(W. A. P.)
Bibliography of German History.—Although the authorities for the history of Germany may be said to begin with Caesar, it is Tacitus who is especially useful, hisGermaniabeing an invaluable mine of information about the early inhabitants of the country. In the dark and disordered centuries which followed there are only a few scanty notices of the Germans, mainly in the works of foreign writers like Gregory of Tours and Jordanes; and then the 8th and 9th centuries, the time of the revival of learning which is associated with the name of Charlemagne, is reached. By the end of this period Christianity had been firmly established among most of the German tribes; the monks were the trustees of the new learning, and we must look mainly, although not exclusively, to the monasteries for our authorities. The work of the monks generally took the form ofAnnalesorChronica, and among the numerous German monasteries which are famous in this connexion may be mentioned Fulda, Reichenau, St Gall and Lorsch. For contemporary history and also for the century or so which preceded the lifetimes of their authors these writings are fairly trustworthy, but beyond this they are little more than collections of legends. There are also a large number of lives of saints and churchmen, in which the legendary element is still more conspicuous.
With regard to theAnnalesandChronicathree important considerations must be mentioned. They are local, they are monastic, and they are partisan. The writer in the Saxon abbey of Corvey, or in the Franconian abbey of Fulda, knows only about events which happened near his own doors; he records, it is true, occurrences which rumour has brought to his ears, but in general he is trustworthy only for the history of his own neighbourhood. The Saxon and the Franconian annalists know nothing of the distant Bavarians; there is even a gulf between the Bavarian and the Swabian. Then the Annals are monastic. To their writers the affairs of the great world are of less importance than those of the monastery itself. The Saxon Widukind, for instance, gives more space to the tale of the martyrdom of St Vitus than he does to several of the important campaigns of Henry the Fowler. Lastly, the annalist is a partisan. One is concerned to glorify at all costs the Carolingian house; another sacrifices almost everything to attack the emperor Henry IV. and to defend the Papacy; while a third holds a brief for some king or emperor, like Louis the Pious or Otto the Great.
Two difficulties are met with in giving an account of the sources of German history. In the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries it is hard, if not impossible, to disentangle the history of Germany from that of the rest of the Frankish empire of which it formed part; in fact it is not until the time of the dissensions between the sons of the emperor Louis I. that there are any signs of demarcation between the East and the West Franks, or, in other words, any separate history of Germany. The second difficulty arises later and is due to the connexion of Germany with the Empire. Germany was always the great pillar of the imperial power; for several centuries it was the Empire in everything but in name, and yet its political history is often overshadowed by the glamour of events in Italy. While the chroniclers were recording the deeds of Frederick I. and of Frederick II. in the peninsula, the domestic history of Germany remained to a large extent unwritten.
Among the early German chroniclers the Saxon Widukind, the author of theRes gestae Saxonicae, is worthy of mention. He was a monk of Corvey, and his work is the best authority for the early history of Saxony. Lambert, a monk of Hersfeld, and Widukind’s countryman, Bruno, in hisDe bello Saxonico, tell the story of the great contest between the emperor Henry IV. and Pope Gregory VII., with special reference to the Saxon part of the struggle. But perhaps the ablest and the most serviceable of these early writers is Otto of Freising, a member of the Babenberg family. Otto was also related to the great house of Hohenstaufen, a relationship which gave him access to sources of information usually withheld from the ordinary monastic annalist, and his work is very valuable for the earlier part of the career of Frederick I. Something is learned, too, from biographies written by the monks, of which Einhard’sVita Karoli Magniis the greatest and the best, and Wipo’s life of the emperor Conrad II. is valuable, while another Carolingian courtier, Nithard, has a special interest as, almost alone among these early chroniclers, being a soldier and not a monk.
The monastic writers remain our chief authorities until the great change brought about by the invention of printing, although a certain amount of work was done by clerical writers attached to the courts of various rulers. Parallel with this event the revival of learning was producing a great number of men who could write, and, more important still, of men who were throwing off the monastic habits of thought and passing into a new intellectual atmosphere. The Renaissance was followed by the fierce controversies aroused by the Reformation, and the result was the output of an enormous mass of writings covering every phase of the mighty combat and possessing every literary virtue save that of impartiality. But apart from these polemical writings, many of which had only an ephemeral value, the Renaissance was the source of another stream of historical literature. Several princes and other leading personages, foremost among whom was the emperor Maximilian I., had spent a good deal of time and money in collecting the manuscripts of the medieval chroniclers, and these now began to be printed. The chronicle of Otto of Freising, which appeared in 1515, and theVitaof Einhard, which appeared six years later, are only two among the many printed at this time. The publication of collections of chronicles began in 1529, and the uncritical fashion in which these were reproduced made forgeries easy and frequent. There was, indeed, more than a zeal for pure learning behind this new movement; for both parties in the great religious controversy of the time used these records of the past as a storehouse of weapons of offence. The Protestants eagerly sought out the writings which exposed and denounced the arrogance of thepopes, while the Romanists attempted to counter them with the numerous lives of the saints.
But before the raw material of history thus began to increase enormously in bulk, it had already begun to change its character and to assume its modern form. TheChroniclestill survived as a medium of conveying information, though more often than not this was now written by a layman; but new stores of information were coming into existence, or rather the old stores were expanding and taking a different form. Very roughly these may be divided into six sections. (1) Official documents issued by the emperors and other German rulers. (2) Treaties concluded between Germany and other powers and also between one German state and another. (3) Despatches sent to England, Spain and other countries by their representatives in various parts of Germany. (4) Controversial writings or treatises written to attack or defend a given position, largely the product of the Reformation period. (5) The correspondence of eminent and observant persons. (6) An enormous mass of personal impressions taking the form of Commentaries, Memoirs and Diaries (Tagebücher). Moreover, important personages still find eulogistic biographers and defenders,e.g.the fanciful writings about the emperor Maximilian I. or Pufendorf’sDe rebus gestis Friderici Wilhelmi Magni electoris Brandenburgici.
Through the dust aroused by the great Reformation controversy appear the dim beginnings of the scientific spirit in the writing of history, and in this connexion the name of Aventinus, “the Bavarian Herodotus,” may be mentioned. But for many years hardly any progress was made in this direction. Even if they possessed the requisite qualifications the historiographers attached to the courts of the emperor Charles V. and of lesser potentates could not afford to be impartial. Thus new histories were written and old ones unearthed, collected and printed, but no attempt was made to criticize and collate the manuscripts of the past, or to present two sides of a question in the writings of the present. Among the collections of authorities made during the 16th and 17th centuries those of J. Pistorius (Frankfort, 1583-1607), of E. Lindenbrog (Frankfort, 1609) and of M. Freher (Frankfort, 1600-1611), may be noticed, although these were only put together and printed in the most haphazard and unconnected fashion. Passing thus through these two centuries we reach the beginning of the 18th century and the work done for German historical scholarship by the philosopher Leibnitz, who sought to do for his own country what Muratori was doing for Italy. For some years it had been recognized that the collection and arrangement of the authorities for German history was too great an undertaking for any one man, and societies under very influential patronage were founded for this purpose. But very slight results attended these elaborate schemes, although their failure did not deter Leibnitz from pursuing the same end. The two chief collections which were issued by the philosopher are theAccessiones historicae(1698-1700) and theScriptores rerum Brunsvicensium; the latter of these, containing documents centring round the history of the Welf family, was published in three volumes at Hanover (1707-1711). Leibnitz worked at another collection, theOrigines Guelficae, which was completed and issued by his pupils (Hanover, 1750-1780), and also atAnnales imperii occidentis Brunsvicenses, which, although the most valuable collection of the kind yet made, was not published until edited by G. H. Pertz (Hanover, 1843-1846). Other collections followed those of Leibnitz, among which may be mentioned theCorpus historicum medii aeviof J. G. Eccard (Leipzig, 1723) and theScriptores rerum Germanicarumof J. B. Mencke (Leipzig, 1728). But these collections are merely heaps of historical material, good and bad; the documents therein were not examined and they are now quite superseded. They give, however, evidence of the great industry of their authors, and are the foundations upon which modern German scholarship has built.
