MANUFACTORIES.
Themanufactoriesand trades of Canton are numerous: there is no machinery, properly so called, consequently there are no extensive manufacturing establishments similar to those which, in modern times, and under the power of machinery, have grown up in Europe. The Chinese know nothing of the economy of time. Much of the manufacturing business required to supply the commercial houses of Canton, is performed at Fuh-shan, a large town situated a few miles westward of the city; still, the number of hands employed, and the amount of labour performed here, are by no means inconsiderable.
There are annually about seventeen thousand persons, men, women, and children, engaged in weaving silk; their looms are simple, and their work is generally executed with neatness. The number of persons engaged in manufacturing cloth of all kinds, is about fifty thousand; when the demand is pressing for work, the number of labourers is considerably increased; the workmen occupy about two thousand, five hundred shops, averaging, usually, twenty in each.
We have heard it said, that some of the Chinese females, who devote their time to embroidering the choicest of the fabrics, secure a profit of twenty and sometimes even twenty-five dollars per month. Shoemakers are numerous and support an extensive trade, the number of workmen being about four thousand, two hundred. The number of those who work in brass, wood, iron, stone, and various other materials, is likewise large. Those who engage in each of these occupations form, to a certain degree, a separate community, having their distinct laws and rules for the regulation of business.
The book-trade of Canton is important, but we have not beenable to obtain particulars in relation to its extent. Thebarbersform a separate department, and no one is allowed to perform the duties of tonsor until he has obtained a license.
According to their records, the number of this fraternity in Canton, at the present time, is seven thousand, three hundred!
There is another body of men, which we know not how to designate or describe; themedical community; which must not be passed over without notice. That these men command high respect and esteem whenever they show themselves skilled in their profession, there can be no doubt; it is generally admitted, also, that individuals do now and then, by long experience and observation, become able practitioners; but, as a community, they are anything rather than masters of the “healing art.” About two thousand of these “physicians” dwell in Canton.
No inconsiderable part of the multitude which composes the population of Canton lives in boats. There are officers appointed by government to regulate and control this portion of the city’s inhabitants. Every boat, of all the various sizes and descriptions that are seen here, is registered; and it appears that the whole number on the river, adjacent to the city, is eighty-four thousand. A great majority of these are tankea (egg-house) boats, called by some, sampans; these are generally not more than twelve or fifteen feet long, about six broad, and so low that a person can scarcely stand up in them: their covering, made of bamboo, is very light, and can be easily adjusted to the state of the weather. Whole families live in these boats, and in coops lashed on the outside of them they often rear large broods of ducks and chickens, designed to supply the city-markets. Passage-boats which daily move to and from the city-hamlets, ferry-boats which are constantly crossing and recrossing the river, huge canal-boats, laden with produce from the country, cruisers, pleasure-boats, &c. complete the list of these floating habitations, and present to the stranger a very interesting scene.
POPULATION.
There has been considerable diversity of opinion in relation to the population of Canton. The division of the city which brings a part of it into Nan-hae, and a part into Pwang-yu, precludes the possibility of ascertaining the exact amount of population. The facts which we have brought into view in the preceding pages, perhaps will afford the best data for making an accurateestimate of the number of inhabitants in the city. There are, we have already seen, fifty thousand persons engaged in the manufacture of cloth, seven thousand, three hundred barbers, and four thousand, two hundred shoemakers; but these three occupations employing sixty-one thousand, five hundred individuals, do not, probably, include more than one fourth of the craftsmen in the city; allowing this to be the fact, the whole number of mechanics will amount to two hundred and forty-six thousand; these, we suppose, are a fourth part of the whole population, exclusive of those who live on the rivers. In each of the eighty-four thousand boats, there are not less, on an average, than three individuals; making a total of two hundred and forty-two thousand; if to them we add two hundred and forty-six thousand, (which is the number of mechanics,) the amount will be one million, two hundred and thirty-six thousand, as the probable number of inhabitants in Canton.
This number may possibly be incorrect; no one, however, who has had an opportunity of passing through the streets of the city, and viewing the multitudes that throng them, will think the estimate below one million.
It only remains to remark, briefly, in conclusion, the influence which Canton is exerting on the character and destinies of this empire. Intelligent natives admit that more luxury, dissipation, and crime, exist here, than in any other portion of the empire; they maintain, at the same time, that more enterprise, enlarged views, and general information, prevail among the higher class of the inhabitants of Canton, than are found in most of the other large cities; the bad qualities are the result of a thrifty commerce acting on a large population, in the absence of high moral principles; the good, which exist in a very limited degree, result from an intercourse with “distant barbarians.”
