CHAPTER IV

Tools

27. How to purchase tools.—(A.) The quality of the tools used by the mechanic is of the greatest importance. They should be selected carefully, and while it is the poorest economy to buy anything but the best, the best are not necessarily the most finely finished.

(B.) In purchasing tools, it is well to remember that those made especially for some dealer, and bearing his name, if sold for a less price than the best, are usually not of the highest grade, and should be shunned. It is wisest to buy standard makes, examining them carefully to be sure that there are no visible defects. The temper of steel may be discovered only by use, and any defects in the best grades of tools is made good upon complaint to the dealer.

28. Benches.—(A.) Figure 25 shows the type of bench used in the most up-to-date carpenter and cabinet shops, while that used by carpenters for ordinary work usually is of the type shown in Fig. 26.

(B.) In many manual-training schools, the benches are of the former type, and in the most completely equipped schools, are fitted with locked drawers and closets for the reception of tools, not only to keep the latter in condition for use, but to insure that the set of tools is complete, and to be able to place the responsibility for damage or loss.

Fig. 25.—Manual-training Bench.

Fig. 26.—Carpenter’s Bench.

(C.) Thevisesshould be of the modern, quick action design, which, on account of the rapidity with which they work, are superseding the old-fashioned wooden and iron screw vises.

Fig. 27.—Two-foot, Four-fold Rule.

Fig. 28.—ZigzagRule.

29. Rules.—The two-foot, four-foldrule(Fig. 27) is the one generally used by carpenters. It is made of different grades, the more expensive makes being divided into 16ths, 8ths, 10ths, and 12ths, and having the ⅛“, ¼”, ⅜“, ½”, ¾“, 1”, 1½“, and 3” scales upon them. Although the cheaper rule is just as accurate, it is divided usually into 8ths and 16ths only. The form of rule shown in Fig. 28 is becoming quite popular, as it is longer. Since rules are easily lost or broken, many workmen have a good rule for scaling, and a cheaper one for general work.

30. The try-square(A.) consists of the beam (Fig. 29,a), which is generally of metal-lined wood, and the blade (b), which is a thin piece of steel.

(B.) Too much care cannot be exercised in the selection of this tool, as one which is not perfectly true maycause much trouble. To test a square, hold the beam against a perfectly straight and square edge of a board which is wide enough to allow a knife line to be made theentire length of the blade. Then turn the square over, the other side up, and, holding the beam against the same edge, move the blade to the line. If the jointed edge of the board and the square are perfectly accurate, the knife line and the edge of the board will perfectly coincide.

Fig. 29.—Position of Try-square in Squaring an Edge.

Fig. 30.—Use of Two Try-squares to See if Piece of Wood is “Outof Wind.”

Fig. 31.—Position of Try-square whenMaking Line.

(C.) The use of this tool in squaring an edge is shown in Fig. 29. The piece being squared should be in such a position that the try-square will be between the eye and the light; in this way, the slightest inaccuracy may be detected. In Fig. 31 is shown the position of the try-square when used to make a line by the edge of the blade. If working from the edge indicated, hold the beam against the edge with the thumb, and at the same time hold the blade down with one or two fingers, using the others to steady the square in its place upon the board. (D.) Two try-squares may be used to see if a piece of wood is “out of wind” (isounded as in kind) by the method indicated in Fig. 30.

Two pieces of wood known aswinding sticks, of exactly the same width and perfectly parallel, are oftenused in manual-training schools for this purpose; they are rarely used in a shop, however, as a workman generally will use two steel squares if the piece is too large to be sighted accurately without some aid of this sort.

Fig. 32.—Steel, or Framing, Square.

31. The steel, or framing, square(Fig. 32) is often used as a try-square upon large work, though its most important use is in framing, or roof construction. It is indispensable in finding the lengths and the angles of rafters, braces, etc. Its use for this purpose will be explained in “Constructive Carpentry.” The long side of the framing square is known as the “blade,” and the short side as the “tongue.”

Fig. 33.—Bevel and Steel Square.The bevel is set at an angle of 45°.

Fig. 33.—Bevel and Steel Square.