In the 19th century the scientific spirit received a great impetus from the German system of education, one feature of which was that the universities began to require original work for some of their degrees. In this field of scientific research the Germans were the pioneers, and in it they are still pre-eminent, with Ranke as their most famous name and theMonumenta Germaniae historicaas their greatest production. TheMonumentais a critical and ordered collection of documents relating to the history of Germany between 500 and 1500. It owes its origin mainly to the efforts of the statesman Stein, who was responsible for the foundation of theGesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde, under the auspices of which the work was begun. TheGesellschaftwas established in 1819, and, the editorial work having been entrusted to G. H. Pertz, the first volume of theMonumentawas published in 1826. The work was divided into five sections:Scriptores,Leges,Diplomata,EpistolaeandAntiquitates, but it was many years before anything was done with regard to the two last-named sections. In the three remaining ones, however, folio volumes were published regularly, and by 1909 thirty folio volumes ofScriptores, five ofLegesand one ofDiplomata imperiihad appeared. But meanwhile a change of organization had taken place. When Pertz resigned his editorial position in 1874 and theGesellschaftwas dissolved, twenty-four folio volumes had been published. The Prussian Academy of Sciences now made itself responsible for the continuance of the work, and a board of direction was appointed, the presidents of which were successively G. Waitz, W. Wattenbach, E. Dümmler and O. Holder-Egger. Soon afterwards as money became more plentiful the scope of work was extended; the production of the folio volumes continued, but the five sections were subdivided and in each of these a series of quarto volumes was issued. The titles of these new sections give a sufficient idea of their contents. TheScriptoresare divided intoAuctores antiquissimi,Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum,Scriptores rerum Langobardicarum et Italicarum,Libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum,Gesta pontificum RomanorumandDeutsche Chroniken, orScriptores qui vernacula lingua usi sunt. TheLegesare divided intoLeges nationum Germanicarum,Capitularia regum Francorum,Concilia,Constitutiones imperatorum et regumandFormulae. Three quarto volumes ofDiplomata regum et imperatorum Germaniaeand one ofDiplomata Karolingorumhad been published by 1909. Work was also begun upon theAntiquitatesand theEpistolae. The sections of the former arePoëtae Latini medii aevi,Libri confraternitatumandNecrologia Germaniae, and of the latterEpistolae saeculi XIII.andEpistolae Merovingici et Karolini aevi. Meanwhile the publication of theScriptoresproper continues, although the thirty-first and subsequent volumes are in quarto and not in folio, and the number of volumes in the whole undertaking is continually being increased. The archives of theGesellschafthave been published in twelve volumes, and a large number of volumes of theNeues Archivhave appeared. Some of the MSS. have been printed in facsimile, and an index to theMonumenta, edited by O. Holder-Egger and K. Zeumer, appeared in 1890. The writings of the more important chroniclers have been published separately, and many of them have been translated into German.
It will thus be seen that the ground covered by theMonumentais enormous. The volumes of theScriptorescontain not only the domestic chroniclers, but also selections from the work of foreign writers who give information about the history of Germany—for example, the Englishman Matthew Paris. In the main these writings are arranged in chronological order. Each has been edited by an expert, and the various introductions give evidence of the number of MSS. collated and the great pains taken to ensure textual accuracy on the part of the different editors, among whom may be mentioned Mommsen and Lappenberg. Other great names in German historical scholarship have also assisted in this work. In addition to Waitz theLegessection has enjoyed the services of F. Bluhme and of H. Brunner, and theDiplomatasection of T. Sickel, H. Bresslau and E. Mühlbacher.
The progress of theMonumentastimulated the production of other works of a like nature, and among the smaller collections of authorities which appeared during the 19th century two are worthy of mention. These are theFontes rerum Germanicarum, edited by J. F. Böhmer (Stuttgart, 1843-1868), a collection of sources of the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, and theBibliothecarerum Germanicarum, edited by Ph. Jaffé (Berlin, 1864-1873). Another development followed the production of theMonumenta, this being the establishment in most of the German states of societies the object of which was to foster the study of local history. Reference may be made to aVereinfor this purpose in Saxony and to others in Silesia and in Mecklenburg. Much has also been done in Prussia, in Brandenburg, in Bavaria, in Hanover, in Württemberg and in Baden, and collections of authorities have been made by competent scholars, of which theGeschichtsquellen der Provinz Sachsen und angrenzender Gebiete(Halle, 1870, fol.), which extends to forty volumes, the smallerScriptores rerum Prussicarum(Leipzig, 1861-1874), and the seventy-seven volumes of thePublikationen aus den königlichen preussischen Staatsarchiven, veranlasst und unterstützt durch die königliche Archiverwaltung(Leipzig, 1878, fol.), may be cited as examples. The cities have followed the same path and their archives are being thoroughly examined. In 1836 anUrkundenbuchof Frankfort was published, and this example has been widely followed, the work done in Cologne, in Bremen and in Mainz being perhaps specially noticeable. Moreover an historical commission at Munich has published twenty-eight volumes in the seriesDie Chroniken der deutschen Städte vom 14. bis ins 16. Jahrhundert(Leipzig, 1862, fol.). Lastly, many documents relating to the great families of Germany, among them those of Hohenzollern and of Wittelsbach, have been carefully edited and given to the world.
With this great mass of material collected, sifted and edited by scholars of the highest standing it is not surprising that modern works on the history of Germany are stupendous in number and are generally of profound learning, and this in spite of the fact that some German historians—Gregorovius, Pauli and Lappenberg, for example—have devoted their time to researches into the history of foreign lands.