The contempt and hatred which the Chinese have often exhibited towards foreigners, and the indifference and disdain with which the nation has looked down upon every thing not its own, ought to be thoroughly reprobated; on the other hand, the feelings which foreigners have cherished, and the disposition and conduct which they have too frequently manifested towards this people, are such as never should have existed. Notwithstanding all these disadvantages, we think the intercourse between the Chinese and the people of the western world, beneficial to the former; and hithertothis intercourse has been purely commercial; science, literature, and all friendly and social offices, have been disregarded. We trust fervently, that such a period has departed, that men are beginning to feel they have moral obligations to discharge, and that they are bound by the most sacred ties to interest themselves in the intellectual, moral, and religious improvement of their various brethren in the distant nations of the earth.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES—MONEY WEIGHTS—COMMERCIAL WEIGHTS—OPIUM—OPIUM-SMOKERS—MANTCHOU DYNASTY.
Among theexportsandimports toandfrom China, are certain articles, which are not generally known to merchants not engaged in commerce to the eastward of the cape of Good Hope, among which are:—
Agar-agar: this article is a species of seaweed, imported from New Holland, New Guinea, &c. It makes a valuable paste, and is extensively used in the manufacture of silks and paper. It is also used as a sweetmeat. There are several species offucusimported, which are eaten both in a crude state, and cooked, by the lower classes.
Amomum: these seeds have a strong pungent taste, and a penetrating aromatic smell; they are used to season sweet dishes.
Anise-seed starsare so called from the manner in which they grow; they are used also, to season sweet dishes, have an aromatic taste, and from them is extracted a volatile oil.
Capoor cretcheryis the root of a plant: it has a pungent and bitterish taste, and a slightly aromatic smell. It is exported to Bombay, and is used for medical purposes, and to preserve clothes.
Coralis valuable according to the colour, density, and size of the fragments: when made into buttons, it is used among the Chinese as an insignia of office.
CutchorTerra Japonicais a gummy resin, and is imported from Bombay and Bengal.
Gambieris similar to cutch, although the produce of two different plants: it is chewed with areca-nut, and is used also in China, for tanning; but it renders the leather porous and rotten.
Galengalis used principally in cookery; it has a hot, acrid, peppery taste, and an aromatic smell.
The Chinese weigh all articles which are bought and sold, that are weighable; asmoney,wood,vegetables,liquids, &c. This renders their dealings more simple than those of other nations, who buy and sell commodities, with more reference to the articles themselves. Their divisions of weights and measures are intomoneyandcommercialweights, andlong, andlandmeasures, &c.
The circulating medium between foreigners and Chinese, is broken Spanish dollars, the value of which is usually computed by their weight. Dollars bearing the stamp of Ferdinand, have usually borne a premium of one, to one and a half per cent., while those of Carolus have risen as high as seven or eight per cent., but are subject to a considerable variation, according to the season, anddifferent timesof the season. Those coins bearing the stamp of the letter G, are not received by the Chinese, except at a discount. Mexican and United States’ dollars, do not pass among the Chinese, but are takenat par, by foreigners: every individual coin has the mark of the person, through whose hands it passes, stamped upon it.
As the number of these marks soon becomes very numerous, the coin is quickly broken in pieces; and, this process of stamping being continually repeated, the fragments gradually become very small, and are paid away entirely by weight. The highest weight used in reckoning money, istael, (leang,) which is divided intomace, (tseen,)candareens, (fun,) andcash, (le.) The relative value of these terms, both among the Chinese, and in foreign money, can be seen by the following table. It should be observed here, that these terms,taels,mace,candareens,cash,peculs, andcatties,covids,punts, &c., are not Chinese words, and are never used by the Chinese among themselves; and, the reason of their employment by foreigners, instead of the legitimate terms, is difficult to conjecture.
Tael.Mace.Candareens.Cash.Ounce troy.Grains troy.Sterling.Dollars.11010010001,208579.846s. 8d.1,389a1,39811010057.9848d.138a0,13915.79848d.
The value here given for the tael, in sterling money and dollars, is not the exact value: and it is difficult to ascertain, owing to the ignorance of the Chinese, of such money among other nations.The value given to the tael in the sterling money, is that which is found on the books of the East India company: that given to the dollar, is the extremes of its value.
COIN.
The only coin of the Chinese, is calledcash, (orle,) which is made of six parts of copper, and four of lead. The coins are thin and circular, and nearly an inch in diameter, having a square hole in the centre, for the convenience of tying them together, with a raised edge, both around the outside, and the hole. Those now in use, have the name of the emperor stamped upon them, in whose reign they were cast. Notwithstanding their little value, they are much adulterated with spelter; yet, on account of their convenience in paying small sums, and for common use, they generally bear a premium, and but eight hundred and fifty can commonly be obtained for a tael. The use of silver coin, however, appears to be increasing among the Chinese, as by recent accounts, we learn that silver dollars have been made in Fuh-keen and other places, contrary to the laws of the empire.