The bevel is set at an angle of 45°.

32. The bevel(Fig. 33) may be set for use in marking and testing any angle, in the same manner that the try-square is used upon rectangular work. The sketch shows the bevel and the steel square in position for setting the bevel at an angle of 45°. It will be noticed that the blade of the bevel rests upon the same figures upon both the blade and the tongue of the square.

33. The gauge(A.), Fig. 34, is for the purpose of making lines parallel to the face or working side or edge. Usually it is made in four pieces: the “head” (a), which is held against the face side or edge; the “stick” (bb), upon which the head moves; the “thumbscrew” (c), which holds the head firmly in its position upon the stick; and the “point” (d), which makes the desired mark upon the wood.

Fig. 34.—Marking Gauge.a, the head;bb, the stick;c,the thumbscrew;d, the point.

Fig. 34.—Marking Gauge.

a, the head;bb, the stick;c,the thumbscrew;d, the point.

(B.) A rule should be used in setting the gauge, unless one is certain that the point is located accurately with regard to the graduations upon the stick.

The point should be sharpened to work with either a push or pull cut, as ate.

(C.) The gauge should be grasped as shown in Fig. 35, and generally used with a push, though it is occasionally pulled toward the worker. One should always work from the face side of the piece.

If the point enters the wood too deeply, it may be set back, or the gauge carried on the corner of the stick as indicated, which will govern the depth of the cut. Do not use a dull gauge, or one with a round point like a pencil, as it will tear the wood, instead of making a clean cut or scratch.

Fig. 35.—Marking Gauge in Use.

34. The hammer(A.) is used by the average wood-worker more than any other tool. The “face” (Fig. 36,a) and the “claws” (b) should be tempered carefully, as they will either bruise or bend if too soft, orbreak if too hard. The eye (c) is made longer than it is wide, to prevent the head from turning on the handle, and larger at the outside of the head than it is at the neck, so that the handle may be firmly wedged in the eye or socket. The neck (d), by extending upon the handle as it does, adds much to the strength of the connection.

Fig. 36.—Claw Hammer.a, the face;b, the claws;c, the eye;d, the neck;e, grain of neck.

Fig. 36.—Claw Hammer.

a, the face;b, the claws;c, the eye;d, the neck;e, grain of neck.

The handle should be of young, tough, straight-grained hickory, elliptical in section, and of a size to be grasped easily.

The grain should be perfectly straight at the neck, and the annual layers should show lengthwise of the ellipse at the end, as atc. The handle should be fitted and wedged, or “hung” in such a way that a nail may be driven home in a flat surface without the knuckles striking, which means that the center of the handle should be about parallel with the flat surface. A line lengthwise of the head through the eye should exactly coincide with the long, or major, axis of the ellipse at the end of the handle, as atgg, or pounded fingers will result.

Fig. 37.a, toenailing;b, tacking.

Fig. 37.

a, toenailing;b, tacking.

Thebell-facedhammer is to be preferred to theflat-facedtype, as it will not mar the wood so badly if the nail is missed, though more skill is required to use it. Upon rough work, the bell-faced hammer will sink the nail beneath the surface without bruising the wood badly. Upon inside work, the nails should be sunk beneath the surface with a nail set.

(B.) In nailing, the young workman should acquire the habit of grasping the handle of the hammer at the end, as this will give greater force to the blow. Upon light work, the hand will naturally slip a little toward the head. Nails should generally be driven in a slanting direction, as they hold better than if driven straight. When nails are driven as shown ata, Fig. 37, it is called “toenailing,” and when driven sufficiently to hold, but not driven home, as atb, they are said to be “tacked.” Nails are driven this way when they are to be pulled out again, as in stay laths, and in fastening pieces temporarily.

Fig. 38.—Blind Nailing and Use of a NailSet.

In forcing matched boards together, do not pound directly upon the tongue edge of the board, but upon a waste piece of the same material, as the tongue will be bruised so that the next board will not form a good joint. Care should be used that the hammer does not strike the edge of the board when the nail is driven home. To guard against this, a nail set should be used to sink the head beneath the surface, as in Fig. 38, so that the next board will come to its place without trouble. This is called “blind nailing.”