The earliest period is dealt with by K. Zeuss inDie Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme(Munich, 1837; new ed., Göttingen, 1904); and then by F. Dahn in hisUrgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Völker(Berlin, 1880-1889) and hisDie Könige der Germanen, volumes of which have appeared at intervals between 1861 and 1909.The Carolingian time is covered by E. Dümmler’sGeschichte des ostfränkischen Reichs(Leipzig, 1887-1888), and then follow Ranke’sJahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter dem sächsischen Hause(Berlin, 1837-1840), W. von Giesebrecht’sGeschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit(1855-1888), and F. Raumer’sGeschichte der Hohenstaufen.For the reigns of Lothair the Saxon and Conrad III. P. Jaffé’s books,Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter Lothar dem Sachsen(Berlin, 1843) andGeschichte des deutschen Reiches unter Conrad III.(Hanover, 1845), may be consulted.The chief histories on the period between the fall of the Hohenstaufen and the Renaissance are: T. Lindner,Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern(Stuttgart, 1888-1893); O. Lorenz,Deutsche Geschichte im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert(Vienna, 1863-1867); J. Aschbach,Geschichte Kaiser Sigmunds(Hamburg, 1838-1845); K. Fischer,Deutsches Leben und deutsche Zustände von der Hohenstaufenzeit bis ins Reformationszeitalter(Gotha, 1884); V. von Kraus,Deutsche Geschichte im Ausgange des Mittelalters(Stuttgart, 1888-1905), and A. Bachmann,Deutsche Reichsgeschichte im Zeitalter Friedrichs III. und Maximilians I.(Leipzig, 1884-1894).The two greatest works on the Reformation period are L. von Ranke’sDeutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation(Leipzig, 1882) and J. Janssen’sGeschichte des deutschen Volkes seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters(1897-1903). Other works which may be mentioned are: F. B. von Bucholtz,Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands I.(Vienna, 1831-1838); C. Egelhaaf,Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation(Berlin, 1893), and F. von Bezold,Geschichte der deutschen Reformation(Berlin, 1890).For the years after the Reformation we have Ranke,Zur deutschen Geschichte—Vom Religionsfrieden bis zum 30-jährigen Kriege(Leipzig, 1888); M. Ritter,Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Gegenreformation und des dreissigjährigen Krieges(Stuttgart, 1887, fol.); G. Droysen,Geschichte der Gegenreformation(Berlin, 1893); A. Gindely,Rudolf II. und seine Zeit(Prague, 1862-1868) andGeschichte des dreissigjährigen Krieges(Prague, 1869-1880). Gindely’s book is, of course, only one among an enormous number of works on the Thirty Years’ War.For the period leading up to the time of Frederick the Great we have B. Erdmannsdörffer,Deutsche Geschichte vom Westfälischen Frieden bis zum Regierungsantritt Friedrichs des Grossen(Berlin, 1892-1893); and then follow Ranke,Zur Geschichte von Österreich und Preussen zwischen den Friedensschlüssen von Aachen und Hubertusburg(Leipzig, 1875) andDie deutschen Mächte und der Fürstenbund(Leipzig, 1871-1872); K. Biedermann,Deutschland im 18. Jahrhundert(Leipzig, 1854-1880); W. Oncken,Das Zeitalter Friedrichs des Grossen(Berlin, 1880-1882); A. von Arneth,Geschichte Maria Theresias(Vienna, 1863-1879); L. Häusser,Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Gründung des Deutschen Bundes(Berlin, 1861-1863), and K. T. von Heigel,Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Auflösung des alten Reichs(Stuttgart, 1899, fol.).For the 19th century we may mention: H. von Treitschke,Deutsche Geschichte im 19. Jahrhundert(Leipzig, 1879-1894); H. von Sybel,Die Begründung des deutschen Reiches durch Wilhelm I.(Munich, 1889-1894); G. Kaufmann,Politische Geschichte Deutschlands im 19. Jahrhundert(Berlin, 1900), and H. von Zwiedeneck-Südenhorst,Deutsche Geschichte von der Auflösung des alten bis zur Gründung des neuen Reiches(Stuttgart, 1897-1905). These are perhaps the most important, but there are many others of which the following is a selection: K. Fischer,Die Nation und der Bundestag(Leipzig, 1880); K. Klüpfel,Geschichte der deutschen Einheitsbestrebungen bis zu ihrer Erfüllung(Berlin, 1872-1873); H. Blum,Die deutsche Revolution1848-1849 (Florence, 1897) andDas deutsche Reich zur Zeit Bismarcks(Leipzig, 1893); W. Maurenbrecher,Gründung des deutschen Reiches(Leipzig, 1892); H. Friedjung,Der Kampf um die Vorherrschaft in Deutschland1859-1866 (Stuttgart, 1897); C. von Kaltenborn,Geschichte der deutschen Bundesverhältnisse und Einheitsbestrebungen von 1806-1856(Berlin, 1857); J. Jastrow,Geschichte des deutschen Einheitstraumes und seiner Erfüllung(Berlin, 1885), and P. Klöppel,Dreissig Jahre deutscher Verfassungsgeschichte(Leipzig, 1900).For the most recent developments of German politics see H. Schulthess,Europäischer Geschichtskalender(Nördlingen, 1861, fol., a work similar to the EnglishAnnual Register); W. Müller and K. Wippermann,Politische Geschichte der Gegenwart(Berlin, 1868, fol.); theStatistisches Jahrbuch des deutschen Reichs, and A. L. Lowell,Governments and Parties in Continental Europe(1896).A good general history of Germany is theBibliothek deutscher Geschichte, edited by H. von Zwiedeneck-Südenhorst (Stuttgart, 1876, fol.). Other general histories, although on a smaller scale, are K. Lamprecht,Deutsche Geschichte(Berlin, 1891-1896); O. Kämmel,Deutsche Geschichte(Dresden, 1889); K. Biedermann,Deutsche Volks- und Kulturgeschichte(Wiesbaden, 1885); T. Lindner,Geschichte des deutschen Volks(Stuttgart, 1894); theHandbuch der deutschen Geschichte, edited by B. Gebhardt (Stuttgart, 1901), and K. W. Nitzsch,Geschichte des deutschen Volkes bis zum Augsburger Religionsfrieden(Leipzig, 1883-1885).Special reference is deservedly made to three works of the highest value. These are J. G. Droysen’s greatGeschichte der preussischen Politik(Berlin, 1855-1886); theDeutsche Reichstagsakten, the first series of which was published at Munich (1867, fol.) and the second at Gotha (1893-1901); and the collection known as theRegesta imperii, which owes its existence to the labours of J. F. Böhmer. Nearly the whole of the period between 751 and 1347 is covered by these volumes; the charters and other documents of some of the German kings being edited by Böhmer himself, and new and enlarged editions of certain sections have been brought out by J. Ficker, E. Winkelmann and others. Much useful information on the history of different periods is contained in the lives of individual emperors and others. Among these are H. Prutz,Kaiser Friedrich I.(Danzig, 1871-1874); F. W. Schirrmacher,Kaiser Friedrich II.(Göttingen, 1859-1865); H. Ulmann,Kaiser Maximilian I.(Stuttgart, 1884-1891); F. von Hurter,Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II.(Schaffhausen, 1857-1864), and H. Blum,Fürst Bismarck und seine Zeit(Munich, 1895). There is also the great series of volumes, primary and supplementary, forming theAllgemeine deutsche Biographie(Leipzig, 1875, fol.), in which the worddeutscheis interpreted in the widest possible sense.Apart from political histories there are useful collections of laws and other official documents of importance, and also a large number of valuable works on the laws and constitutions of the Germans and on German institutions generally. Among the collections are M. Goldast,Collectio constitutionum imperialium(1613; new and enlarged edition, 1673); theCapitulationes imperatorum et regum Romana-Germanorum(Strassburg, 1851) of Johann Limnäus, and theCorpus juris Germanici antiqui(Berlin, 1824) of F. Walter. Collections dealing with more recent history are J. C. Glaser’sArchiv des norddeutschen Bundes. Sammlung aller Gesetze, Verträge und Aktenstücke, die Verhältnisse des norddeutschen Bundes betreffend(Berlin, 1867); W. Jungermann’sArchiv des deutschen Reiches(Berlin, 1873, fol.), and theActa Borussica. Denkmäler der preussischen Staatsverwaltung im 18. Jahrhundert(Berlin, 1892, fol.). Mention may also be made of C. C. Homeyer’s edition of theSachsenspiegeland