may find it,&c.
A woman seldom asks advice before she has bought her wedding-cloaths. When she has made her own choice,for form’s sakeshe sends aconge d’elireto her friends.
Ibid.Nº 475.
Better thus:
—— she sends for form’s sake aconge d’elireto her friends.And since it is necessary that there should be a perpetual intercourse of buying and selling, anddealing upon credit,where fraud is permitted or connived at, or hath no law to punish it, the honest dealer is always undone, and the knave gets the advantage.Gulliver’s Travels, part 1. chap. 6.
—— she sends for form’s sake aconge d’elireto her friends.
And since it is necessary that there should be a perpetual intercourse of buying and selling, anddealing upon credit,where fraud is permitted or connived at, or hath no law to punish it, the honest dealer is always undone, and the knave gets the advantage.
Gulliver’s Travels, part 1. chap. 6.
Better thus:
And since it is necessary that there should be a perpetual intercourse of buying and selling, and dealing upon credit, the honest dealer, where fraud is permitted or connived at, or hath no law to punish it, is always undone, and the knave gets the advantage.
And since it is necessary that there should be a perpetual intercourse of buying and selling, and dealing upon credit, the honest dealer, where fraud is permitted or connived at, or hath no law to punish it, is always undone, and the knave gets the advantage.
From these examples, the following observation will readily occur, that a circumstance ought never to be placed betwixt two capital members of a period; for by such situation it must always be doubtful, so far as we gather from the arrangement, to which of the two members it belongs. Where it is interjected, as it ought to be, betwixt parts of the member to which it belongs, the ambiguity is removed, and the capital members are kept distinct, which is a great beauty in composition. In general, to preserve members distinct which signify things distinguished in the thought,the sure method is, to place first in the consequent member some word that cannot connect with what precedes it.
If by any one it shall be thought, that the objections here are too scrupulous, and that the defect of perspicuity is easily supplied by accurate punctuation; the answer is, That punctuation may remove an ambiguity, but will never produce that peculiar beauty which is felt when the sense comes out clearly and distinctly by means of a happy arrangement. Such influence has this beauty, that by a natural transition of feeling, it is communicated to the very sound of the words, so as in appearance to improve the music of the period. But as this curious subject comes in more properly afterward, it is sufficient at present to appeal to experience, that a period so arranged as to bring out the sense clear, seems always more musical than where the sense is left in any degree doubtful.
A rule deservedly occupying the second place, is, That words expressing things connected in the thought, ought to be placed as near together as possible. This rule isderived immediately from human nature, in which there is discovered a remarkable propensity to place together things that are in any manner connected[90]. Where things are arranged according to their connections, we have a sense of order: otherwise we have a sense of disorder, as of things placed by chance. And we naturally place words in the same order in which we would place the things they signify. The bad effect of a violent separation of words or members thus intimately connected, will appear from the following examples.
For the English are naturally fanciful, and very often disposed, by that gloominess and melancholy of temper which is so frequent in our nation, to many wild notions and visions, to which others are not so liable.Spectator, Nº 419.
For the English are naturally fanciful, and very often disposed, by that gloominess and melancholy of temper which is so frequent in our nation, to many wild notions and visions, to which others are not so liable.
Spectator, Nº 419.
Here the verb or assertion is, by a pretty long circumstance, violently separated from the subject to which it refers. This makes a harsh arrangement; the less excusable thatthe fault is easily prevented by placing the circumstance before the verb or assertion, after the following manner:
For the English are naturally fanciful, and, by that gloominess and melancholy of temper which is so frequent in our nation, are often disposed to many wild notions,&c.For as no mortal author, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, knows to what use his works may, some time or other, be applied,&c.Spectator, Nº 85.
For the English are naturally fanciful, and, by that gloominess and melancholy of temper which is so frequent in our nation, are often disposed to many wild notions,&c.
For as no mortal author, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, knows to what use his works may, some time or other, be applied,&c.
Spectator, Nº 85.
Better thus:
For as, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, no mortal author knows to what use, some time or other, his works may be apply’d.From whence we may date likewise the rivalship of the house of France, for we may reckon that of the Valois and that of Bourbon as one upon this occasion, and the house of Austria, that continues at this day, and has oft cost so much blood and so much treasure in the course of it.Letters on history, vol. 1. letter 6. Bolingbroke.It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore in such a country, whatever it might be in the Abbot of St Real’s, which was Savoy I think; or in Peru, under the Incas, where Garcilasso de la Vega says it was lawful for none but the nobility to study—for men of all degrees to instruct themselves in those affairs wherein they may be actors, or judges of those that act, or controllers of those that judge.Letters on history, vol. 1. letter 5. Bolingbroke.