Bullion is rated by its fineness, which is expressed by dividing the weight into a hundred parts, called touches. If gold is said to be ninety-four or ninety-eight touches, it is known to have one or two parts of alloy; the remainder is pure silver metal; is estimated in the same manner; and without alloy or nearly so, is called sycee, which bears a premium according to its purity; the most pure sycees are equal in fineness to theplata-pinaof Peru, which is now principally imported by vessels of the United States, engaged in commerce to the Spanish ports on the Pacific. It is cast into ingots, (by the Chinese, called shoes, from their shape,) stamped with the mark of the office that issued them, and the date of their emission. It is used to pay government taxes and duties, and the salaries of officers. The ingots weigh from one half, to one hundred taels, and bear a value accordingly.Syceesilver is the only approach among the Chinese to a silver currency; gold ingots are made, weighing ten taels each, and are worth between twenty two and twenty-three dollars; but neither gold ingots, nor doubloons, nor any other gold coin, are used as money among the Chinese. Great caution should be used in purchasing ingots or bars of silver, as they are subject to many adulterations, and are not unfrequently cast hollow, and filled with lead, to complete the weight. In fact, every species of fraud is practised by the dealers in bullion.
The only weights in use among the Chinese, besides those of money, are thepecul, (tan,)catty, (kin,) andtael, (leang.) The proportion these bear to each other, and to English weights, is exhibited in the following table:—
Pecul.Catties.Taels.Lbs. avoir.Cat.Lbs. troy.11001600133½1.0.21⅓162.0.8.11161⅓
Usage has established a difference between the tael of commercial weights, which, at the rate of one hundred and thirty-three and a third pounds to the pecul, weighs five hundred and eighty-three and a half troy grains, and the tael of money weight, of which the old standard is 579.84 grains troy. By the above table, it appears, that one ton is equal to sixteen peculs, and eighty catties; one hundred weight to eighty-four catties; one pound, avoirdupois to three fourths of a catty, or twelve taels. The Portuguese at Macao, have a pecul for weighing cotton, and valuable articles; a second for coarse goods; and again, a different one for rice. But the Chinese, among themselves, know no difference, either in the weight of a pecul for different articles, or in the tael, whether used for money or goods.
The principal measures in use among the Chinese, are three; namely, long measure, land measure, and dry measure.
The principal measure of length, is thecovid, (chih,) which is divided into tenpunts, (tsun.) Thecovidvaries considerably, according as it is used for measuring cloths, distances, or vessels. That determined upon by the mathematical tribunal, is 13.125 English inches; that used by tradesmen, at Canton, is about 14.625 inches; the one by which distances are usually rated, is nearly 12.1 inches, and that employed by engineers, for public works, 12.7 inches. Theleor mile, is also an uncertain measure, varying more than the covid or foot. Its common measure is three hundred, sixteen, and a quarter fathoms, or one thousand, eight hundred, ninety-seven and a half English feet; it is the usual term, in which length is estimated. The Chinese reckon one hundred, ninety-two and a halfle, for a degree of latitude and longitude; but the Jesuits divided the degree into two hundred and fiftyle, eachlebeing one thousand eight hundred and twenty-six English feet, or the tenth part of a French league, which is the established measure at present. Ale, according to this measurement, is a little more than one third of an English mile.
Land measurehas also varied considerably, but is at present established by authority. By this rule, one thousand, two hundred covids make an acre ormore, which contains about six thousand, six hundred square feet.
Rice, or paddy, is the only article measured in vessels the dimensions of which have been fixed by law or usage; but as even rice and paddy are usually weighed when sold in large quantities, the vessels for measuring these commodities are but little used.
To perform these calculations, the Chinese have an arithmetical board, or abacus, calledswan-pan, or “counting-board,” on which, by constant practice, they will perform calculations in numbers with surprising facility. It consists of an oblong frame of wood, having a bar running lengthwise about two thirds of its width from one side. Through this bar, at right angles, are inserted a number of parallel wires, having moveable balls on them, five on one side, and two on the other. The principle on which computations are made, is this; that any ball in the larger compartment, being placed against the bar and called unity, decreases or increases by tenths, hundredths, &c.; and the corresponding balls in the smaller divisions, by fifths, fiftieths, &c.: if one in the smaller compartment is placed against the middle bar, the opposite unit or integer, which may be any one of the digits, is multiplied by five.
OPIUM.