L. A. von Lassberg’s edition of theSchwabenspiegel; the many volumes of Wallenstein’s letters and papers; the eighteen volumes of theUrkunden und Aktenstücke zur Geschichte des Kurfürsten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg(Berlin, 1864, fol.); and the thirty volumes of thePolitische Korrespondenz Friedrichs des Grossen(Berlin, 1879-1905). Modern writers on these subjects distinguished for their learning are G. Waitz (Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, Kiel and Berlin, 1844, fol.) and G. L. von Maurer (Geschichte der Städteverfassung in Deutschland, Erlangen, 1869-1871, and other cognate writings), their works being valuable not only for the early institutionsof the Germans, but also for those of other Teutonic peoples. Other works on the German constitution and German laws are K. F. Eichhorn,Deutsche Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte(Göttingen, 1843-1844); R. Schröder,Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte(Leipzig, 1889 and again 1902); H. Brunner,Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte(Leipzig, 1887-1892), andGrundzüge der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte(Leipzig, 1901-1903), and E. Mayer,Deutsche und französische Verfassungsgeschichte vom 9.-11. Jahrhundert(Leipzig, 1899).Manners and customs are dealt with in J. Scherr’sDeutsche Kultur- und Sittengeschichte(Leipzig, 1852-1853); J. Lippert’sDeutsche Sittengeschichte(Vienna and Prague, 1889); O. Henne am Rhyn’sKulturgeschichte des deutschen Volkes(Berlin, 1886); theGeschichte des deutschen Volkes und seiner Kultur im Mittelalter(Leipzig, 1891-1898) of H. Gerdes, and F. von Löher’sKulturgeschichte der Deutschen im Mittelalter(Munich, 1891-1894). Among the works on husbandry may be mentioned: K. Bücher,Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft(Tübingen, 1893); K. T. von Inama-Sternegg,Deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte(Leipzig, 1879-1901), and K. Lamprecht,Deutsches Wirtschaftsleben im Mittelalter(Leipzig, 1886). For antiquities see M. Heyne,Fünf Bücher deutscher Hausaltertümer von den ältesten geschichtlichen Zeiten bis zum 16. Jahrhundert(Leipzig, 1899-1903), and L. Lindenschmit,Handbuch der deutschen Altertumskunde(Brunswick, 1880-1889). For the history of the German church see A. Hauck,Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands(Leipzig, 1887-1903); F. W. Rettberg,Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands(Göttingen, 1846-1848), and J. Friedrich,Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands(Bamberg, 1867-1869). For finance see K. D. Hüllmann,Deutsche Finanzgeschichte des Mittelalters(1805); for the administration of justice, O. Franklin,Das Reichshofgericht im Mittelalter(Weimar, 1867-1869), and A. Stölzel,DieEntwicklungdes gelehrten Richtertums in deutschen Territorien(Stuttgart, 1872); for the towns and their people see J. Jastrow,Die Volkszahl deutscher Städte zu Ende des Mittelalters und zu Beginn der Neuzeit(Berlin, 1886); F. W. Barthold,Geschichte der deutschen Städte und des deutschen Bürgertums(Leipzig, 1850-1854), and K. Hegel,Städte und Gilden der germanischen Völker im Mittelalter(Leipzig, 1891); and for manufactures and commerce see J. Falke,Die Geschichte des deutschen Handels(Leipzig, 1859-1860); H. A. Mascher,Das deutsche Gewerbewesen von der frühesten Zeit bis auf die Gegenwart(Potsdam, 1866); F. W. Stahl,Das deutsche Handwerk(Giessen, 1874); the numerous writings on the history of the Hanseatic League and other works. The nobles and the other social classes have each their separate histories, among these being C. F. F. von Strantz,Geschichte des deutschen Adels(Breslau, 1845), and K. H. Roth von Schreckenstein,Die Ritterwürde und der Ritterstand(Freiburg, 1866).The Germans have produced some excellent historical atlases, among them K. von Spruner’sHistorisch-geographischer Handatlas(Gotha, 1853); a new edition of this by T. Menke calledHandatlas für die Geschichte des Mittelalters und der neueren Zeit(Gotha, 1880), and G. Droysen’sAllgemeiner historischer Handatlas(Leipzig, 1886). The historical geography of Germany is dealt with in B. Knüll’sHistorische Geographie Deutschlands im Mittelalter(Breslau, 1903); in F. H. Müller’sDie deutschen Stämme und ihre Fürsten(Hamburg, 1852), and in many other works referring to the different parts of the country.English books on the history of Germany are not very numerous. There is a shortHistory of Germanyby James Sime (1874), another by E. F. Henderson (1902), andA History of Germany 1715-1815by C. T. Atkinson (1909). H. A. L. Fisher’sMedieval Empire(1898) is very useful for the earlier period, and J. Bryce’sHoly Roman Empireis indispensable. There is a translation of Janssen’sGeschichteby M. A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie (1896, fol.), and there are useful chapters in the different volumes of theCambridge Modern History. Two English historians have distinguished themselves by their work on special periods: Carlyle with hisHistory of Friedrich II., called the Great(1872-1873), and W. Robertson with hisHistory of the Reign of Charles V.(1820). There is also E. Armstrong’s Charles V. (London, 1902). Among German historical periodicals are theHistorische Zeitschrift, long associated with the name of H. von Sybel, and theHistorisches Jahrbuch.In guides to the historical sources and to modern historical works Germany is well served. There is theQuellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte(Leipzig, 1906) of Dahlmann-Waitz, a most compendious volume, and the learnedDeutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter(Berlin, 1893-1894) of W. Wattenbach; A. Potthast’sBibliotheca historica medii aevi(Berlin, 1896), and theDeutschlands Geschichtsquellen seit der Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts(Berlin, 1886-1887) of O. Lorenz and A. Goldmann.
The earliest period is dealt with by K. Zeuss inDie Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme(Munich, 1837; new ed., Göttingen, 1904); and then by F. Dahn in hisUrgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Völker(Berlin, 1880-1889) and hisDie Könige der Germanen, volumes of which have appeared at intervals between 1861 and 1909.
The Carolingian time is covered by E. Dümmler’sGeschichte des ostfränkischen Reichs(Leipzig, 1887-1888), and then follow Ranke’sJahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter dem sächsischen Hause(Berlin, 1837-1840), W. von Giesebrecht’sGeschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit(1855-1888), and F. Raumer’sGeschichte der Hohenstaufen.
For the reigns of Lothair the Saxon and Conrad III. P. Jaffé’s books,Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter Lothar dem Sachsen(Berlin, 1843) andGeschichte des deutschen Reiches unter Conrad III.(Hanover, 1845), may be consulted.
The chief histories on the period between the fall of the Hohenstaufen and the Renaissance are: T. Lindner,Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern(Stuttgart, 1888-1893); O. Lorenz,Deutsche Geschichte im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert(Vienna, 1863-1867); J. Aschbach,Geschichte Kaiser Sigmunds(Hamburg, 1838-1845); K. Fischer,Deutsches Leben und deutsche Zustände von der Hohenstaufenzeit bis ins Reformationszeitalter(Gotha, 1884); V. von Kraus,Deutsche Geschichte im Ausgange des Mittelalters(Stuttgart, 1888-1905), and A. Bachmann,Deutsche Reichsgeschichte im Zeitalter Friedrichs III. und Maximilians I.(Leipzig, 1884-1894).
The two greatest works on the Reformation period are L. von Ranke’sDeutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation(Leipzig, 1882) and J. Janssen’sGeschichte des deutschen Volkes seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters(1897-1903). Other works which may be mentioned are: F. B. von Bucholtz,Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands I.(Vienna, 1831-1838); C. Egelhaaf,Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation(Berlin, 1893), and F. von Bezold,Geschichte der deutschen Reformation(Berlin, 1890).
