Chapter 17

His works includeTabellarische Übersicht der Dogmengeschichte(1828);Encyclopädie u. Methodologie der theol. Wissenschaften(1833);Vorlesungen über Wesen u. Geschichte der Reformation u. des Protestantismus(1834-1843);Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte(1840-1841, 5th ed., 1867; English transl., 1850);Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der alien Kirche(1853-1855);Vorlesungen über die Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters(1860-1861);Grundlinien der Homiletik u. Liturgik(1863); biographies of Johannes Oecolampadius (1482-1564) and Oswald Myconius (1488-1552) and aGeschichte der theol. Schule Basels(1860); hisPredigten(1858-1875), two volumes of poems entitledLuther u. seine Zeit(1838), andGedichte(1846). The lectures on church history under the general titleVorlesungen über die Kirchengeschichte von der ältesten Zeit bis zum 19ten Jahrhundertwere reissued in seven volumes (1868-1872).See especially the article in Herzog-Hauck,Realencyklopädie.

See especially the article in Herzog-Hauck,Realencyklopädie.

HAGENBECK, CARL(1844- ), wild-animal collector and dealer, was born at Hamburg in 1844. In 1848 his father purchased some seals and a Polar bear brought to Hamburg by a whaler, and subsequently acquired many other wild animals. At the age of twenty-one Carl Hagenbeck was given the whole collection, and before long had greatly extended the business, so that in 1873 he had to erect large buildings in Hamburg to house his animals. In 1875 he began to exhibit a collection of the representative animals of many countries, accompanied by troupes of the natives of the respective countries, throughout all the large cities of Europe. The educational value of these exhibitions was officially recognized by the French government, which in 1891 awarded Hagenbeck the diploma of the Academy. Most of the wild animals exhibited in music-halls and other popular places of entertainment throughout the world have come from Hagenbeck’s collection at Stellingen, near Hamburg.

HAGERSTOWN,a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Maryland, U.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 86 m. by rail W.N.W. from Baltimore. Pop. (1890), 10,118; (1900), 13,591, of whom 1277 were negroes; (1910, census), 16,507. Hagerstown is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Western Maryland, the Norfolk & Western, and the Cumberland Valley railways, and by an interurban electric line. It lies in a fertile valley overlooked by South Mountain to the E. and North Mountain, more distant, to the W. The city is the seat of Kee Mar College (1852; non-sectarian) for women. Hagerstown is a business centre for the surrounding agricultural district, has good water power, and as a manufacturing centre ranked third in the state in 1905, its factory products being valued in that year at $3,026,901, an increase of 66.3% over their value in 1900. Among the manufactures are flour, shirts, hosiery, gloves, bicycles, automobiles, agricultural implements, print paper, fertilizers, sash, doors and blinds, furniture, carriages, spokes and wheels. The municipality owns and operates its electric lighting plant. Hagerstown was laid out as a town in 1762 by Captain Jonathan Hager (who had received a patent to 200 acres here from Lord Baltimore in 1739), and was incorporated in 1791. It was an important station on the old National (or Cumberland) Road. General R. E. Lee concentrated his forces at Hagerstown before the battle of Gettysburg.

HAG-FISH,Glutinous Hag, OrBorer(Myxine), a marine fish which forms with the lampreys one of the lowest orders of vertebrates (Cyclostomata). Similar in form to a lamprey, it is usually found within the body of dead cod or haddock, on the flesh of which it feeds after having buried itself in the abdomen. When caught, it secretes a thick glutinous slime in such quantity that it is commonly believed to have the power of converting water into glue. It is found in the North Atlantic and other temperate seas of the globe, being taken in some localities in large numbers,e.g.off the east coast of Scotland and the west coast of California (seeCyclostomata).

HAGGADA,or ’Agada(literally “narrative”), includes the more homiletic elements of rabbinic teaching. It is not logically distinguishable from the halakha (q.v.), for the latter or forensic element makes up with the haggada the Midrash (q.v.), but, being more popular than the halakha, is often itself styled the Midrash. It may be described as the poetical and ethical element as contrasted with the legal element in the Talmud (q.v.), but the two elements are always closely connected. From one point of view the haggada, amplifying and developing the contents of Hebrew scripture in response to a popular religious need, may be termed a rabbinical commentary on the Old Testament, containing traditional stories and legends, sometimes amusing, sometimes trivial, and often beautiful. The haggada abounds in parables. The haggadic passages of the Talmud were collected in theEye of Jacob, a very popular compilation completed by Jakob ibn Habib in the 16th century.

HAGGAI,in the Bible, the tenth in order of the “minor prophets,” whose writings are preserved in the Old Testament. The name Haggai (חגי, Gr.Ἀγγαῖος, whence Aggeus in the English version of the Apocrypha) perhaps means “born on the feast day,” “festive.” But Wellhausen1is probably right in taking the word as a contraction for Hagariah (“Yahweh hath girded”), just as Zaccai (Zacchaeus) is known to be a contraction of Zechariah.