For as, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, no mortal author knows to what use, some time or other, his works may be apply’d.
From whence we may date likewise the rivalship of the house of France, for we may reckon that of the Valois and that of Bourbon as one upon this occasion, and the house of Austria, that continues at this day, and has oft cost so much blood and so much treasure in the course of it.
Letters on history, vol. 1. letter 6. Bolingbroke.
It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore in such a country, whatever it might be in the Abbot of St Real’s, which was Savoy I think; or in Peru, under the Incas, where Garcilasso de la Vega says it was lawful for none but the nobility to study—for men of all degrees to instruct themselves in those affairs wherein they may be actors, or judges of those that act, or controllers of those that judge.
Letters on history, vol. 1. letter 5. Bolingbroke.
If Scipio, who was naturally given to women, for which anecdote we have, if I mistake not, the authority of Polybius, as well as some verses of Nevius preserved by Aulus Gellius, had been educated by Olympias at the court of Philip, it is improbable that he would have restored the beautiful Spaniard.Ibid. letter 3.
If Scipio, who was naturally given to women, for which anecdote we have, if I mistake not, the authority of Polybius, as well as some verses of Nevius preserved by Aulus Gellius, had been educated by Olympias at the court of Philip, it is improbable that he would have restored the beautiful Spaniard.
Ibid. letter 3.
If any one have a curiosity for more specimens of this kind, they will be found without number in the works of the same author.
A pronoun, which saves the naming a person or thing a second time, ought to be placed as near as possible to the name of that person or thing. This is a branch ofthe foregoing rule; and with the reason there given, another concurs,viz.That if other ideas intervene, it is difficult to recal the person or thing by reference.
If I had leave to print the Latin letters transmitted to me from foreign parts, they would fill a volume, and be a full defence against all that Mr. Partridge, or his accomplices of the Portugal inquisition, will be ever able to object;who, by the way, are the only enemies my predictions have ever met with at home or abroad.
If I had leave to print the Latin letters transmitted to me from foreign parts, they would fill a volume, and be a full defence against all that Mr. Partridge, or his accomplices of the Portugal inquisition, will be ever able to object;who, by the way, are the only enemies my predictions have ever met with at home or abroad.
Better thus:
—— and be a full defence against all that can be objected by Mr. Partridge, or his accomplices of the Portugal inquisition; who, by the way, are,&c.
—— and be a full defence against all that can be objected by Mr. Partridge, or his accomplices of the Portugal inquisition; who, by the way, are,&c.
There being a round million of creatures in human figure, throughout this kingdom,whosewhole subsistence,&c.A modest proposal, &c.Swift.
There being a round million of creatures in human figure, throughout this kingdom,whosewhole subsistence,&c.
A modest proposal, &c.Swift.
Better:
There being, throughout this kingdom, a round million of creatures in human figure, whose whole subsistence,&c.Tom is a lively impudent clown, and has wit enough to have made him a pleasant companion, haditbeen polished and rectified by good manners.Guardian, Nº 162.
There being, throughout this kingdom, a round million of creatures in human figure, whose whole subsistence,&c.
Tom is a lively impudent clown, and has wit enough to have made him a pleasant companion, haditbeen polished and rectified by good manners.
Guardian, Nº 162.
It is the custom of the Mahometans, if they see any printed or written paper upon the ground, to take it up, and lay it aside carefully, as not knowing but it may contain some piece of their Alcoran.Spectator, Nº 85.
It is the custom of the Mahometans, if they see any printed or written paper upon the ground, to take it up, and lay it aside carefully, as not knowing but it may contain some piece of their Alcoran.
Spectator, Nº 85.
The arrangement here leads to a wrong sense, as if the ground were taken up, not the paper. Better thus:
It is the custom of the Mahometans, if they see upon the ground any printed or written paper, to take it up,&c.
It is the custom of the Mahometans, if they see upon the ground any printed or written paper, to take it up,&c.
The following rule depends on the communication of emotions or feelings to related objects, a principle in human nature we have had more than one occasion to mention. We find this operation, even where the objects are not otherwise related than by the juxtaposition of the words that express them. Hence to elevate or depress an object, one method is, to join it in the arrangement to another that is naturally high or low. Witness the following speech of Eumenes to the Roman senate.