For the years after the Reformation we have Ranke,Zur deutschen Geschichte—Vom Religionsfrieden bis zum 30-jährigen Kriege(Leipzig, 1888); M. Ritter,Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Gegenreformation und des dreissigjährigen Krieges(Stuttgart, 1887, fol.); G. Droysen,Geschichte der Gegenreformation(Berlin, 1893); A. Gindely,Rudolf II. und seine Zeit(Prague, 1862-1868) andGeschichte des dreissigjährigen Krieges(Prague, 1869-1880). Gindely’s book is, of course, only one among an enormous number of works on the Thirty Years’ War.
For the period leading up to the time of Frederick the Great we have B. Erdmannsdörffer,Deutsche Geschichte vom Westfälischen Frieden bis zum Regierungsantritt Friedrichs des Grossen(Berlin, 1892-1893); and then follow Ranke,Zur Geschichte von Österreich und Preussen zwischen den Friedensschlüssen von Aachen und Hubertusburg(Leipzig, 1875) andDie deutschen Mächte und der Fürstenbund(Leipzig, 1871-1872); K. Biedermann,Deutschland im 18. Jahrhundert(Leipzig, 1854-1880); W. Oncken,Das Zeitalter Friedrichs des Grossen(Berlin, 1880-1882); A. von Arneth,Geschichte Maria Theresias(Vienna, 1863-1879); L. Häusser,Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Gründung des Deutschen Bundes(Berlin, 1861-1863), and K. T. von Heigel,Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Auflösung des alten Reichs(Stuttgart, 1899, fol.).
For the 19th century we may mention: H. von Treitschke,Deutsche Geschichte im 19. Jahrhundert(Leipzig, 1879-1894); H. von Sybel,Die Begründung des deutschen Reiches durch Wilhelm I.(Munich, 1889-1894); G. Kaufmann,Politische Geschichte Deutschlands im 19. Jahrhundert(Berlin, 1900), and H. von Zwiedeneck-Südenhorst,Deutsche Geschichte von der Auflösung des alten bis zur Gründung des neuen Reiches(Stuttgart, 1897-1905). These are perhaps the most important, but there are many others of which the following is a selection: K. Fischer,Die Nation und der Bundestag(Leipzig, 1880); K. Klüpfel,Geschichte der deutschen Einheitsbestrebungen bis zu ihrer Erfüllung(Berlin, 1872-1873); H. Blum,Die deutsche Revolution1848-1849 (Florence, 1897) andDas deutsche Reich zur Zeit Bismarcks(Leipzig, 1893); W. Maurenbrecher,Gründung des deutschen Reiches(Leipzig, 1892); H. Friedjung,Der Kampf um die Vorherrschaft in Deutschland1859-1866 (Stuttgart, 1897); C. von Kaltenborn,Geschichte der deutschen Bundesverhältnisse und Einheitsbestrebungen von 1806-1856(Berlin, 1857); J. Jastrow,Geschichte des deutschen Einheitstraumes und seiner Erfüllung(Berlin, 1885), and P. Klöppel,Dreissig Jahre deutscher Verfassungsgeschichte(Leipzig, 1900).
For the most recent developments of German politics see H. Schulthess,Europäischer Geschichtskalender(Nördlingen, 1861, fol., a work similar to the EnglishAnnual Register); W. Müller and K. Wippermann,Politische Geschichte der Gegenwart(Berlin, 1868, fol.); theStatistisches Jahrbuch des deutschen Reichs, and A. L. Lowell,Governments and Parties in Continental Europe(1896).
A good general history of Germany is theBibliothek deutscher Geschichte, edited by H. von Zwiedeneck-Südenhorst (Stuttgart, 1876, fol.). Other general histories, although on a smaller scale, are K. Lamprecht,Deutsche Geschichte(Berlin, 1891-1896); O. Kämmel,Deutsche Geschichte(Dresden, 1889); K. Biedermann,Deutsche Volks- und Kulturgeschichte(Wiesbaden, 1885); T. Lindner,Geschichte des deutschen Volks(Stuttgart, 1894); theHandbuch der deutschen Geschichte, edited by B. Gebhardt (Stuttgart, 1901), and K. W. Nitzsch,Geschichte des deutschen Volkes bis zum Augsburger Religionsfrieden(Leipzig, 1883-1885).
Special reference is deservedly made to three works of the highest value. These are J. G. Droysen’s greatGeschichte der preussischen Politik(Berlin, 1855-1886); theDeutsche Reichstagsakten, the first series of which was published at Munich (1867, fol.) and the second at Gotha (1893-1901); and the collection known as theRegesta imperii, which owes its existence to the labours of J. F. Böhmer. Nearly the whole of the period between 751 and 1347 is covered by these volumes; the charters and other documents of some of the German kings being edited by Böhmer himself, and new and enlarged editions of certain sections have been brought out by J. Ficker, E. Winkelmann and others. Much useful information on the history of different periods is contained in the lives of individual emperors and others. Among these are H. Prutz,Kaiser Friedrich I.(Danzig, 1871-1874); F. W. Schirrmacher,Kaiser Friedrich II.(Göttingen, 1859-1865); H. Ulmann,Kaiser Maximilian I.(Stuttgart, 1884-1891); F. von Hurter,Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II.(Schaffhausen, 1857-1864), and H. Blum,Fürst Bismarck und seine Zeit(Munich, 1895). There is also the great series of volumes, primary and supplementary, forming theAllgemeine deutsche Biographie(Leipzig, 1875, fol.), in which the worddeutscheis interpreted in the widest possible sense.
Apart from political histories there are useful collections of laws and other official documents of importance, and also a large number of valuable works on the laws and constitutions of the Germans and on German institutions generally. Among the collections are M. Goldast,Collectio constitutionum imperialium(1613; new and enlarged edition, 1673); theCapitulationes imperatorum et regum Romana-Germanorum(Strassburg, 1851) of Johann Limnäus, and theCorpus juris Germanici antiqui(Berlin, 1824) of F. Walter. Collections dealing with more recent history are J. C. Glaser’sArchiv des norddeutschen Bundes. Sammlung aller Gesetze, Verträge und Aktenstücke, die Verhältnisse des norddeutschen Bundes betreffend(Berlin, 1867); W. Jungermann’sArchiv des deutschen Reiches(Berlin, 1873, fol.), and theActa Borussica. Denkmäler der preussischen Staatsverwaltung im 18. Jahrhundert(Berlin, 1892, fol.). Mention may also be made of C. C. Homeyer’s edition of theSachsenspiegeland L. A. von Lassberg’s edition of theSchwabenspiegel; the many volumes of Wallenstein’s letters and papers; the eighteen volumes of theUrkunden und Aktenstücke zur Geschichte des Kurfürsten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg(Berlin, 1864, fol.); and the thirty volumes of thePolitische Korrespondenz Friedrichs des Grossen(Berlin, 1879-1905). Modern writers on these subjects distinguished for their learning are G. Waitz (Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, Kiel and Berlin, 1844, fol.) and G. L. von Maurer (Geschichte der Städteverfassung in Deutschland, Erlangen, 1869-1871, and other cognate writings), their works being valuable not only for the early institutionsof the Germans, but also for those of other Teutonic peoples. Other works on the German constitution and German laws are K. F. Eichhorn,Deutsche Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte(Göttingen, 1843-1844); R. Schröder,Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte(Leipzig, 1889 and again 1902); H. Brunner,Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte(Leipzig, 1887-1892), andGrundzüge der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte(Leipzig, 1901-1903), and E. Mayer,Deutsche und französische Verfassungsgeschichte vom 9.-11. Jahrhundert(Leipzig, 1899).