35. The hatchet(A.) is used for hewing light work, for shingling; and as a heavy hammer, though the face is rarely tempered to stand very heavy usage (Fig. 39,a).

(B.) Ahand axe, or broad hatchet (Fig. 39,b), usually is a better grade of tool than the hatchet, and as it is of greater weight, is better adapted for heavy work. A hatchet or hand axe for general use should be sharpenedas atc; but for hewing only, an edge likedwill give the best results.

Fig. 39.—a, hatchet;b, hand axe.(For explanation, see text.)

Fig. 39.—a, hatchet;b, hand axe.

(For explanation, see text.)

36. The mallet.—This tool should be used upon chisel handles, as a hammer will destroy the handle in a very short time. Mallets are of two shapes, thesquare-faced(Fig. 40,a) and theroundmallet (b), the latter being preferred by many workmen as it will always strike a fair blow upon the chisel handle, while the square-faced mallet sometimes will miss, and inflict a painful blow upon the hand. In general, the handle of a square-faced mallet is round, which allows the mallet to turn in the hand; if the handle were made elliptical, like a hammer handle, there would be less likelihood of missing the chisel.

Fig. 40.—Mallets.a, square-faced mallet;b, round mallet.

Fig. 40.—Mallets.

a, square-faced mallet;b, round mallet.

37. Saws.—(A.) The saws used by the carpenter are for cutting parallel with, or across, the grain, or a combination of the two, and all are composed of two parts, the “handle” and the “blade.”

The teeth of aripsaw(Fig. 41,A) are suitable for sawing in a direction parallel with the general direction of the grain. The points of different saws may be from one third to one seventh of an inch apart, and form a series ofchisels, the cutting edges of which are filed so that they are at right angles to the sides of the blade. In action, the saw is pushed against the wood, each tooth cutting a little deeper than the one preceding it.

Thecutting-off saw(Fig. 41,B) has from six to twelve knife-pointed teeth to an inch, the cutting edges being parallel to the sides of the blade, and filed so that the point of the tooth is upon the side which is set beyond the side of the blade.

Fig. 41,A.Ripsaw.dd, view and section of setting of teeth.

Fig. 41,A.Ripsaw.

dd, view and section of setting of teeth.

Fig. 41,B.Cutting-off Saw.

Fig. 41,C.Compass, or Keyhole, Saw.Fig. 41.—Saws.(In each of the three varieties of saw teeth shown inFig. 41, the set of the teeth is exaggerated.)

Fig. 41,C.Compass, or Keyhole, Saw.

Fig. 41.—Saws.(In each of the three varieties of saw teeth shown inFig. 41, the set of the teeth is exaggerated.)

In all except the finest saws, the teeth are set; that is, the points are bent a very little in such a way as to make the cut wider than the thickness of the blade, so that the saw may cut through the wood without binding, which it could notdo if the cut were the same thickness as the blade. The blades of all high grade saws are thinner upon the back than upon the cutting edge, but if the saw is to be used upon the finest work, this difference in the thickness of the two edges of the blade is supposed to make the setting of the saw unnecessary. For general work, it will be found that the saw will be much more efficient if it is given a set adapted to the size of the teeth, or to the nature of the work it is expected to do.

Thecompass, orkeyhole,saw(Fig. 41,C) is used where it is necessary that the saw should cut both with and across the grain. It is used to start the cut for a rip- or cutting-off saw, when a cut has to be made in the surface of a board. This saw is used also in many places where it is not practicable to use a larger saw, and for sawing curves. In order to allow it to cut around curves easily, the face, or cutting edge, is considerably thicker than the back, and the blade is made of soft metal. It may then be given a heavy set, so that it will bend instead of breaking or kinking, as it would be liable to do from the nature of its work if made of tempered steel.

Some carpenters working upon job work, where it is desirable to carry as few tools as possible, have a narrow 20” or 22” saw sharpened like a compass saw, which for ordinary work is quite satisfactory as either a cutting-off or a ripsaw, thus making another saw unnecessary.

Fig. 42.—Backsaw.