Having heretofore cursorily alluded to the vast sum annually expended in the importation of opium, I now proceed to give a more particular statement concerning the trade, the number of smokers, &c., &c. The opium-trade, which scarcely attracted the notice of merchants previously to the year 1816, has now swollen into great importance, by the rapid and extensive sale of one of the most destructive narcotics which the world ever knew, and which is used in China as a pernicious indulgence, by smoking. The government has passed the most rigorous laws to prevent its importation and use, but as the officers of the revenue boats, from Linting and Cap-shuy-moon to Canton, are bribed, and receive a stipulated fee on every chest of opium, and every other article illegally imported, smuggling is no longer fraught with any material risk, and has at length assumed the appearance of a regular branch of commerce. Once in two or three years, the Chinese admiral is ordered to proceed to the smuggling depots at the island of Linting,(alias Ling-ting) the “Solitary Vail,” or the “Destitute Orphan,” or to Cap-sin-moon, alias, Cap-shuy-moon, or the “Swift water passage,” and exterminate the “foreign barbarians.” He goes down in formidable array, with an immense number of flags flying; and the sound proceeding from an endless number of great gongs and other noisy instruments, is heard, with a favourable wind, long before his fleet “heaves in sight;” the smugglers are previously informed of his coming, (for public notice is given many weeks, perhaps months, before he arrives;) the imperial fleet is then hove to, at a safe distance, far beyond the reach of cannon-shot, from three to five miles; the gongs are then beaten with the utmost fury, the trumpets blown, and the thousands of warriors shout and bellow with loud vociferations, to frighten away the monsters, and a cannon-shot or two is fired, perhaps; the “barbarians” then get under way very leisurely with a topsail or two bent, and proceed towards the Ladrone, or Rogues islands, called by the Chinese “Low man-shan,” or the “old ten thousand hills;” this satisfies the commander, who returns back, and sounds far and wide, his valorous deeds inalms, (arms,) (for he is one of the beggars who asks a douceur.) Forthwith a courier is despatched to the imperial court, announcing, that the Fankwai, or “Foreign white devils” are blown into “ten thousand atoms,” and that their carcasses have been given to the fish, and to birds of prey. As soon as the Chinese fleet “about ship” to return, which is done immediately if possible, down drop the anchors of the “Fankwai,” the sails are unbent, the smuggling boats are laden again as usual; and thus ends this ridiculous farce.
To show the destructive tendency of this trade in every point of view, to the Chinese empire, a statement is herewith presented, setting forth the alarming increase of the imports from 1817, to 1833:
In the season ending in 1817, three thousand, two hundred and ten chests of Patna, Benares, and Malva opium, containing one hundred and five catties, or one hundred and forty pounds each chest, were imported, which sold for the sum of three millions, six hundred and fifty-seven thousand dollars: in the season ending in 1833, fifteen thousand six hundred and sixty-two chests from India were imported, which sold for thirteen millions, seven hundred and fifty-seven thousand, two hundred and ninety dollars; the whole value of the known importations during the time named, being seventeen years only, was the enormous sum of one hundred and fifty millions, one hundred and thirty four thousand, six hundred and sixty-eight dollars: the number of smokers, allowing three candareens of 17.40 grains troy, per day to each, had increased from about one hundred thousand, to about one million, four hundred and seventy-five thousand, seven hundred and twenty-six. If to the quantity already stated, there is added the importation of Turkey opium, of which we have no regular account, as well as the quantity smuggled by Chinese junks from Singapore, &c., all of which may be fairly estimated at one third more; the number of chests imported in the year 1833, would be about twenty-one thousand, which probably sold for the sum of twenty millions of dollars: the number of smokers may be estimated at nearly two millions. The crude opium undergoes a very expensive process by boiling, or seething and straining, not less than twice, before it is fit for use; it is then made into small pills, or put into the pipe, in a semi-fluid state, and taken off, attwoorthree whiffs, the smoke being vented very slowly through the nostrils, the recipient lying at the same time in a recumbent posture. Although the Chinese are well aware of its baneful effects, and that it is yearly draining the country of the value of many millions of dollars, yet they say, “it is a Josh Pigeon,” (meaning that God hath so decreed it,) and they cannot prevent it. A chest of opium, which cost eight hundred dollars, is said to quadruple in price, when prepared for use.
Opium is vended as openly as teas, by the foreign merchants; the quantity disposed of, and on hand, and the average price, are printed and published monthly, and are in the possession of every dealer; and the chits, or orders given on the commanders of the ships, are generally sold like scrip, to a great number of persons on speculation, before the delivery is finally completed.
OPIUM-SMOKERS.
The tremendous and horrible effects upon the personal appearance of its votaries, may be seen daily, about the suburbs of Canton, and of all the pitiable objects the eye ever saw, a confirmed opium-smoker is apparently the most degraded and worthless. When he has once passed the Rubicon, reformation seems to be impossible, the sting of death which is sin, has seized upon him, his feet are already within the precincts of the grave, and he has sunk like Lucifer, “never to rise again.” When the effect has subsided, anemaciated, nerveless wretch is seen, with a cadaverous skin, eyeballs wildly protruding from their sockets, the step faltering, the voice weak and feeble, and the countenance idiotic; but when an opium-smoker lies under the baneful influence of the narcotic, the images which flit before his diseased imagination, are exquisite, brilliant, heavenly: it is the Nepenthé, prepared by the hands of the fair Helen, which so exhilarated the spirits of all who had the happiness to partake of it, that all care was banished for the time being, from their benighted recollections.