The book of Haggai contains four short prophecies delivered between the first day of the sixth month and the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month—that is, between September and December—of the second year of Darius the king. The king in question must be Darius Hystaspis (521-485B.C.). The language of the prophet in ii. 3 suggests the probability that he was himself one of those whose memories reached across the seventy years of the captivity, and that his prophetic work began in extremeold age. This supposition agrees well with the shortness of the period covered by his book, and with the fact that Zechariah, who began to prophesy in the same autumn and was associated with Haggai’s labours (Ezra v. 1), afterwards appears as the leading prophet in Jerusalem (Zech. vii. 1-4). We know nothing further of the personal history of Haggai from the Bible. Later traditions may be read in Carpzov’sIntroductio, pars 3, cap. xvi. Epiphanius (Vitae prophetarum) says that he came up from Babylon while still young, prophesied the return, witnessed the building of the temple and received an honoured burial near the priests. Haggai’s name is mentioned in the titles of several psalms in the Septuagint (Psalms cxxxvii., cxlv.-cxlviii.) and other versions, but these titles are without value, and moreover vary in MSS. Eusebius did not find them in the Hexaplar Septuagint.2

In his first prophecy (i. 1-11) Haggai addresses Zerubbabel and Joshua, rebuking the people for leaving the temple unbuilt while they are busy in providing panelled houses for themselves. The prevalent famine and distress are due to Yahweh’s indignation at such remissness. Let them build the house, and Yahweh will take pleasure in it and acknowledge the honour paid to Him. The rebuke took effect, and the people began to work at the temple, strengthened by the prophet’s assurance that the Lord was with them (i. 12-15). In a second prophecy (ii. 1-9) delivered in the following month, Haggai forbids the people to be disheartened by the apparent meanness of the new temple. The silver and gold are the Lord’s. He will soon shake all nations and their choicest gifts will be brought to adorn His house. Its glory shall be greater than that of the former temple, and in this place He will give peace. A third prophecy (ii. 10-19) contains a promise, enforced by a figure drawn from the priestly ritual, that God will remove famine and bless the land from the day of the foundation of the temple onwards. Finally, in ii. 20-23, Zerubbabel is assured of God’s special love and protection in the impending catastrophe of kingdoms and nations to which the prophet had formerly pointed as preceding the glorification of God’s house on Zion. In thus looking forward to a shaking of all nations Haggai agrees with earlier prophecies, especially Isa. xxiv.-xxvii., while his picture of the glory and peace of the new Zion and its temple is drawn from the great anonymous prophet who penned Isa. lx and lxvi. The characteristic features of the book are the importance assigned to the personality of Zerubbabel, who, though a living contemporary, is marked out as the Messiah; and the almost sacramental significance attached to the temple. The hopes fixed on Zerubbabel, the chosen of the Lord, dear to Him as His signet ring (cf. Jer. xxii. 24), are a last echo in Old Testament prophecy of the theocratic importance of the house of David. In the book of Zechariah Zerubbabel has already fallen into the background and the high priest is the leading figure of the Judean community.3The stem of David is superseded by the house of Zadok, the kingship has yielded to the priesthood, and the extinction of national hopes gives new importance to that strict organization of the hierarchy for which Ezekiel had prepared the way by his sentence of disfranchisement against the non-Zadokite priests.

The indifference of the Jews to the desolate conditions of their sanctuary opens up a problem of some difficulty. It is strange that neither Haggai nor his contemporary Zechariah mentions or implies any return of exiles from Babylon, and the suggestion has accordingly been made that the return under Cyrus described in Ezra i.-iv. is unhistorical, and that the community addressed by Haggai consisted of the remnant that had been left in Jerusalem and its neighbourhood after the majority had gone into exile or fled to Egypt (Jer. xliii.). Such a remnant, amongst whom might be members of the priestly and royal families, would gather strength and boldness as the troubles of Babylon increased and her vigilance was relaxed, and might receive from Babylon and other lands both refugees and some account at least of the writings of Ezekiel and the Second Isaiah. Stimulated by such causes and obtaining formal permission from the Persian government, they would arise as a new Israel and enter on a new phase of national life and divine revelation.

In spite, however, of the plausibility of this theory, it seems preferable to adhere to the story of Ezra i.-iv. Apart from the weighty objections that the Edomites would have frustrated such a recrudescence of the remnant Jews as has been described, it must be remembered that the main stream of Jewish life and thought had been diverted to Babylon. Thence, when the opportunity came under Cyrus, some 50,000 Jews, the spiritual heirs of the best elements of the old Israel, returned to found the new community. With them were all the resources, and the only people they found at Jerusalem were hostile gentiles and Samaritans. Full of enthusiasm, they set about rebuilding the temple and realizing the glowing promises about the prosperity and dominance of Zion that had fallen from the lips of the Second Isaiah (xlix. 14-26, xlv. 14). Bitter disappointment, however, soon overcame them, the Samaritans were strong enough to thwart and hinder their temple-building, and it seemed as though the divine favour was withdrawn. Apathy took the place of enthusiasm, and sordid worries succeeded to high hopes. “The like collapse has often been experienced in history when bands of religious men, going forth, as they thought, to freedom and the immediate erection of a holy commonwealth, have found their unity wrecked and their enthusiasm dissipated by a few inclement seasons on a barren and hostile shore.”4

From this torpor they were roused by tidings which might well be interpreted as the restoration of divine favour. Away in the East Cyrus had been succeeded in 529B.C.by Cambyses, who had annexed Egypt and on whose death in 522 a Magian impostor, Gaumata, had seized the throne. The fraud was short-lived, and Darius I. became king and the founder of a new dynasty. These events shook the whole Persian empire; Babylon and other subject states rose in revolt, and to the Jews it seemed that Persia was tottering and that the Messianic era was nigh. It was therefore natural that Haggai and Zechariah should urge the speedy building of the temple, in order that the great king might be fittingly received.