Causam veniendi sibi Romam fuisse, præter cupiditatem visendideos hominesque, quorum beneficio in ea fortuna esset, supra quam ne optare quidem auderet, etiam ut coram moneret senatum ut Persei conatus obviam iret.Livy, l. 42. cap. 11.
Causam veniendi sibi Romam fuisse, præter cupiditatem visendideos hominesque, quorum beneficio in ea fortuna esset, supra quam ne optare quidem auderet, etiam ut coram moneret senatum ut Persei conatus obviam iret.
Livy, l. 42. cap. 11.
To join the Romans with the gods in the same enunciation, is an artful stroke of flattery, because it tacitly puts them on a level. On the other hand, when the purpose is to degrade or vilify an object, this is done successfully by ranking it with one that is really low:
I hope to have this entertainment in a readiness for the next winter; and doubt not but it will please more than the opera or puppet-show.Spectator, Nº 28.
I hope to have this entertainment in a readiness for the next winter; and doubt not but it will please more than the opera or puppet-show.
Spectator, Nº 28.
Manifold have been the judgments which Heaven from time to time, for the chastisement of a sinful people, has inflicted upon whole nations. For when the degeneracy becomes common, ’tis butjust the punishment should be general. Of this kind, in our own unfortunate country, was that destructive pestilence, whose mortality was so fatal as to sweep away, if Sir William Petty may be believed, five millions of Christian souls, besides women and Jews.God’s revenge against punning. Arbuthnot.
Manifold have been the judgments which Heaven from time to time, for the chastisement of a sinful people, has inflicted upon whole nations. For when the degeneracy becomes common, ’tis butjust the punishment should be general. Of this kind, in our own unfortunate country, was that destructive pestilence, whose mortality was so fatal as to sweep away, if Sir William Petty may be believed, five millions of Christian souls, besides women and Jews.
God’s revenge against punning. Arbuthnot.
Such also was that dreadful conflagration ensuing in this famous metropolis of London, which consumed, according to the computation of Sir Samuel Morland, 100,000 houses, not to mention churches and stables.Ibid.
Such also was that dreadful conflagration ensuing in this famous metropolis of London, which consumed, according to the computation of Sir Samuel Morland, 100,000 houses, not to mention churches and stables.
Ibid.
But on condition it might pass into a law, I would gladly exempt both lawyers of all ages, subaltern and field officers, young heirs, dancing-masters, pickpockets, and players.An infallible scheme to pay the public debts. Swift.
But on condition it might pass into a law, I would gladly exempt both lawyers of all ages, subaltern and field officers, young heirs, dancing-masters, pickpockets, and players.
An infallible scheme to pay the public debts. Swift.
Circumstances in a period resemble small stones in a building employ’d to fill up vacancies among those of a larger size. In the arrangement of a period, such under-parts crowded together make a poor figure; and never are graceful but when interspersed among the capital parts. I shall illustrate this rule by the following example.
It is likewise urged, that there are, by computation, in this kingdom, above 10,000 parsons, whose revenues, added to those of my Lords the bishops, would suffice to maintain,&c.Argument against abolishing Christianity. Swift.
It is likewise urged, that there are, by computation, in this kingdom, above 10,000 parsons, whose revenues, added to those of my Lords the bishops, would suffice to maintain,&c.
Argument against abolishing Christianity. Swift.
Here two circumstances,viz. by computationandin this kingdom, are crowded together unnecessarily. They make a better appearance separated in the following manner.
It is likewise urged, that in this kingdom there are, by computation, above 10,000 parsons,&c.
It is likewise urged, that in this kingdom there are, by computation, above 10,000 parsons,&c.
If there be room for a choice, the sooner a circumstance be introduced, the better. Circumstances are proper for that coolness of mind, with which a period as well as a work is commenced. In the progress, the mind warms, and has a greater relish for matters of importance. When a circumstance is placed at the beginning or near the beginning of the period, the transition from it to the principal subject is agreeable: it is like ascending or mounting upward. On the other hand, to place it late in the period has a bad effect; for after being engaged inthe principal subject, one is with reluctance brought down to give attention to a circumstance. Hence evidently the preference of the following arrangement,
Whether in any country a choice altogether unexceptionable has been made, seems doubtful,
Whether in any country a choice altogether unexceptionable has been made, seems doubtful,
before this other,
Whether a choice altogether unexceptionable has in any country been made,&c.
Whether a choice altogether unexceptionable has in any country been made,&c.
For this reason the following period is exceptionable in point of arrangement:
I have considered formerly, with a good deal of attention, the subject upon which you command me to communicate my thoughts to you.Bolingbroke of the study of history, letter 1.