MANTCHOU DYNASTY.
The Mantchou historians have endeavoured to conceal their very modern rise as a kingdom, by veiling their origin in fables, and deducing their descent from a divinity; through these fables, however, it is not difficult to ascertain with a considerable degree of accuracy, their real descent. Their nation is evidently formed by the union of several Toungouse tribes, occupying the country, to the north of Corea, and on the banks of the river Amour. These tribes had by their former unions rendered themselves formidable to their neighbours; and in the time of the Sung dynasty, from A.D. 960 to 1278, had, under the Chinese name of the Kin, or golden dynasty, answering to the Mantchou name Aisin, subdued several northern districts of China. Their farther progress was interrupted by the Mongols, under Agodai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, who, in the thirteenth century, destroyed both the Sung dynasty, and its enemies, and founded the Yuen dynasty. The kingdom of Kin, or Aisin, being thus destroyed, its tribes returned to their original country, where they continued more or less independent of each other, and of their Mongol conquerors. Among the chiefs of their tribes, was one Aisin Keolo, or Gioro, whom the Mantchous make the son of a divine virgin, who became pregnant of him by eating a fruit, brought to her in the bill of a magpie. This Aisin Gioro, at first, ruled over three tribes; but subsequently, others submitted to him, and he became king of a nation, to which he gave the name of Mantchou, or Manchow, which signifies “the full or well-peopled country.” At this point, the thread of Mantchou history is broken, and even names disappear for three or four generations; nor is the history resumed, till the close of the sixteenth century, when the chief, who then governed the Mantchous, incensed at the murder of his father, and grandfather, by a tribe which had revolted from them, and become confederate with theChinese dynasty of Ming, began to wage war against the latter. After thirty-three years, he had gained such power, and ruled over so many tribes, as well Mantchou as Mongol, that in the year 1616, he took the title of emperor, and adopted “Teenming, Heaven’s decree,” as his Kwo-haou or title. Previous to this event, in the year 1599, he appointed persons to form an alphabet for the use of his people, for, up to that period, the Mantchous possessed no written language. The alphabet which they adopted, was derived from, and improved upon the Ouigour and Mongol alphabets, the Mongol being a modification of the Ouigour, a derivative of the Syriac. During the rest of his reign, which continued eleven years longer, Teenming was at constant war with the Chinese, and dying, left the throne to his eighth son, who first adopted the title of Teentsung, which he retained for nine years, and then that of Tsungtih, which continued till his death in 1643; though not of so warlike a disposition as his father, he continued the war during the whole of his reign; owing to the dissensions which prevailed among the Chinese princes of the Ming dynasty, and the numerous revolts, which took place throughout the empire, he was enabled with little trouble, to take possession of Peking, the capital, and to found a new dynasty in China.
This monarch died while yet on the field of victory, leaving the throne to his ninth son, a child of six years old, to whom was given, the title of Kwohaou of Shunche. The young monarch was, immediately after his father’s death, carried into the city of Peking, and proclaimed emperor, amid the acclamations of the people. His reign, and the commencement of the Mantchou or Ya-tsing dynasty, dated from the year 1644.
When about fourteen years of age, one of the regents dying, and some dispute arising, as to who should take his place, Shunche laid aside his minority, and assumed all the functions of imperial power. He made few alterations in the old system of government, being fully occupied in strengthening the dominion, which had been obtained for him; for many Chinese princes still possessed parts of the empire, and assumed the imperial title.
The last of these named Yungleih, was not slain, till the closing year of Shunche’s reign, nor did his death put an end to all fears, for Chingchingkung, known to Europeans, under the name of Koxinga, still hovered about the coast, with a large fleet.
At Shunche’s death, in the year 1661, his third son succeeded to the throne, at the age of eight years, a regency of four chief ministers being appointed to govern during his minority. The new monarch’s Kwo-haou was Kanghe.
Soon after Kanghe’s accession, the regency compelled all the inhabitants of the maritime districts throughout China to retire thirty Chinese miles from the east; by which means the power of Koxinga was much weakened; but at the same time a great number of families were reduced to want. In the 12th year of his reign, 1673, there was a general revolt of the Chinese princes, who were yet living, but from their dissensions and petty jealousies among themselves, they were unable to effect any thing. It was not, however, till 1681, that they were finally subdued. In the following year, 1682, the western part of Formosa was wrested from the grandson of Koxinga, and has since that time remained in the hands of the Chinese.
The conquest of China being firmly established, Kanghe was now able to turn his attention to his own country, which he visited, attended by his whole court and an army of sixty thousand men. He also sent ambassadors to the frontiers, to settle with the Russians the limits of the two empires—nor did he confine himself to the possessions already obtained, but under pretence of assisting the Mongols, many of whom had become tributary to the Mantchou monarchs, previously to the conquest of China, he extended his possessions northeastward, into the country of the Soungarians, whom, as well as some of the tribes of Turkestan and of Thibet, he entirely subdued.