It is sometimes levied as a reproach against Haggai that he makes no direct reference to moral duties. But it is hardly fair to contrast his practical counsel with the more ethical and spiritual teaching of the earlier Hebrew prophets. One thing was needful—the temple. “Without a sanctuary Yahweh would have seemed a foreigner to Israel. The Jews would have thought that He had returned to Sinai, the holy mountain; and that they were deprived of the temporal blessings which were the gifts of a God who literally dwelt in the midst of his people.” Haggai argued that material prosperity was conditioned by zeal in worship; the prevailing distress was an indication of divine anger due to the people’s religious apathy. Haggai’s reproofs touched the conscience of the Jews, and the book of Zechariah enables us in some measure to follow the course of a religious revival which, starting with the restoration of the temple, did not confine itself to matters of ceremony and ritual worship. On the other hand, Haggai’s treatment of his theme, practical and effective as it was for the purpose in hand, moves on a far lower level than the aspirations of the prophet who wrote the closing chapters of Isaiah. To the latter the material temple is no more than a detail in the picture of a work of restoration eminently ideal and spiritual, and he expressly warns his hearers against attaching intrinsic importance to it (Isa. lxvi. 1). To Haggai the temple appears so essential that he teaches that while it lay waste, the people and all their works and offerings were unclean (Hag. ii. 14). In this he betrays his affinity with Ezekiel, who taught that it is by the possession of the sanctuary that Israel is sanctified (Ezek. xxxvii. 28). In truth the new movement of religious thought and feeling which started from the fall of the Hebrew state took two distinct lines, of which Ezekiel and the anonymousauthors of Isa. xl.-lxvi. are the respective representatives. While the latter developed their great picture of Israel the mediatorial nation, the systematic and priestly mind of Ezekiel had shaped a more material conception of the religious vocation of Israel in that picture of the new theocracy where the temple and its ritual occupy the largest place, with a sanctity which is set in express contrast to the older conception of the holiness of the city of Jerusalem (cf. Ezek. xliii. 7 seq. with Jer. xxxi. 40, Isa. iv. 5), and with a supreme significance for the religious life of the people which is expressed in the figure of the living waters issuing from under the threshold of the house (Ezek. xlvii.). It was the conception of Ezekiel which permanently influenced the citizens of the new Jerusalem, and took final shape in the institutions of Ezra. To this consummation, with its necessary accompaniment in the extinction of prophecy, the book of Haggai already points.

Authorities.—The elaborate and valuable German commentary of A. Köhler (Erlangen, 1860) forms the first part of his work on theNachexilische Propheten. Reinke’sCommentary(Münster, 1868) is the work of a scholarly Roman Catholic. Haggai has generally been treated in works on all the prophets, as by Ewald (2nd ed., 1868; Eng. trans., vol. iii., 1878); or along with the other minor prophets, as by Hitzig (3rd ed., by H. Steiner, Leipzig, 1881), Keil (1866, 3rd ed., 1888, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1868), and Pusey (1875), S. R. Driver (1906), W. Nowack (2nd ed., 1905), K. Marti (1904), J. Wellhausen (3rd ed., 1898); or with the other post-exile prophets, as by Köhler, Pressel (Gotha, 1870), Dods (1879) and others. The older literature will be found in books of introduction or in Rosenmüller’sScholia. The learned commentary of Marckius may be specially mentioned. On the place of Haggai in the history of Old Testament prophecy, see Duhm,Theologie der Propheten(Bonn, 1875); A. B. Davidson,The Theology of the Old Testament(1904); A. F. Kirkpatrick,The Doctrine of the Prophets; G. A. Smith,The Book of the Twelve Prophets, vol. 2 (1903); Tony Andrée,Le Prophète Aggée; Ed. Meyer,Entstehung des Judentums(1896).

(W. R. S.; A. J. G.)

1In Bleek’sEinleitung, 4th ed., p. 434.2See the note on Ps. cxlv. 1 in Field’sHexapla; Köhler,Weissagungen Haggai’s, 32; Wright,Zechariah and his Prophecies, xix.3After the foundation of the temple Zerubbabel disappears from history and lives only in legend, which continued to busy itself with his story, as we see from the apocryphal book of Esdras (cf. Derenbourg,Hist. de la Palestine, chap. i).4G. A. Smith,Minor Prophets, ii. 235.

1In Bleek’sEinleitung, 4th ed., p. 434.

2See the note on Ps. cxlv. 1 in Field’sHexapla; Köhler,Weissagungen Haggai’s, 32; Wright,Zechariah and his Prophecies, xix.

3After the foundation of the temple Zerubbabel disappears from history and lives only in legend, which continued to busy itself with his story, as we see from the apocryphal book of Esdras (cf. Derenbourg,Hist. de la Palestine, chap. i).