I have considered formerly, with a good deal of attention, the subject upon which you command me to communicate my thoughts to you.
Bolingbroke of the study of history, letter 1.
which, with a slight alteration, may be improved thus:
I have formerly, with a good deal of attention, considered the subject,&c.
I have formerly, with a good deal of attention, considered the subject,&c.
The bad effect of placing a circumstancelast or late in a period, will appear from the following examples.
Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds the reins of the whole creation in his hand.Spectator, Nº 12.
Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds the reins of the whole creation in his hand.
Spectator, Nº 12.
Better thus:
Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him, who, in his hand, holds the reins of the whole creation.
Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him, who, in his hand, holds the reins of the whole creation.
Virgil, who has cast the whole system of Platonic philosophy, so far as it relates to the soul of man, into beautiful allegories,in the sixth book of his Æneid, gives us the punishment,&c.Spectator, Nº 90.
Virgil, who has cast the whole system of Platonic philosophy, so far as it relates to the soul of man, into beautiful allegories,in the sixth book of his Æneid, gives us the punishment,&c.
Spectator, Nº 90.
Better thus:
Virgil, who in the sixth book of his Æneid has cast,&c.
Virgil, who in the sixth book of his Æneid has cast,&c.
And Philip the Fourth was obliged at last to conclude a peace, on terms repugnant to his inclination, to that of his people, to the interest of Spain, and to that of all Europe, in the Pyrenean treaty.Letters on history, vol. 1. letter 6. Bolingbroke.
And Philip the Fourth was obliged at last to conclude a peace, on terms repugnant to his inclination, to that of his people, to the interest of Spain, and to that of all Europe, in the Pyrenean treaty.
Letters on history, vol. 1. letter 6. Bolingbroke.
Better thus:
And at last, in the Pyrenean treaty, Philip the Fourth was obliged to conclude a peace,&c.
And at last, in the Pyrenean treaty, Philip the Fourth was obliged to conclude a peace,&c.
In arranging a period, it is of importance to determine in what part of it a word makes the greatest figure, whether in the beginning, during the currency, or at the close. The breaking silence rouses the attention to what is said; and therefore deeper impression is made at the beginning than during the currency. The beginning, however, must yield to the close; which being succeeded by a pause, affords time for a word to make its deepest impression. Hence the following rule, That to give the utmost force to a period, it ought if possible to be closed with that word which makes the greatest figure. The opportunity of a pause should not be thrown away upon accessories, but reserved for the principal object, in order that it may make a full impression. This is an additional reason against closing a period with a circumstance. There are however periods that admit not this structure;and in that case, the capital word ought if possible to be placed in the front, which next to the close is the most advantageous for making an impression. Hence, in directing our discourse to any man, we ought to begin with his name; and one will be sensible of a degradation, when this rule is neglected, as it frequently is for the sake of verse. I give the following examples.
Integer vitæ, scelerisque purus,Non eget Mauris jaculi, neque arcu,Nec venenatis gravidâ sagittis,Fusce, pharetrâ.Horat. Carm. l. 1. ode 22.
Integer vitæ, scelerisque purus,Non eget Mauris jaculi, neque arcu,Nec venenatis gravidâ sagittis,Fusce, pharetrâ.Horat. Carm. l. 1. ode 22.
Integer vitæ, scelerisque purus,Non eget Mauris jaculi, neque arcu,Nec venenatis gravidâ sagittis,Fusce, pharetrâ.Horat. Carm. l. 1. ode 22.
Je crains Dieu, cher Abner, et n’ai point d’autre crainte.
Je crains Dieu, cher Abner, et n’ai point d’autre crainte.
In these examples the name of the person addressed to makes a mean figure, being like a circumstance slipt into a corner. That this criticism is well founded, we need no other proof than Addison’s translation of the last example.
O Abner! I fear my God, and I fear none but him.Guardian, Nº 117.
O Abner! I fear my God, and I fear none but him.
Guardian, Nº 117.
O father, what intends thy hand, she cry’d,Against thy only son? What fury, O son,Possesses thee to bend that mortal dartAgainst thy father’s head?Paradise Lost, book 2. l. 727.
O father, what intends thy hand, she cry’d,Against thy only son? What fury, O son,Possesses thee to bend that mortal dartAgainst thy father’s head?Paradise Lost, book 2. l. 727.
O father, what intends thy hand, she cry’d,Against thy only son? What fury, O son,Possesses thee to bend that mortal dartAgainst thy father’s head?Paradise Lost, book 2. l. 727.