After a long and glorious reign of sixty-one years, Kanghe died in 1722, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, leaving the succession to his fourth son; but his fourteenth son taking advantage of his elder brother’s absence from the capital, seized on the billet of succession, and having changed the number four to fourteen, assumed the throne and the Kwo-haou of Yung-ching.
Yung-ching’s reign is chiefly remarkable for his persecution of the Roman Catholic missionaries, most of whom were sent out of the country. He showed neither the literary nor the military talents displayed by his father, Kanghe, and by his son and successor Keentung; but he was attentive to the business of the government, and to the people. In the fourth year of his reign, thetreaty of peace, now existing between the Russian and Chinese empires, was ratified. By this instrument, the Russians, among other privileges, are permitted to have an academy and church, with an archimandrite, three inferior priests, and six scholars, at Pekin. The time fixed for their stay there is ten years. Yung-ching reigned thirteen years, and died in the year 1735, leaving the succession to his fourth son who took the Kwohaou or title of Keentung.
Keentung’s reign produced many literary works, or rather compilations; it is remarkable for some brilliant conquests in Eastern Tartary or Turkestan and Thibet. The Soungarians having revolted, he entirely annihilated them as a nation, and peopled their country with the inhabitants of more peaceful districts and with Chinese.
On the south of Soungaria he extended his boundary beyond Cashgar, and rendered several of the neighbouring tribes tributary. In the fifty-eighth year of his reign, 1793-94, the first British embassy to China under Lord Macartney, reached Peking. The war in Thibet being brought to a happy conclusion about the same period, is supposed to have had a bad effect on the interests of that embassy. Two years afterward, Keentung, after a reign of sixty years, placed one of his sons on the throne, with the Kwohaŏu of Keaking, and shortly after died. Keaking ascended the throne in the thirty-sixth year of his age. During his reign numerous insurrections occurred among the Chinese, and much discontent existed throughout the empire. In the year 1805-06, the tenth of Keaking’s reign, the Russian embassy under Count Golovkin, failed in obtaining an interview with the emperor, in consequence of refusing to submit to the Kotow, or ceremony of thrice kneeling and nine times bowing the head to the ground. In the year 1816, the twenty-first year of his reign, the British embassy, under Lord Amherst, was sent back from Peking, in a similar manner. During the latter years of his life, Keaking was extremely indolent and inattentive to government, being wholly devoted to the gratification of his vicious desires. He died in August, 1820, in the sixty-first year of his age, and the twenty-fifth of his reign.
Taoukwang is the Kwohaŏu of the reigning emperor, who succeeded to his father Keaking in the thirty-ninth year of his age. The chief occurrences which have taken place during his reign, are the revolts in Turkestan or little Bukharia. In figure, Taoukwang is said to be tall, thin, and of a dark complexion. He is of a generous disposition, diligent, attentive to government and economical in his expenditures. He has also avoided through life, the vices to which his younger brothers are addicted.
DEATH—CEREMONIES OF IMPERIAL MOURNING—POPULATION OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE—KNOCK-HEAD CEREMONY—BEGGARS—CAT AND DOG MARKET—DR. B. AND THE CHINA-MAN—BARBERS—DRESS OF THE CHINESE—THE DRAGON GOD—SLAVERY.
DEATH—CEREMONIES OF IMPERIAL MOURNING—POPULATION OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE—KNOCK-HEAD CEREMONY—BEGGARS—CAT AND DOG MARKET—DR. B. AND THE CHINA-MAN—BARBERS—DRESS OF THE CHINESE—THE DRAGON GOD—SLAVERY.
The Chinese having a great horror of the word “death,” they substitute in its place various periphrases, such as “absent,” “rambling among the genii,” “he being sick, occasioned a vacancy,” i. e., dead. The empress having died during the month of June, 1833, an imperial mandate was published, stating that “herdeparture took placeat four o’clock on the sixteenth of the month.” His majesty says he was married to Tung-kea twenty-six years previously; that she was theprincipal personin themiddle harem, that she was ever full of tenderness, filial piety, and was most obedient—but being attacked by an inveterate dysentery, she had taken the “long departure,” and that it caused him much pain at the loss of his “domestic helper”—his “interior assistant.” His majesty set forth her great virtues, ever since she had been consort toheaven, (i. e. the emperor,) during the thirteen years that she had held the relative situation ofearthto imperial heaven. An edict was published at her death, ordering, that no officer should have his head shaved during one hundred days, nor have any marriage in his family during twenty-seven days, nor play on any musical instrument during one year; and that the soldiers and people should not shave their heads for one month, nor engage in marriages during seven days, nor play on any musical instrument during one hundred days.
Other marks of mourning, are the use of blue ink in the public offices in the place of red, and the removal of the red fringe which usually ornaments the Chinese caps.
IMPERIAL MOURNING.