4G. A. Smith,Minor Prophets, ii. 235.

HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER(1856- ), English novelist, was born at Bradenham Hall, Norfolk, on the 22nd of June 1856. When he was nineteen he went to South Africa as secretary to Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal. At the time of the first annexation of the Transvaal (1877), he was on the staff of the special commissioner, Sir Theophilus Shepstone; and he subsequently became a master of the high court of the Transvaal. He married in 1879 a Norfolk heiress, Miss Margitson, but returned to the Transvaal in time to witness its surrender to the Boers and the overthrow of the policy of his former chief. He returned to England and read for the bar, but soon took to literary work; he publishedCetywayo and his White Neighbours(1882), written in defence of Sir T. Shepstone’s policy. This was followed by the novelsDawn(1884),The Witch’s Head(1885), which contains an account of the British defeat at Isandhlwana; and in 1886King Solomon’s Mines, suggested by the Zimbabwe ruins, which first made him popular.She(1887), another fantastic African story, was also very successful, a sequel,Ayesha, or the Return of She, being published in 1905. The scene ofJess(1887) and ofAllan Quatermain(1888) was also laid in Africa. In 1895 he unsuccessfully contested the East Norfolk parliamentary division in the Unionist interest; he showed great interest in rural and agricultural questions, being a practical gardener and farmer on his estate in Norfolk. In hisRural England(2 vols., 1902) he exposed the evils of depopulation in country districts. In 1905 he was commissioned by the colonial office to inquire into the Salvation Army settlements at Fort Romie, S. California, and Fort Amity, Colorado, with a view to the establishment of similar colonies in South Africa. His report on the subject was first published as a blue book, and afterwards, in an enlarged form, asThe Poor and the Land(1905), with suggestions for a scheme of national land settlement in Great Britain itself.

His other books includeMaiwa’s Revenge(1888),Mr Meeson’s Will(1888),Colonel Quaritch, V.C. (1888),Cleopatra(1889),Eric Brighteyes(1891),The World’s Desire(1890), a romance of Helen of Troy, written with Mr Andrew Lang;Nada the Lily(1892),Montezuma’s Daughter(1894),The People of the Mist(1894),Joan Haste(1895),Heart of the World(1896),Dr Therne(1898),A Farmer’s Year(1899),The New South Africa(1900),Lysbeth, A Tale of the Dutch(1901).Stella Fregelius(1903),A Gardener’s Year(1905),A Farmer’s Year(1899, revised ed., 1906),The Way of the Spirit(1906).

HAGGIS,a dish consisting of a calf’s, sheep’s or other animal’s heart, liver and lungs, and also sometimes of the smaller intestines, boiled in the stomach of the animal with seasoning of pepper, salt, onions, &c., chopped fine with suet and oatmeal. It is considered peculiarly a Scottish dish, but was common in England till the 18th century. The derivation of the word is obscure. The Fr.hachis, English “hash,” is of later appearance than “haggis.” It may be connected with a verb “to hag,” meaning to cut in small pieces, and would then be cognate ultimately with “hash.”

HAGIOLOGY(from Gr.ἅγιος, saint,λόγος, discourse), that branch of the historical sciences which is concerned with the lives of the saints. If hagiology be considered merely in the sense in which the term has come to be understood in the later stages of its development,i.e.the critical study of hagiographic remains, there would be no such science before the 17th century. But the bases of hagiology may fairly be said to have been laid at the time when hagiographic documents, hitherto dispersed, were first brought together into collections. The oldest collection of this kind, theσυναγωγὴ τῶν ἀρχαίων μαρτυρίωνof Eusebius, to which the author refers in several passages in his writings (Hist. Eccl., v. proem 2; v. 20, 5), and which has left more than one trace in Christian literature, is unfortunately lost in its entirety. TheMartyrs of Palestine, as also the writings of Theodoret, Palladius and others, on the origins of the monastic life, and, similarly, theDialoguesof St Gregory (Pope Gregory I.), belong to the category of sources rather than to that of hagiologic collections. TheIn gloria martyrumandIn gloria confessorumof Gregory of Tours are valuable for the sources used in their compilation. The most important collections are those which comprise the Acts of the Martyrs and the lives of saints, arranged in the order of the calendar. In the Greek Church these are called menologies (from Gr.μήν, month,λόγος, discourse), and their existence can be traced back with certainty to the 9th century (Theodore of Studium,Epist.i. 2). One of them, the menology of Metaphrastes, compiled in the second half of the 10th century, enjoyed a universal vogue (seeSymeon Metaphrastes). The corresponding works in the Western Church are thepassionariesorlegendaries, varieties of which are dispersed in libraries and have not been studied collectively. They generally draw from a common source, the Roman legendary, and the lives of the local saints,i.e.those specially honoured in a church, a province or a country. One of the best known is the Austrian legendary (De magno legendario Austriacoin theAnalecta Bollandiana, xvii. 24-264). From the menologies and legendaries various compilations were made: in the Greek Church, the Synaxaria (seeSynaxarium); in the Western Church, abridgments and extracts such as theSpeculum hislorialeof Vincent de Beauvais; theLegenda aureaof Jacobus de Voragine; theSanctoraleof Bernard Guy [d. 1331] (see L. Delisle,Notice sur les manuscrits de Bernard Guy, Paris, 1879); theSanctilogiumof John of Tynemouth (c.1366), utilized by John Capgrave, and published in 1516 under the name ofNova legenda Angliae(new edition by C. Horstman, Oxford, 1901); and theCatalogus sanctorumof Petrus de Natalibus (c.1375), published at Vicenza in 1493, and many times reprinted. TheSanctuariumof B. Mombritius, published at Milan about 1480, is particularly valuable because it gives a faithful reproduction of the ancient texts according to the manuscripts. One of the most zealous collectors of lives of saints was John Gielemans of Brabant (d. 1487), whose work is of great value (Bollandists,De codicibus hagiographicis Iohannis Gielemans, Brussels, 1895), and with him must be associated Anton Geens, or Gentius, of Groenendael, who died in 1543 (Analecta Bollandiana, vi. 31-34).