Every one must be sensible of a dignity in the invocation at the beginning, which that in the middle is far from reaching. I mean not however to censure this expression. On the contrary it appears beautiful, by distinguishing the respect due to a father and to a son.
The substance of what is said in this and the foregoing section, upon the method of arranging the words of a period so as to make the strongest impression with respect to sound as well as signification, is comprehended in the following observation. That order of the words in a period will always be the most agreeable, where, without obscuring the sense, the most important images, the most sonorous words, and the longest members, bring up the rear.
Hitherto of arranging single words, single members, and single circumstances. But the enumeration of many particulars in the same period is often necessary; and the question is, In what order they should be placed. It does not seem easy at first view to bring a subject apparently so loose under any general rules. But luckily reflecting upon what is said in the first chapter about order, we find rules laid down to our hand, so as to leave us no harder task than their application to the present question. And, first, with respect to the enumerating a number of particulars of equal rank, it is laid down in the place cited, that as there is no foundation for preferring any one before the rest, it is indifferent to the mind in what order they be viewed. And it is only necessary to be added here, that for the same reason, it is indifferent in what order they be named. 2dly, If a number of objects of the same kind, differing only in size, are to be ranged along a straightline, the most agreeable order to the eye is that of an increasing series. In surveying a number of such objects, beginning at the least and proceeding to greater and greater, the mind swells gradually with the successive objects, and in its progress has a very sensible pleasure. Precisely for the same reason, the words expressive of such objects ought to be placed in the same order. The beauty of this figure, which may be termeda climax in sense, has escaped Lord Bolingbroke in the first member of the following period.
Let but one great, brave, disinterested, active man arise, and he will be received, followed, and almost adored.
Let but one great, brave, disinterested, active man arise, and he will be received, followed, and almost adored.
The following arrangement has sensibly a better effect.
Let but one brave, great, active, disinterested man arise,&c.
Let but one brave, great, active, disinterested man arise,&c.
Whether the same rule ought to be followed in enumerating men of different ranks, seems doubtful. On the one hand, a procession of a number of persons, presenting the lowest class first, and rising upon the eye in succession till it terminate upon the highest, is undoubtedly the most agreeable order. On the other hand, in every list of names, it is customary to set the person of the greatest dignity at the top, and to descend gradually through his inferiors. Where the purpose is to honour the persons named according to their rank, the latter order ought to be followed; but every one who regards himself only, or his reader, will chuse the former order. 3dly, As the sense of order directs the eye to descend from the principal to its greatest accessory, and from the whole to its greatest part, and in the same order through all the parts and accessories till we arrive at the minutest; the same order ought to be followed in the enumeration of such particulars. I shall give one familiar example. Talking of the parts of a column,viz.the base, the shaft, the capital, these are capable of six different arrangements, and the question is, Which is the best? When one has in view the erection of a column, he will naturally be led to express the parts in the order above mentioned; which at the same time is agreeable by mounting upward. But considering the column as it stands without reference to its erection, the sense of order, as observed above, requires the chief part to be named first. For that reason we begin with the shaft; and the base comes next in order, that we may ascend from it to the capital. Lastly, In tracing the particulars of any natural operation, order requires that we follow the course of nature. Historical facts are related in the order of time. We begin at the founder of a family, and proceed from him to his descendents. But in describing a lofty oak, we begin with the trunk, and ascend to the branches.
When force and liveliness of expression are aimed at, the rule is, to suspend the thought as much as possible, and to bring it out full and entire at the close. This cannot be done but by inverting the natural arrangement, and by introducing a word or member before its time. By such inversion our curiosity is raised about what isto follow; and it is agreeable to have our curiosity gratified at the close of the period. Such arrangement produceth on the mind an effect similar to a stroke exerted upon the body by the whole collected force of the agent. On the other hand, where a period is so constructed as to admit more than one complete close in the sense, the curiosity of the reader is exhausted at the first close, and what follows appears languid or superfluous. His disappointment contributes also to this appearance, when he finds, that, contrary to his expectation, the period is not yet finished. Cicero, and after him Quintilian, recommend the verb to the last place. This method evidently tends to suspend the sense till the close of the period; for without the verb the sense cannot be complete. And when the verb happens to be the capital word, which is frequently the case, it ought at any rate to be put last, according to another rule, above laid down. I proceed as usual to illustrate this rule by examples. The following period is placed in its natural order.
Were instruction an essential circumstance in epic poetry, I doubt whether a single instance could be given of this species of composition, in any language.
Were instruction an essential circumstance in epic poetry, I doubt whether a single instance could be given of this species of composition, in any language.