Thebacksaw(Fig. 42) is used upon fine work; it is filed like a cutting-off saw, but the teeth have rathermore hook, and it often has as many as fifteen teeth to the inch, though a twelve-tooth saw is as fine as is generally used. The thick back is to stiffen the blade of the saw, and if the latter becomes sprung, a light blow upon the back, as though to drive it upon the blade, will usually straighten it.

(B.) In buying a saw, select one which is thicker upon the cutting edge than upon the back; this allows the saw to be used upon very fine work with little or no setting. See that the handle fits the hand, and that the saw hangs to suit, or “feels right.” This is a matter concerning the balance and the weight of the tool, which cannot be described, but which any one accustomed to using tools will miss if a tool not possessing this quality is placed in his hand.

A saw blade, unless very short and thick, should bend so that the point may be put through the handle, and upon being released, instantly resume its shape. It should bend evenly in proportion to the width and the gauge of the saw, and should be as thin as the stiffness of the blade will permit, as a saw of this sort cuts less wood, and therefore runs with less resistance. A compass saw, being softer, is not expected to stand the above test.

A 26” or a 28” blade is best for a heavy rip or cutting-off saw to be used upon coarse work; but for fine work, a 22” blade, commonly known as a “panel saw,” is a convenient size, though a 20” or a 24” blade is preferred by many workmen.

Fig. 43.—Use of the Saw.Showing the method of using a try-square to insure accuracy.

Fig. 43.—Use of the Saw.

Showing the method of using a try-square to insure accuracy.

(C.) A hard saw is best for fine work, but for general work most workmen prefer a saw of medium hardness, as the teeth of a hard saw are apt to break in setting, and its edge, if it comes in contact with metal, requires filing justabout as quickly as that of a soft saw, and is much more difficult to sharpen. If always filed by an expert filer, a hard saw is superior in every way to any other.

Fig. 44.—Reset SawHandle.

(D.) The handle of the saw should be grasped firmly by three fingers, as in Fig. 43, with the forefinger extended along theside, thus making more room for the three fingers, and giving better control of the saw. Very little strength should be used in forcing a fine saw to cut, as its own weight generally is sufficient; if the saw is forced, it will not run smoothly, but will bind, and if a thin board is being worked, it is apt to split. The saw should be used from the face side of the material, so that any splinters or variation will be upon the back side and out of sight.

(E.) It is the custom of some carpenters to reset the handles of their heavy saws by drilling holes through the blade so that the handle may be fastened as close to the cutting edge as possible, as in Fig. 44. This brings the force of the stroke nearer the direct line of the cut, which obviously allows a more economical application of force. Never leave a saw in a cut, for if the piece of wood falls off the trestles, the saw is apt to be broken. (Saw-filing will be discussed later.)

Fig. 45.—Knife Blades.A, used by wood-worker;B, used in manual-training schools.

Fig. 45.—Knife Blades.

A, used by wood-worker;B, used in manual-training schools.

38. The knife bladeused by the wood-worker for general work is similar to that shown in Fig. 45, atA. That shown atBis the form of blade in most common use in manual-training schools, as it is better adapted for whittling, its shape assisting the student to some extent to prevent the knife from following the grain.

39. Planes.—(A.) Theplaneis the most complex, as well as one of the most important, tools which the wood-worker uses, and a high grade ofskill is necessary to keep it in order, as well as to use it properly.

Fig. 46.—Section of Iron Plane.1, cutter, iron, or bit; 2, cap iron; 3, plane iron screw; 4, cap lever; 4a, cam; 5, cap screw; 6, frog; 6a, mouth; 7, Y lever; 8, vertical adjusting nut; 8a, vertical adjusting screw; 9, lateral adjustment; 10, frog screws; 11, handle; 12, knob; 13, handle bolt and nut; 14, bolt knob and nut; 15, handle screw; 16, bottom, or stock.

Fig. 46.—Section of Iron Plane.

1, cutter, iron, or bit; 2, cap iron; 3, plane iron screw; 4, cap lever; 4a, cam; 5, cap screw; 6, frog; 6a, mouth; 7, Y lever; 8, vertical adjusting nut; 8a, vertical adjusting screw; 9, lateral adjustment; 10, frog screws; 11, handle; 12, knob; 13, handle bolt and nut; 14, bolt knob and nut; 15, handle screw; 16, bottom, or stock.