Hagiology entered on a new development with the publication of theSanctorum priscorum patrum vitae(Venice and Rome, 1551-1560) of Aloysius Lipomanus (Lippomano), bishop of Verona. As a result of the co-operation of humanist scholars a great number of Greek hagiographic texts became for the first time accessible to the West in a Latin translation. The Carthusian, Laurentius Surius, carried on the work of Lippomano, completed it, and arranged the materials strictly in the orderof the calendar (De probatis sanctorum historiis, Cologne, 1570-1575). What prevents the work of Surius from being regarded as an improvement upon Lippomano’s is that Surius thought it necessary to retouch the style of those documents which appeared to him badly written, without troubling himself about the consequent loss of their documentary value.

The actual founder of hagiologic criticism was the Flemish Jesuit, Heribert Rosweyde (d. 1629), who, besides his important works on the martyrologies (seeMartyrology), published the celebrated collection of theVitae patrum(Antwerp, 1615), a veritable masterpiece for the time at which it appeared. It was he, too, who conceived the plan of a great collection of lives of saints, compiled from the manuscripts and augmented with notes, from which resulted the collection of theActa sanctorum(seeBollandists). This last enterprise gave rise to others of a similar character but less extensive in scope.

Dom T. Ruinart collected the bestActaof the martyrs in hisActa martyrum sincera(Paris, 1689). The various religious orders collected the Acta of their saints, often increasing the lists beyond measure. The best publication of this kind, theActa sanctorum ordinis S. Benedicti(Paris, 1668-1701) of d’Achery and Mabillon, does not entirely escape this reproach. Countries, provinces and dioceses also had their special hagiographic collections, conceived according to various plans and executed with more or less historical sense. Of these, the most important collections are those of O. Caietanus,Vitae sanctorum Siculorum(Palermo, 1657); G. A. Lobineau,Vie des saints de Bretagne(Rennes, 1725); and J. H. Ghesquière,Acta sanctorum Belgii(Brussels and Tongerloo, 1783-1794). The principal lives of the German saints are published in theMonumenta Germaniae, and a special section of theScriptores rerum Merovingicarumis devoted to the lives of the saints. For Scotland and Ireland mention must be made of T. Messingham’sFlorilegium insulae sanctorum(Paris, 1624); I. Colgan’sActa sanctorum veteris et maioris Scotiae seu Hiberniae(Louvain, 1645-1647); John Pinkerton’sVitae antiquae sanctorum ...(London, 1789, of which a revised and enlarged edition was published by W. M. Metcalfe at Paisley in 1889, under the title ofLives of the Scottish Saints); W. J. Rees’sLives of the Cambro-British Saints(Llandovery, 1853);Acta sanctorum Hiberniae(Edinburgh, 1888); Whitley Stokes’sLives of Saints from the Book of Lismore(Oxford, 1890); and J. O’Hanlon’sLives of the Irish Saints(Dublin, 1875-1904). Towards the 13th century vernacular collections of lives of saints began to increase. This literature is more interesting from the linguistic than from the hagiologic point of view, and comes rather within the domain of the philologist.The hagiography of the Eastern and the Greek church also has been the subject of important publications. The Greek texts are very much scattered. Of them, however, may be mentioned J. B. Malou’s “Symeonis Metaphrastae opera omnia” (Patrologia Graeca, 114, 115, 116) and Theophilos Ioannu,Μνημεῖα ἁγιολογικά(Venice, 1884). For Syriac, there are S. E. Assemani’sActa sanctorum martyrum orientalium(Rome, 1748) and P. Bedjan’sActa martyrum et sanctorum(Paris, 1890-1897); for Armenian, the acts of martyrs and lives of saints, published in two volumes by the Mechitharist community of Venice in 1874; for Coptic, Hyvernat’sLes Actes des martyrs de l’Égypte(Paris, 1886); for Ethiopian, K. Conti Rossini’sScriptores Aethiopici, vitae sanctorum(Paris, 1904 seq.); and for Georgian, Sabinin’sParadise of the Georgian Church(St Petersburg, 1882).In addition to the principal collections must be mentioned the innumerable works in which the hagiographic texts have been subjected to detailed critical study.To realize the present state of hagiology, theBibliotheca hagiographica, both Latin and Greek, published by the Bollandists, and theBulletin hagiographique, which appears in each number of theAnalecta Bollandiana(seeBollandists), must be consulted. Thanks to the combined efforts of a great number of scholars, the classification of the hagiographic texts has in recent years made notable progress. The criticism of the sources, the study of literary styles, and the knowledge of local history now render it easier to discriminate in this literature between what is really historical and what is merely the invention of the genius of the people or of the imagination of pious writers (see H. Delehaye,Les Légendes hagiographiques, 2nd ed., pp. 121-141, Brussels, 1906). “Though the lives of saints,” says a recent historian, “are filled with miracles and incredible stories, they form a rich mine of information concerning the life and customs of the people. Some of them are ‘memorials of the best men of the time written by the best scholars of the time,’” (C. Gross,The Sources and Literature of English History, p. 34, London, 1900).