The following is the translation of the “Order of rites observed in receiving the imperial mandate, raising lamentation, and layingaside the mourning clothes, on occasion of the grand ceremony following the demise of an empress.” It was circulated in Canton as a supplement to the daily court circular. When the imperial mandate, written on yellow paper, comes down the river, an officer is immediately deputed to receive and guard it at the imperial landing place. The master of ceremonies leads the officer, and directs him to receive the mandate with uplifted hands; land and deposite it safely in thedragon dome, (a kind of carriage borne by sixteen or thirty-two men,) and spread it out in proper form. The civil and military officers in plain dresses, then kneel down in order, in the “Sunny-side pavillion,” and so remain until the mandate has passed. When they have risen, the officer leads the procession to the grand gate of the examination court; the civil and military officers then first enter the “most public hall,” and there kneel down, the civilians on the east side, and the military on the west, until the dragon-dome has passed; after which they rise and wait till the dome has entered the hall of the constellation Kwei. In this hall an embroidered yellow curtain and incense-table, must previously be prepared, and an officer be sent to receive, with reverence, the imperial mandate and safely lay it on the table. When this has been done all the officers enter; upon which the master of ceremonies cries out: “Range yourselves in order, perform the ceremony of thrice kneeling, and nine times knocking the head.” He then requests to have the mandate read aloud; and the public official reader raises up the mandate to read it.
Master of Ceremonies.“Officers—all kneel—hear the proclamation read—(and when the reading is concluded he continues)—rise—raise lamentation.” The officers do so accordingly. After the lamentation, the reader places the mandate on the yellow table, and the master of ceremonies calls out: “Deliver the imperial mandate.” An officer is then sent to the yellow table, who raises up the mandate, and delivers it to the governor, kneeling. The governor having received it, rises, and delivers it to the Poo-ching-sze, also kneeling; the latter officer in turn rises, and delivers it to his chief clerk, likewise kneeling. The clerk rises and takes it to the hall of Tsze-wei, (in the Poo-ching-sze’s office,) to be printed on yellow paper.
Master of Ceremonies.“Officers—all put on mourning dresses.” The officers then retire; when they have changed theirdresses, the master of ceremonies leads them back, and gives the order: “Arrange yourselves, thrice kneel and nine times knock head—rise—raise lamentation—(after lamentation)—eat.” The officers then go out to the hall of abstinence, where they eat a little, the civil and military each taking their respective sides. The master of ceremonies then cries: “Retire.” They retire to the “public place,” and in the evening reassemble, and perform the same ceremonies. At night, they sleep in the public place, separate from their families. The same ceremonies are performed in the morning and evening of the two following days, after which the officers return to their ordinary duties.
When the mandate has been copied, an officer is sent with it to the hall of the constellation Kwei, to place it on the yellow table, and another is sent to burn incense and keep respectful charge of it for twenty-seven days; after which it is delivered to the Poo-ching-sze, and sent back to the board of rites. On the twenty-seventh day, the officers assemble as before, and, after the same ceremonies of lamentation have been gone through, the master of ceremonies gives the order: “Take off mourning—put on plain clothes—remove the table of incense.” All then return home and the mourning ceremonies are at an end.
The population contained in the eighteen provinces of the Chinese empire, according to the census taken in the eighteenth year of the emperor Keenlung, (corresponding to the year 1812,) amounted to three hundred and sixty-one millions, six hundred and ninety-eight thousand, eight hundred and seventy-nine souls. This statement is taken from a work called the “Ta-tsing-hwny-teen,” a collection of statutes of the “Ta-tsing dynasty,” published by government, in sixteen duodecimo volumes, for the use of its own officers; it furnishes the data on which the government acts in levying taxes, &c. All the people are included excepting, we believe, those who are employed in the civil and military service of the emperor. The mode of taking the census is very minute and particular; every province is divided intofoosandchows; these are subdivided intoheens; from theheenthe sub-division is carried down to thekea, which consists of only ten families. Tenkeasmake apaou, or neighbourhood ofone hundredfamilies, which has a headman or constable, whose duty it is to watch over the whole; and among other things, to keep a list ofall the families and individuals within his jurisdiction; it is also the duty of this constable to report the names of those within his limits to the chief officer of the heen; who reports to the chief officer foo; he again to the treasurer of the province; who in his turn, annually, on the tenth moon, reports to the board of revenue at Peking. Such is the division and the order required by the laws of the land. This system certainly enables the government to know, and to state accurately, the number of individuals, not only in every province, but in any given district of each or any one of the provinces.
The Chinese empire having remained undisturbed by wars, or by internal commotions of much importance, for more than one hundred and twenty years, an accumulation has taken place on a comparatively small spot, of a moiety of all the human beings which are now in existence. On a first view of this immense, this incomprehensible number of living beings, we can scarcely believe the evidence of our senses or conceive how it is possible that sustenance can be procured for such an assemblage; but when we have ascertained that the country is nearly destitute of flocks and herds, that the ground is almost exclusively appropriated to the feeding and clothing of its inhabitants, that there are a less number of souls, by seventy to the square mile, than is found in the dutchy of Lucca, and but five more in the same space than in the Netherlands, which contains two hundred and seventy-five, our wonder in a great degree ceases, and we are compelled to believe that the Chinese government has published as accurate a statement of its population as any European government, or that of the United States: nor can we conceive what object the government can have in deceiving its own subjects, for the work is evidently not published for the use of curious inquirers abroad. It is also well known, that the inhabitants live in the most frugal manner, that a bowl of rice with a few vegetables, or perhaps a little fish or fowl, which is very abundant, is the entire provision of multitudes.
Large portions of the country yield two crops annually, and those generally very abundant; the inhabitants also obtain provisions from the Persian gulf to the bay of Bengal, from Burmah, Siam and Cochin-China, and from every important island throughout the great Indian Archipelago. Every animal and vegetable substance is also an edible with one class or other of the people.Large quantities of vegetable produce, which in any other country would be devoured by the flocks and herds, are here consumed by human beings. If we regard the produce of the soil, and the manner in which the people live, we have strong presumptive evidence of a very numerous population.
HABITS OF THE CHINESE.
The Chinese of the present day are grossly superstitious; they offer sacrifices to the manes of deceased relatives and friends, and emblems of money and clothes are consumed on the supposition that a substantial benefit will be transferred to the individual in the world of spirits.
In their habits they are most depraved and vicious; gambling is universal and is carried to a most ruinous and criminal extent; they use the most pernicious drugs as well as the most intoxicating liquors to produce intoxication; they are also gross gluttons; every thing that runs, walks, creeps, flies, or swims, in fact, every thing that will supply the place of food, whether of the sea, or the land, and articles most disgusting to other people, are by them greedily devoured. The government has a code of laws, written in blood; the most horrid tortures are used to force confessions, and the judges are noted for being grossly corrupt; the variety and ingenuity displayed in prolonging the tortures of miserable criminals who are finally intended to be deprived of life, can only be conceived by a people refined in cruelty, blood-thirsty, and inhuman.
Ancient Chinese books in speaking of their character, say: “Their natural disposition is light and ostentatious, fond of talk, artfully specious, with little truth or sincerity—the people of Canton are silly, light, weak in body and in mind, and without any ability to fight. The Chinese believe in sorcery and demons, and lay stress on a multiplicity of sacrifices—they have tattooed bodies, and short hair.” Of these ancient features of their character, they still retain a fondness of talk, are specious, crafty and insincere; their timidity and weakness, also still remain; they believe in sorcery and demons, and lay stress on a multiplicity of sacrifices. Sir Thomas Herbert in his quaint language, says: “The Chinese are no quarrellers, albeit voluptuous, costly in their sports, great gamesters, and in trading, too subtle for young merchants; oft-times so wedded to deceiving, that after they have lost their whole estate, wife and children are staked; yet in a little time, Jewlike,by gleaning here and there, they are able to redeem their loss; and if not at the promised day, wife and children are then sold in the market.” The Chinese settlers throughout the Indian Archipelago, are described as being at once enterprising, keen, laborious, luxurious, sensual, debauched, and pusillanimous; they are generally engaged in trade, in which they are equally speculative, expert, and judicious. Their superior intelligence and activity have placed in their hands the management of the public revenue, in almost every country of the Archipelago, whether ruled by native or European: the traffic of the Archipelago, with the surrounding foreign states, is almost wholly conducted by them.
There is scarcely a government gazette published at Peking; almost daily, placards are posted at the principal places about Canton and its suburbs, giving accounts of murders, and insurrections, robberies, shocking and unnatural crimes of kidnapping, infanticides, suicides, and of all the beastly and unnatural crimes of which the world ever heard or read. The various modes of punishment resorted to by the government, and the unequal distribution of justice, are revolting to humanity, and most disgusting and loathsome in the recital. I will relate one case to show, that, in modern times, the Chinese are not less refined in their cruelties, than when Ta-he, the queen of Chow, among many other horrible inventions, caused brazen rollers to be heated, and then smeared with an unctuous matter, so that she might have the supreme pleasure of seeing miserable culprits, fruitlessly endeavouring to pass this burning bridge, and continually slipping into a tremendous fire, there to meet with a death horrible in the extreme. The case to which I have alluded, took place in the year 1813, when the emperor of China convicted a eunuch of being concerned in a treasonable conspiracy. The victim had been a favourite servant of the emperor’s father, Keen-lung, who had conferred upon him many favours. The poor wretch was bound round with cords and canvass, to which was added a quantity of tallow and other combustible matter, so as to convert him into agigantic candle, and he was slowly consumed at his father’s grave: the wretched being died in tortures the most excruciating that imagination can conceive!