(B.) The only plane in use until recent years had a wooden stock, and the iron was adjusted by blows with a hammer; this form of plane has changed very little since the first types were invented, as planes of ancient times have been found which in all essentials are practically the same as those in use to-day.

(C.) Our modern planes are more easily adjusted and more convenient to use, though they will do no better work than the wooden planes of our forefathers, which are still preferred by many of the best workmen. The face of an iron plane holds its shape permanently, while it is necessary that the wooden plane should be jointed occasionally.

Fig. 47.—Result of Using Planewith Improperly Adjusted Cap Iron.

(D.) There are planes for every conceivable purpose, all constructed upon the same general principle as the common bench plane which we shall discuss later. These planes are adjusted by screws and levers, which are very simple, and any one understanding them may easily comprehend the more intricate molding or universal planes.

The adjustment of the modern plane may be understood by a careful study of Fig. 46 and by comparing it with the plane itself. The “cutter,” “iron,” or “bit” (1) and the “cap iron” (2) are the essentials of the tool, and it is upon their condition and adjustment that the efficiency of the plane depends. If the cap iron is set too far from the edge of the iron, and if the cut is made against the grain, the shaving will not break before it leads the iron into the wood, as shown in Fig. 47. If the cap iron is set somewhat less than ¹⁄₁₆” from the edge of the cutter, according to the wood being planed, it will break the shaving nearly as soon as it is cut, as in Fig. 48, and will result in a smooth, clean surface. The closer the cap iron is set to the edge, the smoother the iron will cut, as the breaks in the shaving are thereby made shorter.

Fig. 48.—Result of UsingPlane with Cap Iron Adjusted Properly.

It will be seen that the closer the bottom of the cap iron (2) is set to the edge of the cutter (1), the shorter the breaks will be, as in Fig. 48, and the more smoothly the plane will cut. The plane “iron screw” (3) holds the edge of the cutter (1) and the bottom of the cap iron (2) in their desired relation. The “cap lever” (4) being pressed against the under side of the head of the “cap screw” (5), by the “cam” (4a), holds the iron in its place, and presses the cap iron (2) firmly against the top of the cutter (1). Unless the cap iron fits the face of the cutter perfectly, the plane will not work satisfactorily. The “frog” (6) carries all the adjusting mechanism of the plane, and may be moved backward or forward to reduce or enlarge the “mouth” (6a), which should be no larger than is necessary to allow the shavings to pass freely. The frog rarely will require readjusting after it has been properly located.

The “Y lever” (7) forces the plane irons (1 and 2) in or out simultaneously, which governs the projection, or “set,” of the edge of the cutter (1) beyond the face, or “sole” (b) of the “plane stock,” and thus the thickness of the shaving which the plane will cut. The “adjusting nut” (8) moves freely upon the “screw” (8a) and operates the Y lever (7). The “lateral adjustment” (9) is for the purpose of forcing the iron to cut in the exact center of the width of the face (b) of the plane. The two “frog screws” (10) hold the frog rigidly in the position which will make the throat (6a) of the desired size.

The above illustrates all the adjusting mechanism; the other parts of the plane are as follows: “handle” (11); “knob” (12); “handle bolt” and “nut” (13); “knobbolt” and “nut” (14); “handle screw” (15); “bottom,” or “stock” (16).

Fig. 49.—Setting a Plane.

The face, or sole, of the plane (b) must be perfectly straight, or good work cannot be done. The ends of the plane (handt) are called the “heel” and “toe,” respectively. The “mouth” of the plane (between 6aand 2) must be kept clear of shavings, or it may become clogged.

(E.) In setting a plane, do not pass the fingers over the face, or sole, as cut fingers may result. Hold the plane as shown in Fig. 49, and look toward the light, when the exact projection of the cutter may be seen. Notice the position of the fingers of the left hand, and that the eye glances from toe to heel. This leaves the right hand free to make the adjustments. This is a workmanlike way of setting a plane, and in this, as in all handling of tools, awkwardness should be avoided.

40. Sharpening a plane.—(A.) An important part of this process isthe grinding of the cutter. Set the cap back about ⅛” from the edge of the iron, and use it as aguide by which to grind the iron perfectly square, as atA, Fig. 50. The cap iron should be kept perfectly square, and never touched except to fit it to the cutter, or, if it is too thick to allow the shavings to pass freely, to file the top of it to the proper thickness. If the tool is kept in order skillfully, the cap will need care only upon rare occasions.

Fig. 50.—Whetting and Grinding ofPlane.(For explanation, see text.)

Fig. 50.—Whetting and Grinding ofPlane.

(For explanation, see text.)

The cutter should be held firmly to the grindstone or emery wheel and kept moving from side to side to prevent wearing the stone in one place. The grinding should all be done upon the beveled side of the cutter, which should be held upon the stone at an angle of about 20° (as atB, Fig. 50), more rather than less, as a thinner edge is apt to “chatter,” or vibrate, if it strikes a hard place in the wood. Many workmen use a rest when grinding; this insures a true bevel. Any device which holds the tool firmly at the same place on the stone will do for a rest.

In whetting the cutter, the screw of the cap iron should be loosened and the cap iron carried back until the screw stops at the top of the slot of the bit, as atC, Fig. 50. The screw is then tightened with the fingers to hold the cap in place; this gives a better grasp of the iron, though some workmen prefer to take the cap off entirely while whetting.

Fig. 51.—Whetting or Oilstoning the Beveled Side of a Cutter.

The bevel of the iron should be held exactly upon the surface of the oilstone, as shown atC, Fig. 50, the iron being grasped as in Fig. 51. Keep the right wrist rigid and allow the arm to swing from the shoulder, bending only at the elbow. In this way the rocking motion may be reduced to a minimum; this is necessary to preserve the bevel. Though the bevel may be maintained better by imparting a short circular motion to the plane iron, or to any edge tool which is being sharpened, it seems an awkward and fussy method of work, and rarely is used by an expert workman. By long practice the mechanic finds that a stroke made nearly the entire length of the stone will impart an edge quicker, and after the knack has been acquired, the bevel will be preserved just as well.

Turn the whetstone end for end frequently, and work upon the farther end, as in this way the stone may be kept true much longer than if one place upon it is used allthe time. This will also minimize the danger of pulling the tool off from the nearer end of the stone, which will generally make regrinding necessary.

Fig. 52.—Whetting or Oilstoning the Plain Side of the Plane Iron.

When the beveled side has been whetted, lay the face, or the top of the iron, perfectly flat upon the stone, as in Fig. 52, holding it down with the fingers of the left hand, using the right hand only to move the iron back and forth. Care should be used that under no circumstances is the face of the iron lifted the slightest degree from the stone. At this stage of sharpening a plane iron, the utmost care is necessary that the face of the cutter does not lose its perfectly straight surface at the edge, as the slightest deviation from absolute accuracy at this place will prevent the cap iron from fitting properly, which will cause endlesstrouble, as the shavings will be forced between the cap and the face of the iron (seeC.of this topic).

Fig. 53.—Shapeof Edge ofPlane Iron.

(B.) The shape of the cutting edge of the plane cutter has an important influence upon its efficiency. Imagine the edge divided into three equal parts: the middle part should be perfectly straight, or almost imperceptibly rounded; the two outside thirds should be slightly and gradually rounded until the corners of the iron are so short that there will be no danger of their projecting below the face of the plane. This gives the edge an elliptical shape, as shown in Fig. 53, which is somewhat exaggerated, as the shape shown is about that which would be seen if a moderately coarse jack plane were held as in Fig. 49.

(C.) In order to insure fine work, the cap iron must be fitted so carefully to the face and the edge of the cutter that, if necessary, it may be placed less than ¹⁄₆₄th of an inch from the cutting edge, though this would rarely be required except upon very cross-grained wood.