The hagiography of the Eastern and the Greek church also has been the subject of important publications. The Greek texts are very much scattered. Of them, however, may be mentioned J. B. Malou’s “Symeonis Metaphrastae opera omnia” (Patrologia Graeca, 114, 115, 116) and Theophilos Ioannu,Μνημεῖα ἁγιολογικά(Venice, 1884). For Syriac, there are S. E. Assemani’sActa sanctorum martyrum orientalium(Rome, 1748) and P. Bedjan’sActa martyrum et sanctorum(Paris, 1890-1897); for Armenian, the acts of martyrs and lives of saints, published in two volumes by the Mechitharist community of Venice in 1874; for Coptic, Hyvernat’sLes Actes des martyrs de l’Égypte(Paris, 1886); for Ethiopian, K. Conti Rossini’sScriptores Aethiopici, vitae sanctorum(Paris, 1904 seq.); and for Georgian, Sabinin’sParadise of the Georgian Church(St Petersburg, 1882).

In addition to the principal collections must be mentioned the innumerable works in which the hagiographic texts have been subjected to detailed critical study.

To realize the present state of hagiology, theBibliotheca hagiographica, both Latin and Greek, published by the Bollandists, and theBulletin hagiographique, which appears in each number of theAnalecta Bollandiana(seeBollandists), must be consulted. Thanks to the combined efforts of a great number of scholars, the classification of the hagiographic texts has in recent years made notable progress. The criticism of the sources, the study of literary styles, and the knowledge of local history now render it easier to discriminate in this literature between what is really historical and what is merely the invention of the genius of the people or of the imagination of pious writers (see H. Delehaye,Les Légendes hagiographiques, 2nd ed., pp. 121-141, Brussels, 1906). “Though the lives of saints,” says a recent historian, “are filled with miracles and incredible stories, they form a rich mine of information concerning the life and customs of the people. Some of them are ‘memorials of the best men of the time written by the best scholars of the time,’” (C. Gross,The Sources and Literature of English History, p. 34, London, 1900).

(H. De.)

HAGIOSCOPE(from Gr.ἅγιος, holy, andσκοπεῖν, to see), in architecture, an opening through the wall of a church in an oblique direction, to enable the worshippers in the transepts or other parts of the church, from which the altar was not visible, to see the elevation of the Host. As a rule these hagioscopes, or “squints” as they are sometimes called, are found on one or both sides of the chancel arch. In some cases a series of openings has been cut in the walls in an oblique line to enable a person standing in the porch (as in Bridgewater church, Somerset) to see the altar; in this case and in other instances such openings were sometimes provided for an attendant, who had to ring the Sanctus bell when the Host was elevated. Though rarely met with on the continent of Europe, there are occasions where they are found, so as to enable a monk in one of the vestries to follow the service and communicate with the bell-ringers.

HAGONOY,a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on Manila Bay and on the W. branch and the delta of the Pampanga Grande river, about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903), 21,304. Hagonoy is situated in a rich agricultural region, producing rice, Indian corn, sugar and a little coffee. Alcohol is made in considerable quantities from the fermented juice of the nipa palm, which grows in the neighbouring swamps, and from the leaves of which the nipa thatch is manufactured. There is good fishing. The women of the town are very skilful in weaving the native fabrics. The language is Tagalog. Hagonoy was founded in 1581.

HAGUE, THE(in Dutch,’s Gravenhage, or, abbreviated,den Haag; in Fr.La Haye; and in Late Lat.Haga Comitis), the chief town of the province of South Holland, about 2½ m. from the sea, with a junction station 9½ m. by rail S.W. by S. of Leiden. Steam tramways connect it with the seaside villages of Scheveningen, Kykduin and ’s Gravenzande, as well as with Delft, Wassenaar and Leiden, and it is situated on a branch of the main canal from Rotterdam to Amsterdam. Pop. (1900), 212,211. The Hague is the chief town of the province, the usual residence of the court and diplomatic bodies, and the seat of the government, the states-general, the high council of the Netherlands, the council of state, the chamber of accounts and various other administrative bodies. The characteristics of the town are quite in keeping with its political position; it is as handsome as it is fashionable, and was rightly described by de Amicis in hisOlandaas half Dutch, half French. The Hague has grown very largely in modern times, especially on its western side, which is situated on the higher and more sandy soil, the south-eastern half of the town comprising the poorer and the business quarters. The main features in a plan of the town are its fine streets and houses and extensive avenues and well-planted squares; while, as a city, the neighbourhood of an attractive seaside resort, combined with the advantages and importance of a large town, and the possession of beautiful and wooded surroundings, give it a distinction all its own.