The period thus arranged admits a full close upon the wordcomposition; after which it goes on languidly, and closes without force. This blemish will be avoided by the following arrangement.
Were instruction an essential circumstance in epic poetry, I doubt whether, in any language, a single instance could be given of this species of composition.
Were instruction an essential circumstance in epic poetry, I doubt whether, in any language, a single instance could be given of this species of composition.
Some of our most eminent divines have made use of this Platonic notion, as far as it regards the subsistence of our passions after death, with great beauty and strength of reason.Spectator, Nº 90.
Some of our most eminent divines have made use of this Platonic notion, as far as it regards the subsistence of our passions after death, with great beauty and strength of reason.
Spectator, Nº 90.
Better thus:
Some of our most eminent divines have, with great beauty and strength of reason, made use of this Platonic notion,&c.
Some of our most eminent divines have, with great beauty and strength of reason, made use of this Platonic notion,&c.
Men of the best sense have been touched, more or less, with these groundless horrors and presages of futurity, upon surveying the most indifferent works of nature.Spectator, Nº 505.
Men of the best sense have been touched, more or less, with these groundless horrors and presages of futurity, upon surveying the most indifferent works of nature.
Spectator, Nº 505.
Better:
Upon surveying the most indifferent works of nature, men of the best sense,&c.
Upon surveying the most indifferent works of nature, men of the best sense,&c.
She soon informed him of the place he was in, which, notwithstanding all its horrors, appeared to him more sweet than the bower of Mahomet, in the company of his Balsora.Guardian, Nº 167.
She soon informed him of the place he was in, which, notwithstanding all its horrors, appeared to him more sweet than the bower of Mahomet, in the company of his Balsora.
Guardian, Nº 167.
Better:
She soon,&c.appeared to him, in the company of his Balsora, more sweet,&c.
She soon,&c.appeared to him, in the company of his Balsora, more sweet,&c.
The Emperor was so intent on the establishment of his absolute power in Hungary, that he exposed the Empire doubly to desolation and ruin for the sake of it.Letters on history, vol. 1. let. 7. Bolingbroke.
The Emperor was so intent on the establishment of his absolute power in Hungary, that he exposed the Empire doubly to desolation and ruin for the sake of it.
Letters on history, vol. 1. let. 7. Bolingbroke.
Better:
—— that for the sake of it he exposed the Empire doubly to desolation and ruin.
—— that for the sake of it he exposed the Empire doubly to desolation and ruin.
None of the rules for the composition of periods are more liable to be abused, than those last mentioned: witness many Latin writers, among the moderns especially, whose style, by inversions too violent, is rendered harsh and obscure. Suspension of the thought till the close of the period, ought never to be preferred before perspicuity. Neither ought such suspension to be attempted in a long period; because in that case the mind is bewildered among a profusion of words. A traveller, while he is puzzled about the road, relishes not the finest prospects.
All the rich presents which Astyages had given him at parting, keeping only some Median horses, in order to propagate the breed of them in Persia, he distributed among his friends whom he left at the court of Ecbatana.Travels of Cyrus, book 1.
All the rich presents which Astyages had given him at parting, keeping only some Median horses, in order to propagate the breed of them in Persia, he distributed among his friends whom he left at the court of Ecbatana.
Travels of Cyrus, book 1.
The foregoing rules concern the arrangement of a single period. I shall add one rule more concerning the distribution of a discourse into different periods. A short period is lively and familiar. A long period, requiring more attention, makes an impression grave and solemn. In general, a writer ought to study a mixture of long and short periods, which prevents an irksome uniformity, and entertains the mind with variety of impressions. In particular, long periods ought to be avoided till the reader’s attention be thoroughly engaged; and therefore a discourse, especially of the familiar kind, ought never to be introduced with a long period. For that reason, the commencement of a letter to a very young lady on her marriage is faulty.
Madam, The hurry and impertinence of receiving and paying visits on account of your marriage, being now over, you are beginning to enter into a course of life, where you will want much advice to divert you from falling into many errors, fopperies, and follies, to which your sex is subject.Swift.
Madam, The hurry and impertinence of receiving and paying visits on account of your marriage, being now over, you are beginning to enter into a course of life, where you will want much advice to divert you from falling into many errors, fopperies, and follies, to which your sex is subject.
Swift.
See a stronger example in the commencement of Cicero’s oration,Pro Archia poeta.