In fitting the cap iron to the top of the cutter, a very fine, sharp file should be used. The filing must all be done upon the under side of the cap iron, at the places where it rests upon the face or top of the cutter; or, if preferred, the cap may be very carefully bent, but unless there is considerable fitting necessary, and unless the joint is perfected by the use of a file, this method is not recommended.

If sufficient care and skill are exercised, a plane may be sharpened and adjusted so finely that a veneer of .01” or less in thickness of bird’s-eye maple, burl walnut,ash, or similar wood may be smoothed. It is not wise, however, to spend the time necessary to keep a plane sharpened and adjusted to do this sort of work, as a scraper and sandpaper, or the latter alone, is the most economical way to smooth woods of such nature.

(D.) To remedy clogging of the mouth, remove the conditions which cause it; simply digging out the shavings is useless. An improperly fitted cap iron is one of the principal causes of trouble; the cutter may be ground so thin that when it is forced against a knot or hard place, the iron chatters, which allows the shavings an entrance under the cap iron. In this lies the only real advantage of a wooden plane over the modern iron plane, as in the former the iron is much thicker and stiffer. The cap iron may be so thick that it causes the shavings to curl too much, or the frog may be set too far to the front, which will make the mouth too small. This latter may be remedied by moving the frog back, but in a wooden plane, the mouth and the throat would have to be cut larger in order to allow the shavings to clear themselves properly.

Fig. 54.—Jack Plane.

41. The jack plane(Fig. 54) generally is 15” long, and its ordinary use is for the purpose of roughing out apiece of wood for jointing or smoothing. If it is properly sharpened, it may be used as a smoothing plane, or as a jointer upon small work, as it is capable of doing as good work as any plane.

The jack plane generally is ground more rounding, and the cap set farther back than in the other planes, especially if it is to be used upon rough work.

42. The jointer.—(A.) This tool is from 20” to 26” long, and is used to straighten edges and surfaces, or to fit them together. The shape of the edge of the cutter of this plane should be but slightly elliptical, less so than the jack plane or the smoother, unless the two latter are fitted for doing very fine work.

(B.) In using a jointer for squaring or jointing an edge, it should be carried to one side or the other of its face as may be necessary to take advantage of the elliptically shaped edge of the cutter, by cutting a shaving thicker on one edge than on the other, thus making the edge of the board square with the face side.

To make a perfectly square edge, the cut should be made in the center of both the iron and the width of the face of the plane. The plane should be held as shown in Fig. 55, the fingers under the face of the plane, the tops of the finger-nails touching the board lightly, guiding the plane, and keeping the bit cutting in one place upon its edge.

Fig. 55.—Method of Guiding a Jointer.

43. The smoothing plane(A.) is of the same type and mechanism as those described above, though it is but 9 or 10” long; if satisfactory work is expected from it, it must be kept in good order, with the cap iron perfectly fitted. For general work, it is not necessary to spend thetime to insure that the plane should be continually in readiness to work upon hard, tough, cross-grained wood, as a plane to do the latter kind of work well is unnecessary upon softer or straight-grained wood. For ordinary work, the cap iron should be set from ¹⁄₃₂” to ¹⁄₁₆” from the edge of the bit, but for the finest work, the closer to the edge it will fit and allow a shaving to be taken, the finer the work that may be done. No wood used upon ordinary work is so cross-grained or knurly that it cannot be smoothed economically, if a properly sharpened and adjusted plane is used.

Fig. 56.—Knuckle Joint Block Plane.

(B.) A smoothing plane should cut a shaving as nearly the entire width of the bit as possible, therefore a very flat, elliptically shaped edge must be maintained. In using a plane or any kind of cutting tool, the direction of the grain of the wood should be carefully studied, and every advantage taken of it to facilitate the work.

Fig. 57.—Use of the Block Plane.(For explanation, see text.)

Fig. 57.—Use of the Block Plane.

(For explanation, see text.)

44. The block plane(knuckle joint cap, Fig. 56) (A.) is constructed upon a somewhat different principle than the planes above described, as the adjusting nut (a) under the cutter at the rear end of the plane is raised or lowered to withdraw or advance the bit, and thus govern the cut of the tool. The size of the mouth is controlled by a movable section of the face atb. This plane has no cap iron, as the use for which it is intended makes it unnecessary. The block plane is used across the end of the wood, at right angles with the general direction of the grain. The iron, or cutter, is so placed in the stock of the plane that its cutting angle is as nearly in line with the cut as possible,with the beveled side of the iron uppermost. By this method of construction, the iron is given more stiffness to resist the chatter, or vibration, caused by planing end wood.

Fig. 58.—Using Block Plane upon SmallPieces.

(B.) In using the block plane, do not make the cuts from edge to edge, or chips will be broken off at the corners; instead, plane from each edge, and stop the stroke before the other edge is reached; reverse the plane and work from the other direction, as shown atA,B, Fig. 57. Another and workmanlike way of using the block plane upon small pieces is shown in Fig. 58. Work from each edge as described above, turning the piece over for each stroke. In sharpening the block plane iron, the edge should be made slightly elliptical, and the bevel carefully maintained.

45. The correct position.—(A.) In using planes or any edge tools, a position should be taken which will furnish sufficient resistance to the pressure required for making the cut, as the pressure should be applied firmlyand steadily. With experience, the correct position will be taken involuntarily, but the beginner should be continually upon the watch to overcome his awkwardness.

(B.) The habit of bending from the hips is acquired easily, and the young workman should learn to work in as nearly an erect position as possible, for if the bending of the shoulders is persisted in, a permanent stoop will result. Stand facing the work and clear of the bench in order to prevent unnecessary wear of the clothing.

Fig. 59.—Incorrect Use of Jack Plane.

(C.) Do not allow the plane to drop over the end of the board at either the beginning or the end of the stroke, as indicated atA,B, Fig. 59. To prevent this, the hand should be kept upon that part of the plane which is upon the board; at the beginning of the stroke, the weight should be upon the front end of the plane, as in Fig. 60, and at the end of the stroke upon the rear end, or upon the handle, as in Fig. 61. Begin and end each stroke with a lifting motion instead of allowing the plane to drop as it leaves or enters the wood. The plane should be held firmly, not rigidly; do not allow it to jump; this is caused generally by an attempt to take a shaving heavier than the plane should cut, or, if the cap iron is fitted and adjusted properly, by a dull iron. A cutter will jump or chatter if it does not fit solidly against the frog. In drawing the plane back after making a stroke, carry it upon the toe, or upon one corner; do not drag it flat upon its face, as the iron is thereby dulled as much as when it is cutting, or possibly more.

Fig. 60.—Beginning the Stroke with a Jack Plane.

Fig. 61.—Ending the Stroke with a Jack Plane.

(D.) Carry the plane parallel with the grain when it is possible, and take no more shavings off than is necessary to attain the desired results. The young workman should make a study of the grain and the peculiarities of the different kinds of lumber upon which he works, losing no opportunity to experiment upon and compare the qualities of every available wood.

(E.) In using edge tools of every kind, little is gained, and much is often lost, by working with dull tools; tools should be sharpened often and thoroughly. This is of the utmost importance, for even with the tools in the best possible order, it will require much care and skill to do good work.

46. Chisels.—(A.) Carpenters’ chisels are used for paring and mortising; the paring chisel should be light, smoothly finished, and ground with a sharper bevel than that used for mortising, for which the heaviest chisel is none too strong.

(B.) Chisels are “tanged” or “socket,” according to the method by which the blade and handle is joined. The tanged firmer chisel (Fig. 62,A) is the older form, and is not so strong as the more recently designed socket chisel (B). For light work, the tanged chisel is preferred by many, but more commonly the socket chisel is used, as it is stiffer, not so easily broken, and has no shoulder to catch upon the edge of the wood when the tool is used. The beveled-edge chisel (C) is a favorite tool with pattern makers; and the mortise, or framing chisel (D), is designed for heavy use. A set of chisels consists of one each of the following dimensions: ⅛”, ¼”, ⅜”, ½”, ⅝”, ¾”, ⅞”, 1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 1¾”, 2”.

(C.) A large, heavy chisel, 3½” or 4” in width, called a “slice” or “slick,” is used, like a paring chisel, upon heavy work.

Back to Index Next