Manners and customs are dealt with in J. Scherr’sDeutsche Kultur- und Sittengeschichte(Leipzig, 1852-1853); J. Lippert’sDeutsche Sittengeschichte(Vienna and Prague, 1889); O. Henne am Rhyn’sKulturgeschichte des deutschen Volkes(Berlin, 1886); theGeschichte des deutschen Volkes und seiner Kultur im Mittelalter(Leipzig, 1891-1898) of H. Gerdes, and F. von Löher’sKulturgeschichte der Deutschen im Mittelalter(Munich, 1891-1894). Among the works on husbandry may be mentioned: K. Bücher,Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft(Tübingen, 1893); K. T. von Inama-Sternegg,Deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte(Leipzig, 1879-1901), and K. Lamprecht,Deutsches Wirtschaftsleben im Mittelalter(Leipzig, 1886). For antiquities see M. Heyne,Fünf Bücher deutscher Hausaltertümer von den ältesten geschichtlichen Zeiten bis zum 16. Jahrhundert(Leipzig, 1899-1903), and L. Lindenschmit,Handbuch der deutschen Altertumskunde(Brunswick, 1880-1889). For the history of the German church see A. Hauck,Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands(Leipzig, 1887-1903); F. W. Rettberg,Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands(Göttingen, 1846-1848), and J. Friedrich,Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands(Bamberg, 1867-1869). For finance see K. D. Hüllmann,Deutsche Finanzgeschichte des Mittelalters(1805); for the administration of justice, O. Franklin,Das Reichshofgericht im Mittelalter(Weimar, 1867-1869), and A. Stölzel,DieEntwicklungdes gelehrten Richtertums in deutschen Territorien(Stuttgart, 1872); for the towns and their people see J. Jastrow,Die Volkszahl deutscher Städte zu Ende des Mittelalters und zu Beginn der Neuzeit(Berlin, 1886); F. W. Barthold,Geschichte der deutschen Städte und des deutschen Bürgertums(Leipzig, 1850-1854), and K. Hegel,Städte und Gilden der germanischen Völker im Mittelalter(Leipzig, 1891); and for manufactures and commerce see J. Falke,Die Geschichte des deutschen Handels(Leipzig, 1859-1860); H. A. Mascher,Das deutsche Gewerbewesen von der frühesten Zeit bis auf die Gegenwart(Potsdam, 1866); F. W. Stahl,Das deutsche Handwerk(Giessen, 1874); the numerous writings on the history of the Hanseatic League and other works. The nobles and the other social classes have each their separate histories, among these being C. F. F. von Strantz,Geschichte des deutschen Adels(Breslau, 1845), and K. H. Roth von Schreckenstein,Die Ritterwürde und der Ritterstand(Freiburg, 1866).
The Germans have produced some excellent historical atlases, among them K. von Spruner’sHistorisch-geographischer Handatlas(Gotha, 1853); a new edition of this by T. Menke calledHandatlas für die Geschichte des Mittelalters und der neueren Zeit(Gotha, 1880), and G. Droysen’sAllgemeiner historischer Handatlas(Leipzig, 1886). The historical geography of Germany is dealt with in B. Knüll’sHistorische Geographie Deutschlands im Mittelalter(Breslau, 1903); in F. H. Müller’sDie deutschen Stämme und ihre Fürsten(Hamburg, 1852), and in many other works referring to the different parts of the country.
English books on the history of Germany are not very numerous. There is a shortHistory of Germanyby James Sime (1874), another by E. F. Henderson (1902), andA History of Germany 1715-1815by C. T. Atkinson (1909). H. A. L. Fisher’sMedieval Empire(1898) is very useful for the earlier period, and J. Bryce’sHoly Roman Empireis indispensable. There is a translation of Janssen’sGeschichteby M. A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie (1896, fol.), and there are useful chapters in the different volumes of theCambridge Modern History. Two English historians have distinguished themselves by their work on special periods: Carlyle with hisHistory of Friedrich II., called the Great(1872-1873), and W. Robertson with hisHistory of the Reign of Charles V.(1820). There is also E. Armstrong’s Charles V. (London, 1902). Among German historical periodicals are theHistorische Zeitschrift, long associated with the name of H. von Sybel, and theHistorisches Jahrbuch.
In guides to the historical sources and to modern historical works Germany is well served. There is theQuellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte(Leipzig, 1906) of Dahlmann-Waitz, a most compendious volume, and the learnedDeutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter(Berlin, 1893-1894) of W. Wattenbach; A. Potthast’sBibliotheca historica medii aevi(Berlin, 1896), and theDeutschlands Geschichtsquellen seit der Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts(Berlin, 1886-1887) of O. Lorenz and A. Goldmann.
(A. W. H.*)
1So called from the badge worn by the knights (Löwenritter) who composed it.2The best account, in English, of the development of the Zollverein is in Percy Ashley’sModern Tariff History(London, 1904).3The only formal change is that the duchy of Lauenburg, which since 1865 had been governed by the king of Prussia as a separate principality (but without a vote in the Bundesrat), was in 1876 incorporated in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein.4SeeAnnual Register(1908), pp. 289 et seq.5The whole question is exhaustively treated from the Danish point of view inLa Question de Slesvig(Copenhagen, 1906), a collective work edited by F. de Jessens.6Reinhard Karl Friedrich von Dalwigk (1802-1880). Though a Lutheran, he had been accused in 1854 of an excessive subserviency to the Roman Catholic Church. He was responsible for the policy which threatened to involve the grand-duchy of Hesse in the fate of the Electorate in 1866. But it was due to his diplomatic skill that Upper Hesse was saved for the grand-duke.7In 1899, following the Spanish-American War, Germany purchased the Caroline, Pelew and Marianne Islands from Spain; in 1899-1900 by agreement with Great Britain and America she acquired the two largest of the Samoan islands, renouncing in favour of Britain her protectorate over certain of the Solomon islands.8The elevation of Count Bülow to the rank of prince immediately after the crisis was significantly compared with the same honour bestowed on Bismarck at Versailles in 1871.9He was born on November 29, 1856, the son of a wealthy Rhenish landowner, and grandson of Moritz August von Bethmann-Hollweg (1795-1877), professor of law at Bonn, ennobled in 1840, and from 1858 to 1862 minister of education and religion at Berlin. Herr von Bethmann-Hollweg studied law at Strassburg, Leipzig and Berlin, entered the Prussian civil service in 1882, and, passing successfully through the various stages of a German administrative career, became governor (Oberpräsident) of the province of Brandenburg in 1899. In 1905 he became Prussian minister of the interior. Two years later he succeeded Count Posadowsky as imperial secretary of state for the interior and representative of the imperial chancellor, and was at the same time made vice-president of the council of Prussian ministers, an office and title which had been in abeyance for some years and were now again suppressed.
1So called from the badge worn by the knights (Löwenritter) who composed it.
2The best account, in English, of the development of the Zollverein is in Percy Ashley’sModern Tariff History(London, 1904).
3The only formal change is that the duchy of Lauenburg, which since 1865 had been governed by the king of Prussia as a separate principality (but without a vote in the Bundesrat), was in 1876 incorporated in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein.
4SeeAnnual Register(1908), pp. 289 et seq.
5The whole question is exhaustively treated from the Danish point of view inLa Question de Slesvig(Copenhagen, 1906), a collective work edited by F. de Jessens.
6Reinhard Karl Friedrich von Dalwigk (1802-1880). Though a Lutheran, he had been accused in 1854 of an excessive subserviency to the Roman Catholic Church. He was responsible for the policy which threatened to involve the grand-duchy of Hesse in the fate of the Electorate in 1866. But it was due to his diplomatic skill that Upper Hesse was saved for the grand-duke.
7In 1899, following the Spanish-American War, Germany purchased the Caroline, Pelew and Marianne Islands from Spain; in 1899-1900 by agreement with Great Britain and America she acquired the two largest of the Samoan islands, renouncing in favour of Britain her protectorate over certain of the Solomon islands.
8The elevation of Count Bülow to the rank of prince immediately after the crisis was significantly compared with the same honour bestowed on Bismarck at Versailles in 1871.
9He was born on November 29, 1856, the son of a wealthy Rhenish landowner, and grandson of Moritz August von Bethmann-Hollweg (1795-1877), professor of law at Bonn, ennobled in 1840, and from 1858 to 1862 minister of education and religion at Berlin. Herr von Bethmann-Hollweg studied law at Strassburg, Leipzig and Berlin, entered the Prussian civil service in 1882, and, passing successfully through the various stages of a German administrative career, became governor (Oberpräsident) of the province of Brandenburg in 1899. In 1905 he became Prussian minister of the interior. Two years later he succeeded Count Posadowsky as imperial secretary of state for the interior and representative of the imperial chancellor, and was at the same time made vice-president of the council of Prussian ministers, an office and title which had been in abeyance for some years and were now again suppressed.
GERMERSHEIM,a fortified town of Germany in Rhenish Bavaria, at the confluence of the Queich and the Rhine, 8 m. S.W. of Speyer. Pop. (1905) 5914. It possesses a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, a synagogue, a progymnasium and a hospital. The industries include fishing, shipbuilding and brewing. Germersheim existed as a Roman stronghold under the name ofVicus Julius. The citadel was rebuilt by the emperor Conrad II., but the town itself was founded in 1276 by the emperor Rudolph I., who granted it the rights of a free imperial city. From 1330 to 1622, when it was conquered by Austria, the town formed part of the Palatinate of the Rhine. From 1644 to 1650 it was in the possession of France; but on the conclusion of the peace of Westphalia it was again joined to the Palatinate. In 1674 it was captured and devastated by the French under Turenne, and after the death of the elector Charles (1685) it was claimed by the French as a dependency of Alsace. As a consequence there ensued the disastrous Germersheim war of succession, which lasted till the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Through the intervention of the pope in 1702, the French, on payment of a large sum, agreed to vacate the town, and in 1715 its fortifications were rebuilt. On the 3rd of July 1744 the French were defeated there by the imperial troops, and on the 19th and 22nd of July 1793 by the Austrians. In 1835 the new town was built, and the present fortifications begun.
See Probst,Geschichte der Stadt und Festung Germersheim(Speyer, 1898).
See Probst,Geschichte der Stadt und Festung Germersheim(Speyer, 1898).
GERMISTON,a town of the Transvaal, 9 m. E. of Johannesburg. Pop. of the municipality (1904) 29,477, of whom 9123 were whites. It lies 5478 ft. above the sea, in the heart of the Witwatersrand gold-mining district, and is an important railway junction. The station, formerly called Elandsfontein Junction, is the meeting-point of lines from the ports of the Cape and Natal, and from Johannesburg, Pretoria and Delagoa Bay. Though possessing a separate municipality, Germiston is practically a suburb of Johannesburg (q.v.).
GERMONIUS, ANASTASIUS[Anastase Germon] (1551-1627), canon lawyer, diplomatist and archbishop of Tarantaise, belonged to the family of the marquises of Ceve, in Piedmont, where he was born. As archdeacon at Turin he was a member of the commission appointed by Pope Clement VIII. to edit theLiber septimus decretalium; and he also wroteParatitlaon the five books of theDecretals of Gregory IX.He represented the duke of Savoy at the court of Rome under Clement VIII. and Paul V., and was ambassador to Spain under Kings Philip III. and IV. He died on the 4th of August 1627. Germonius is best known for his treatise on ambassadors,De legatis principum et populorum libri tres(Rome, 1627). The book is diffuse, pedantic and somewhat heavy in style, but valuable historically as written by a theorist who was also an expert man of affairs. (SeeDiplomacy.)
GERO(c.900-965), margrave of the Saxon east mark, was probably a member of an influential Saxon family. In 937 he was entrusted by the German king Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto the Great, with the defence of the eastern frontier of Saxony against the Wends and other Slavonic tribes; a duty which he discharged with such ability and success that in a few years he extended the Saxon frontier almost to the Oder, and gained the chief credit for the suppression of a rising of the conquered peoples in a great victory on the 16th of October 955. In 963 he defeated the Lusatians, compelled the king of the Poles to recognize the supremacy of the German king, and extended the area of his mark so considerably that after his death it was partitioned into three, and later into five marks. Gero, who is said to have made a journey to Rome, died on the 20th of May 965, and was buried in the convent of Gernrode which he had founded on his Saxon estates. He is referred to by the historian Widukind as apreses, and is sometimes called the “great margrave.” He has been accused of treachery and cruelty, is celebrated in song and story, and is mentioned as the “marcgrâve Gêre” in theNibelungenlied.
See Widukind, “Res gestae Saxonicae,” in theMonumenta Germaniae historica.Scriptores, Band iii.; O. von Heinemann,Markgraf Gero(Brunswick, 1860).
See Widukind, “Res gestae Saxonicae,” in theMonumenta Germaniae historica.Scriptores, Band iii.; O. von Heinemann,Markgraf Gero(Brunswick, 1860).
GEROLSTEIN,a village and climatic health resort of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, attractively situated on the Kyll, in the Eifel range, 1100 ft. above the sea, 58 m. W. of Andernach by rail, and at the junction of lines to Trèves and St Vith. The castle of Gerolstein, built in 1115 and now in ruins, affords a fine view of the Kyllthal. Gerolstein is celebrated for its lithia waters, which are largely exported. Pop. (1900) 1308.
GÉRÔME, JEAN LÉON(1824-1904), French painter, was born on the 11th of May 1824 at Vesoul (Haute-Saône). He went to Paris in 1841 and worked under Paul Delaroche, whom heaccompanied to Italy (1844-1845). On his return he exhibited “The Cock-fight,” which gained him a third-class medal in the Salon of 1847. “The Virgin with Christ and St John” and “Anacreon, Bacchus and Cupid” took a second-class medal in 1848. He exhibited “Bacchus and Love, Drunk,” a “Greek Interior” and “Souvenir d’Italie,” in 1851; “Paestum” (1852); and “An Idyll” (1853). In 1854 Gérôme made a journey to Turkey and the shores of the Danube, and in 1857 visited Egypt. To the exhibition of 1855 he contributed a “Pifferaro,” a “Shepherd,” “A Russian Concert” and a large historical canvas, “The Age of Augustus and the Birth of Christ.” The last was somewhat confused in effect, but in recognition of its consummate ability the State purchased it. Gérôme’s reputation was greatly enhanced at the Salon of 1857 by a collection of works of a more popular kind: the “Duel: after a Masquerade,” “Egyptian Recruits crossing the Desert,” “Memnon and Sesostris” and “Camels Watering,” the drawing of which was criticized by Edmond About. In “Caesar” (1859) Gérôme tried to return to a severer class of work, but the picture failed to interest the public. “Phryne before the Areopagus,” “Le Roi Candaule” and “Socrates finding Alcibiades in the House of Aspasia” (1861) gave rise to some scandal by reason of the subjects selected by the painter, and brought down on him the bitter attacks of Paul de Saint-Victor and Maxime Ducamp. At the same Salon he exhibited the “Egyptian chopping Straw,” and “Rembrandt biting an Etching,” two very minutely finished works. Gérôme’s best paintings are of Eastern subjects; among these may be named the “Turkish Prisoner” and “Turkish Butcher” (1863); “Prayer” (1865); “The Slave Market” (1867); and “The Harem out Driving” (1869). He often illustrated history, as in “Louis XIV. and Molière” (1863); “The Reception of the Siamese Ambassadors at Fontainebleau” (1865); and the “Death of Marshal Ney” (1868). Gérôme was also successful as a sculptor; he executed, among other works, “Omphale” (1887), and the statue of the duc d’Aumale which stands in front of the château of Chantilly (1899). His “Bellona” (1892), in ivory, metal, and precious stones, which was also exhibited in the Royal Academy of London, attracted great attention. The artist then began an interesting series of “Conquerors,” wrought in gold, silver and gems—“Bonaparte entering Cairo” (1897); “Tamerlane” (1898); and “Frederick the Great” (1899). Gérôme was elected member of the Institut in 1865. He died in 1904.
GERONA,a maritime frontier province in the extreme north-east of Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from Catalonia, and bounded on the N. by France, E. and S.E. by the Mediterranean Sea, S.W. and W. by Barcelona, and N.W. by Lérida. Pop. (1900) 299,287; area, 2264 sq. m. In the north-west a small section of the province, with the town of Llivía, is entirely isolated and surrounded by French territory; otherwise Gerona is separated from France by the great range of the Pyrenees. Its general aspect is mountainous, especially in the western districts. Most of the lower chains are covered with splendid forests of oak, pine and chestnut. There are comparatively level tracts of arable land along the lower course of the three main rivers—the Ter, Muga and Fluvia, which rise in the Pyrenees and flow in a south-easterly direction to the sea. The coast-line is not deeply indented, but includes one large bay, the Gulf of Rosas. Its two most conspicuous promontories, Capes Creus and Bagur, are the easternmost points of the Iberian Peninsula. The climate is generally temperate and rainy during several months in the valleys and near the coast, but cold in the Cerdaña district and other mountainous regions during eight months, while Gerona, La Bisbal and Santa Coloma are quite Mediterranean in their hot summers and mild winters. Agriculture is backward, but there are profitable fisheries and fish-curing establishments along the whole seaboard, notably at the ports of Llansá, Rosas, Palamós, San Felíu de Guixols and Blanes. Next in importance is the cork industry at San Felíu de Guixols, Palafrugell and Cassa. More than one hundred mineral springs are scattered over the province, and in 1903 twenty mines were at work, although their total output, which included antimony, coal, copper, lead, iron and other ores, was valued at less than £7000. There are also important hydraulic cement and ochre works, and no fewer than twenty-two of the towns are centres of manufactures of linen, cotton, woollen stuffs, paper, cloth, leather, steel and furniture. The commerce of the province is important, Port Bou (or Portbou) being, after Irun, the most active outlet for the trade by railway not only with France but with the rest of the continent. The main railway from Barcelona to France runs through the province, and several branch railways, besides steam and electric tramways, connect the principal towns. Gerona, the capital (pop. 1900, 15,787), and Figueras (10,714), long a most important frontier fortress, are described in separate articles; the only other towns with more than 7000 inhabitants are San Felíu de Guixols (11,333), Olot (7938) and Palafrugell (7087). The inhabitants of the province are, like most Catalans, distinguished for their enterprise, hardiness and keen local patriotism; but emigration, chiefly to Barcelona, kept their numbers almost stationary during the years 1875-1905. The percentage of illegitimate births (1.5) is lower than in any other part of Spain. (See alsoCatalonia.)
GERONA,the capital of the province of Gerona, in north-eastern Spain, on the railway from Barcelona to Perpignan in France, and on the right bank of the river Ter, at its confluence with the Oña, a small right-hand tributary. Pop. (1900) 15,787. The older part of the town occupies the steep slope of the Montjuich, or Hill of the Capuchins, and with its old-fashioned buildings presents a picturesque appearance against a background of loftier heights; the newer portion stretches down into the plain and beyond the Oña, which is here crossed by a bridge of three arches. The old city walls and their bastions still remain, though in a dilapidated state; and the hill is crowned by what were at one time very strong fortifications, now used as a prison. Gerona is the seat of a bishop, has a seminary, a public library and a theatre, and carries on the manufacture of paper and cotton and woollen goods. Its churches are of exceptional interest. The cathedral is one of the grandest specimens of Gothic architecture in Spain, the nave being the widest pointed vault in Christendom, as it measures no less than 73 ft. from side to side, while Albi, the next in size, is only 58 ft., and Westminster Abbey is only 38. The old cathedral on the same site was used as a mosque by the Moors, and on their expulsion in 1015 it appears to have been very greatly modified, if not entirely rebuilt. During the 14th century new works were again carried out on an extensive scale, but it was not till the beginning of the 15th that the proposal to erect the present magnificent nave was originated by the master of the works, Guillermo Boffiy. The general appearance of the exterior is rather ungainly, but there is a fine approach by a flight of 86 steps to the façade, which rises in tiers and terminates in an oval rose-window. Among the tombs may be mentioned those of Bishop Berenger or Berenguer (d. 1408), Count Ramon Berenger II. (d. 1082) and the countess Ermesinda (d. 1057). The collegiate church of San Felíu (St Felix) is mainly of the 14th century, but it was considerably modified in the 16th, and its façade dates from the 18th. It is one of the few Spanish churches that can boast of a genuine spire, and it thus forms a striking feature in the general view of the town. The Benedictine church of San Pedro de Galligans (or de los Gallos) is an interesting Romanesque building of early date. It is named from the small river Galligans, an affluent of the Oña, which flows through the city. In the same neighbourhood is a small church worthy of notice as a rare Spanish example of a transverse triapsal plan.
Gerona is the ancient Gerunda, a city of the Auscetani. It claims to be the place in which St Paul and St James first rested when they came to Spain; and it became the see of a bishop about 247. For a considerable period it was in the hands of the Moors, and their emir, Suleiman, was in alliance with Pippin the Short, king of the Franks, about 759. It was taken by Charlemagne in 785; but the Moors regained and sacked it in 795, and it was not till 1015 that they were finally expelled. At a later date it gave the title of count to the king of Aragon’s eldest son. It has been besieged no fewer than twenty-five times in all, and only fourof the sieges have resulted in its capture. The investment by the French under Marshal Hocquincourt in 1653, that of 1684 by the French under Marshal Bellefonds, and the successful enterprise of Marshal Noailles in 1694 are the three great events of its history in the 17th century. Surrendered by the French at the peace of Ryswick, it was again captured by the younger Marshal Noailles in 1706, after a brilliant defence; and in 1717 it held out against the Austrians. But its noblest resistance was yet to be made. In May 1809 it was besieged by the French, with 35,000 troops, under J. A. Verdier, P. F. Augereau and Gouvion St Cyr; forty batteries were erected against it and a heavy bombardment maintained; but under the leadership of Mariano Alvarez de Castro it held out till famine and fever compelled a capitulation on the 12th of December. The French, it is said, had spent 20,000 bombs and 60,000 cannon balls, and their loss was estimated at 15,000 men.