Before we proceed farther, it may be proper to take a review of the rules laiddown in this and the preceding section, in order to make some general observations. The natural order of the words and members of a period, is undoubtedly the same with the natural order of the ideas that compose the thought. The tendency of many of the foregoing rules, is to substitute an artificial arrangement, in order to reach some beauty either of sound or meaning that cannot be reached in the natural order. But seldom it happens, that in the same period there is place for a plurality of these rules. If one beauty can be catched, another must be relinquished. The only question is, Which ought to be preferred? This is a question that cannot be resolved by any general rule. But practice, supported by a good taste, will in most instances make the choice easy. The component words and members of a period, are ascertained by the subject. If the natural order be not relished, a few trials will discover that artificial order which has the best effect. All that can be said in general is, that in making a choice, sound ought to yield to signification.
The transposing words and members out of their natural order, so remarkable in the learned languages, has been the subject of much speculation. It is agreed on all hands, that such transposition or inversion bestows upon a period a very sensible degree of force and elevation; and yet writers seem to be at a loss in what manner to account for this effect. Cerçeau[91]ascribes so much power to inversion, as to make it the characteristic of French verse, and the single circumstance which in that language distinguishes verse from prose. And yet he pretends not to say, that it hath any other power but to raise surprise; he must mean curiosity; which is done by suspending the thought during the period, and bringing it out entire at the close. This indeed is one power of inversion; but neither its sole power, nor even that which is the most remarkable, as is made plain above. But waving censure, which is not an agreeable task, I enter into the matter. And I begin with observing, that if a conformity betwixt words and theirmeaning be agreeable, it must of course be agreeable to find the same order or arrangement in both. Hence the beauty of a plain or natural style, where the order of the words corresponds precisely to the order of the ideas. Nor is this the single beauty of a natural style: it is also agreeable upon account of its simplicity and perspicuity. This observation throws light upon the subject. For if a natural style be in itself agreeable, a transposed style cannot be so. And therefore, it cannot otherwise be agreeable, but as contributing to some positive beauty which is excluded in a natural style. To be confirmed in this opinion, we need but reflect upon some of the foregoing rules, which make it evident, that language, by means of inversion, is susceptible of many beauties that are totally excluded in a natural arrangement of words. From these premisses it clearly follows, that inversion ought not to be indulged, unless in order to reach some beauty superior to that of a natural style. It may with great certainty be pronounced, that every inversion which is not governed bythis rule, will appear harsh and strained, and be disrelished by every one of taste. Hence the beauty of inversion when happily conducted; the beauty, not of an end, but of means, as furnishing opportunity for numberless ornaments that find no place in a natural style. Hence the force, the elevation, the harmony, the cadence, of some compositions. Hence the manifold beauties of the Greek and Roman tongues, of which living languages afford but faint imitations.
Beauty of language from a resemblance betwixt sound and signification.
THE resemblance betwixt the sound and signification of certain words, is a beauty, which has escaped no critical writer, and yet is not handled with accuracy by any of them. They have probably been erroneously of opinion, that a beauty so obvious in the feeling, requires no explanation in the understanding. In order to supply this defect, I shall give examples of the various resemblances betwixt sound and signification; and at the same time shall endeavour to explain why such resemblances are beautiful. I begin with examples where the resemblance betwixt the sound and signification is the most entire; proceeding to others, where the resemblance is less and less so.
There being frequently a strong resemblance betwixt different sounds, it will not be surprising to find a natural sound imitated by one that is articulate. Thus the sound of a bow-string is imitated by the words that express it.
———— The string let fly,Twang’d short and sharp, like the shrill swallow’s cry.Odysseyxxi. 449.
———— The string let fly,Twang’d short and sharp, like the shrill swallow’s cry.Odysseyxxi. 449.
———— The string let fly,Twang’d short and sharp, like the shrill swallow’s cry.Odysseyxxi. 449.
The sound of felling trees in a wood:
Loud sounds the ax, redoubling strokes on strokes;On all sides round the forest hurls her oaksHeadlong. Deep-echoing groan the thickets brown,Thenrustling,crackling,crashing, thunder down.Iliad, xxiii. 144.
Loud sounds the ax, redoubling strokes on strokes;On all sides round the forest hurls her oaksHeadlong. Deep-echoing groan the thickets brown,Thenrustling,crackling,crashing, thunder down.Iliad, xxiii. 144.
Loud sounds the ax, redoubling strokes on strokes;On all sides round the forest hurls her oaksHeadlong. Deep-echoing groan the thickets brown,Thenrustling,crackling,crashing, thunder down.Iliad, xxiii. 144.
But when loud surges lash the sounding shoreThe hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar!Pope’s Essay on Criticism, 369.