The medieval-looking group of government buildings situated in the Binnenhof (or “inner court”), their backs reflected in the pretty sheet of water called the Vyver, represent both historically and topographically the centre of the Hague. On the opposite side of the Vyver lies the parallelogram formed by the fine houses and magnificent avenue of trees of the Lange Voorhout, the Kneuterdyk and the Vyverburg, representing the fashionable kernel of the city. Close by lies the entrance to the Haagsche Bosch, or the wood, on one side of which is situated the deer-park, and a little beyond on the other the zoological gardens (1862). Away from the Lange Voorhout the fine Park Straat stretches to the “1813 Plein” or square, in the centre of which rises the large monument (1869) by Jaquet commemorating the jubilee of the restoration of Dutch independence in 1813. Beyond this is the Alexander Veld, used as a military drill ground, and close by is the entrance to the beautiful road called the Scheveningensche Weg, which leads through the “little woods” to Scheveningen. Parallel to the Park Straat is the busy Noordeinde, in which is situated the royal palace. The palace was purchased by the States in 1595, rebuilt by the stadtholder William III., and extended by King William I. in the beginning of the 19th century. In front of the building is an equestrian statue of William I. of Orange by Count Nieuerkerke (1845), and behind are the gardens and extensive stables. The Binnenhof, which has been already mentioned, was once surrounded bya moat, and is still entered through ancient gateways. The oldest portion was founded in 1249 by William II., count of Holland, whose son, Florens V., enlarged it and made it his residence. Several centuries later the stadtholders also lived here. The fine old hall of the knights, built by Florens, and now containing the archives of the home office, is the historic chamber in which the states of the Netherlands abjured their allegiance to Philip II. of Spain, and in front of which the grey-headed statesman Johan van Oldenbarneveldt was executed in 1619. Close by on the one side are the courts of justice, and on the other the first and second chambers of the states-general, containing some richly painted ceilings and the portraits of various stadtholders. Government offices occupy the remainder of the buildings, and in the middle of the court is a fountain surmounted by a statuette of William II., count of Holland (1227-1256). In the adjoining Buitenhof, or “outer court,” is a statue of King William II. (d. 1849), and the old Gevangen Poort, or prison gate (restored 1875), consisting of a tower and gateway. It was here that the brothers Cornelis and Jan de Witt were killed by the mob in 1672. On the opposite side of the Binnenhof is the busy square called the Plein, where all the tram-lines meet. Round about it are the buildings of the ministry of justice and other government buildings, including one to contain the state archives, the large club-house of the Witte Societeit, and the Mauritshuis. The Mauritshuis was built in 1633-1644 by Count John Maurice of Nassau, governor of Brazil, and contains the famous picture gallery of the Hague. The nucleus of this collection was formed by the princes of Orange, notably by the stadtholder William V. (1748-1806). King William I. did much to restore the losses caused by the removal of many of the pictures during the French occupation. Other artistic collections in the Hague are the municipal museum (GernsenteMuseum), containing paintings by both ancient and modern Dutch artists, and some antiquities; the fine collection of pictures in the Steengracht gallery, belonging to Jonkheer Steengracht; the museum Meermanno-Westreenianum, named after Count Meermann and Baron Westreenen (d. 1850), containing some interesting MSS. and specimens of early typography and other curiosities; and the Mesdag Museum, containing the collection of the painter H. W. Mesdag (b. 1831) presented by him to the state. The royal library (1798) contains upwards of 500,000 volumes, including some early illuminated MSS., a valuable collection of coins and medals and some fine antique gems. In addition to the royal palace already mentioned, there are the palaces of the queen-dowager, of the prince of Orange (founded about 1720 by Count Unico of Wassenaar Twiekels) and of the prince von Wied, dating from 1825, and containing some good early Dutch and Flemish masters. There are numerous churches of various denominations in the Hague as well as an English church, a Russian chapel and two synagogues, one of which is Portuguese. The Groote Kerk of St James (15th and 16th centuries) has a fine vaulted interior, and contains some old stained glass, a carved wooden pulpit (1550), a large organ and interesting sepulchral monuments, and some escutcheons of the knights of the Golden Fleece, placed here after the chapter of 1456. The Nieuwe Kerk, or new church (first half 17th century), contains the tombs of the brothers De Witt and of the philosopher Spinoza. Spinoza is further commemorated by a monument in front of the house in which he died in 1677. The picturesque town hall (built in 1565 and restored and enlarged in 1882) contains a historical picture gallery. The principal other buildings are the provincial government offices, the royal school of music, the college of art, the large building (1874) of the society for arts and sciences, the ethnographical institute of the Netherlands Indies with fine library, the theatres, civil and military hospitals, orphanage, lunatic asylum and other charitable institutions; the fine modern railway station (1892), the cavalry and artillery and the infantry barracks, and the cannon foundry. The chief industries of the town are iron casting, copper and lead smelting, cannon founding, the manufacture of furniture and carriages, liqueur distilling, lithographing and printing.

The Hague wood has been described as the city’s finest ornament. It is composed chiefly of oaks and alders and magnificent avenues of gigantic beech-trees. Together with the Haarlem wood it is thought to be a remnant of the immense forest which once extended along the coast. At the end of one of the avenues which penetrates into it from the town is the large summer club-house of the Witte Societeit, under whose auspices concerts are given here in summer. Farther into the wood are some pretty little lakes, and the famous royal villa called the Huis ten Bosch, or “house in the wood.” This villa was built by Pieter Post for the Princess Amelia of Solms, in memory of her husband the stadtholder, Frederick Henry of Orange (d. 1647), and wings were added to it by Prince William IV. in 1748. The chief room is the Orange Saloon, an octagonal hall 50 ft. high, covered with paintings by Dutch and Flemish artists, chiefly of incidents in the life of Prince Frederick. In this room the International Peace Conference had its sittings in the summer of 1899. The collections in the Chinese and Japanese rooms, and the grisailles in the dining-room painted by Jacobus de Wit (1695-1754), are also noteworthy.

The history of the Hague is in some respects singular. In the 13th century it was no more than a hunting-lodge of the counts of Holland, and though Count Floris V. (b. 1254-1296) made it his residence and it thus became the seat of the supreme court of justice of Holland and the centre of the administration, and from the time of William of Orange onward the meeting-place of the states-general, it only received the status of a town, from King Louis Bonaparte, early in the 19th century.

In the latter part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th century the Hague was the centre of European diplomacy. Among the many treaties and conventions signed here may be mentioned the treaty of the Triple Alliance (January 23, 1688) between England, Sweden and the Netherlands; the concert of the Hague (March 31, 1710) between the Emperor, England and Holland, for the maintenance of the neutrality of the Swedish provinces in Germany during the war of the northern powers against Sweden; the Triple Alliance (January 4, 1717) between France, England and Holland for the guarantee of the treaty of Utrecht; the treaty of peace (Feb. 17, 1717) between Spain, Savoy and Austria, by which the first-named acceded to the principles of the Triple Alliance; the treaty of peace between Holland and France (May 16, 1795); the first “Hague Convention,” the outcome of the “peace conference” assembled on the initiative of the emperor Nicholas II. of Russia (July 27, 1899), and the series of conventions, the results of the second peace conference (June 15-October 18, 1907). The International court of arbitration or Hague Tribunal was established in 1899 (seeEurope:History;Arbitration, International). The Palace of Peace designed to be completed in 1913 as the seat of the tribunal, on the Scheveningen avenue, is by a French architect, L. M. Cordonnier, and A. Carnegie contributed £300,000 towards its cost.

HAHN, AUGUST(1792-1863), German Protestant theologian, was born on the 27th of March 1792 at Grossosterhausen near Eisleben, and studied theology at the university of Leipzig. In 1819 he was nominatedprofessor extraordinariusof theology and pastor of Altstadt in Königsberg, and in 1820 received a superintendency in that city. In 1822 he becameprofessor ordinarius. In 1826 he removed as professor of theology to Leipzig, where, hitherto distinguished only as editor of Bardesanes, Marcion (Marcion’s Evangelium in seiner ursprünglichen Gestalt, 1823), and Ephraem Syrus, and the joint editor of aSyrische Chrestomathie(1824), he came into great prominence as the author of a treatise,De rationalismi qui dicitur vera indole et qua cum naturalismo contineatur ratione(1827), and also of anOffene Erklärung an die Evangelische Kirche zunächst in Sachsen u. Preussen(1827), in which, as a member of the school of E. W. Hengstenberg, he endeavoured to convince the rationalists that it was their duty voluntarily and at once to withdraw from the national church. In 1833 Hahn’s pamphlet against K. G. Bretschneider (Über die Lage des Christenthums in unserer Zeit, 1832) having attracted the notice of Friedrich Wilhelm III., he was called to Breslau as theological professor and consistorial councillor, and in 1843 became “general superintendent” ofthe province of Silesia. He died at Breslau on the 13th of May 1863. Though uncompromising in his “supra-naturalism,” he did not altogether satisfy the men of his own school by his own doctrinal system. The first edition of hisLehrbuch des christlichen Glaubens(1828) was freely characterized as lacking in consistency and as detracting from the strength of the old positions in many important points. Many of these defects, however, he is considered to have remedied in his second edition (1857). Among his other works are his edition of the Hebrew Bible (1833), hisBibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der apostolisch-katholischen Kirche(1842; 2nd ed. 1877) andPredigten(1852).

His eldest son,Heinrich August Hahn(1821-1861), after studying theology at Breslau and Berlin, became successivelyPrivatdozentat Breslau (1845), professorad interim(1846) at Königsberg on the death of Heinrich Hävernick, professor extraordinarius (1851) and professor ordinarius (1860) at Greifswald. Amongst his published works were a commentary on the Book of Job (1850), a translation of the Song of Songs (1852), an exposition of Isaiah xl.-lxvi. (1857) and a commentary on the Book of Ecclesiastes (1860).

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