But when loud surges lash the sounding shoreThe hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar!Pope’s Essay on Criticism, 369.
But when loud surges lash the sounding shoreThe hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar!
Pope’s Essay on Criticism, 369.
No person can be at a loss about the cause of this beauty. It is obviously that of imitation.
That there is any other natural resemblance betwixt sound and signification, must not be taken for granted. There is evidently no resemblance betwixt sound and motion, nor betwixt sound and sentiment. In this matter, we are apt to be deceived by artful reading or pronouncing. The same passage may be pronounced in many different tones, elevated or humble, sweet or harsh, brisk or melancholy, so as to accord with the thought or sentiment. Such concord, depending on artful pronunciation, must be distinguished from that concord betwixt sound and sense, which is perceived in some expressions independent of artful pronunciation. The latter is the poet’s work: the former must be attributed to the reader. Another thing contributes still more to the deceit. In language, sound and sense are so intimately connected, as that the properties of the one are readily communicated to the other. An emotion of grandeur, of sweetness, of melancholy, or of compassion, though occasioned by the thought solely, is transferred upon the words, which by that means resemble in appearance the thought that is expressed by them[92]. I have great reason to recommend these observations to my reader, considering how inaccurately the present subject is handled by critics. Not one of them distinguishes the natural resemblance of sound and signification, from the artificial resemblance now described. Witness Vida in particular, who in a very long passage has given very few examples, but what are of the latter kind[93].
That there may be a resemblance betwixt natural and artificial sounds, is self-evident;and that in fact there exist such resemblances successfully employ’d by writers of genius, is clear from the foregoing examples, and many others that might be given. But we may safely pronounce, that this natural resemblance can be carried no farther. The objects of the several senses, differ so widely from each other as to exclude any resemblance. Sound in particular, whether articulate or inarticulate, resembles not in any degree taste, smell, or motion; and as little can it resemble any internal sentiment, feeling, or emotion. But must we then agree, that nothing but natural sound can be imitated by that which is articulate? Taking imitation in its proper sense, as involving a resemblance betwixt two objects, the proposition must be admitted. And yet in many passages that are not descriptive of natural sound, every one must be sensible of a peculiar concord betwixt the sound of the words and their meaning. As there can be no doubt of the fact, what remains is, to inquire into its cause.
Resembling causes may produce effects that have no resemblance; and causes thathave no resemblance may produce resembling effects. A magnificent building, for example, resembles not in any degree an heroic action; and yet the emotions they produce, being concordant, bear a resemblance to each other. We are still more sensible of this resemblance, in a song where the music is properly adjusted to the sentiment. There is no resemblance betwixt thought and sound; but there is the strongest resemblance betwixt the emotion raised by music tender and pathetic, and that raised by the complaint of an unsuccessful lover. To apply these examples to the present subject, I observe, that the sound even of a single word makes, in some instances, an impression resembling that which is made by the thing it signifies; witness the wordrunning, composed of two short syllables; and more remarkably the wordsrapidity,impetuosity,precipitation. Brutal manners produce in the spectator, an emotion not unlike what is produced by a harsh and rough sound. Hence the figurative expression,ruggedmanners; an expression peculiarly agreeable by the relation of the sound to the sense.Again, the wordlittle, being pronounced with a very small aperture of the mouth, has a weak and faint sound, which makes an impression resembling that made by any diminutive object. This resemblance of effects, is still more remarkable where a number of words are connected together in a period. Words pronounced in succession make often a strong impression; and when this impression happens to accord with that made by the sense, a peculiar pleasure arises. The thought or sentiment produces one pleasant emotion: the melody or tone of the words produces another. But the chief pleasure proceeds from having these two concordant emotions combined in perfect harmony, and carried on in the mind to a full close[94]. Except in the single case where sound is described, all the examples given by critics of sense being imitated in sound, resolve into a resemblance of effects. Emotions raised by sound and signification may have a resemblance; but sound itself cannot have a resemblance to any thing but sound.
Proceeding now to particulars, and beginning with those cases where the emotions have the strongest resemblance, I observe, first, That in pronouncing a number of syllables in succession, an emotion is sometimes raised extremely similar to that raised by successive motion. This may be made evident even to those who are defective in taste, by the following fact, that the termmovementin all languages is equally apply’d to both. In this manner, successive motion, such as walking, running, galloping, can be imitated by a succession of long or short syllables, or by a due mixture of both. For example, slow motion may be aptly imitated in a verse where long syllables prevail; especially when aided by a slow pronunciation: