Chapter 18

See the articles in Herzog-Hauck,Realencyklopädie, and theAllgemeine deutsche Biographie.

HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH(1755-1843), German physician and founder of “homoeopathy,” was born at Meissen in Saxony on the 10th of April 1755. He was educated at the “elector’s school” of Meissen, and studied medicine at Leipzig and Vienna, taking the degree of M.D. at Erlangen in 1779. After practising in various places, he settled in Dresden in 1784, and thence removed to Leipzig in 1789. In the following year, while translating W. Cullen’sMateria medicainto German, he was struck by the fact that the symptoms produced by quinine on the healthy body were similar to those of the disordered states it was used to cure. He had previously felt dissatisfied with the state of the science of medicine, and this observation led him to assert the truth of the “law of similars,”similia similibus curanturorcurentur—i.e.diseases are cured (or should be treated) by those drugs which produce symptoms similar to them in the healthy. He promulgated his new principle in a paper published in 1796 in C. W. Hufeland’sJournal, and four years later, convinced that drugs in much smaller doses than were generally employed effectually exerted their curative powers, he advanced his doctrine of their potentization or dynamization. In 1810 he published his chief work,Organon der rationellen Heilkunde, containing an exposition of his system, which he called homoeopathy (q.v.), and in the following years appeared the six volumes of hisReine Arzneimittellehre, which detailed the symptoms produced by “proving” a large number of drugs,i.e.by systematically administering them to healthy subjects. In 1821 the hostility of established interests, and especially of the apothecaries, whose services were not required under his system, forced him to leave Leipzig, and at the invitation of the grand-duke of Anhalt-Cöthen he went to live at Cöthen. Fourteen years later he removed to Paris, where he practised with great success until his death on the 2nd of July 1843. Statues were erected to his memory at Leipzig in 1851 and at Cöthen in 1855. He also wrote, in addition to the works already mentioned,Fragmenta de viribus medicamentorum positivis(1805) andDie chronischen Krankheiten(1828-1830).

See the articleHomoeopathy; also Albrecht,Hahnemann’s Leben und Werken(Leipzig, 1875); Bradford,Hahnemann’s Life and Letters(Philadelphia, 1895).

HAHN-HAHN, IDA,Countess Von(1805-1880), German author, was born at Tressow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the 22nd of June 1805, daughter of Graf (Count) Karl Friedrich von Hahn (1782-1857), well known for his enthusiasm for the stage, upon which he squandered a large portion of his fortune. She married in 1826 her wealthy cousin Count Adolf von Hahn-Hahn. With him she had an extremely unhappy life, and in 1829 her husband’s irregularities led to a divorce. The countess travelled, produced some volumes of poetry indicating true lyrical feeling, and in 1838 appeared as a novelist withAus der Gesellschaft, a title which, proving equally applicable to her subsequent novels, was retained as that of a series, the book originally so entitled being renamedIda Schönholm. For several years the countess continued to produce novels bearing a certain subjective resemblance to those of George Sand, but less hostile to social institutions, and dealing almost exclusively with aristocratic society. The author’s patrician affectations at length drew upon her the merciless ridicule of Fanny Lewald in a parody of her style entitledDiogena(1847), and this and the revolution of 1848 together seem to have co-operated in inducing her to embrace the Roman Catholic religion in 1850. She justified her step in a polemical work entitledVon Babylon nach Jerusalem(1851), which elicited a vigorous reply from H. Abeken. In 1852 she retired into a convent at Angers, which she, however, soon left, taking up her residence at Mainz where she founded a nunnery, in which she lived without joining the order, and continued her literary labours. For many years her novels were the most popular works of fiction in aristocratic circles; many of her later publications, however, passed unnoticed as mere party manifestoes. Her earlier works do not deserve the neglect into which they have fallen. If their sentimentalism is sometimes wearisome, it is grounded on genuine feeling and expressed with passionate eloquence.UlrichandGräfin Faustine, both published in 1841, mark the culmination of her power; butSigismund Forster(1843),Cecil(1844),Sibylle(1846) andMaria Regina(1860) also obtained considerable popularity. She died at Mainz on the 12th of January 1880.

Her collected works,Gesammelte Werke, with an introduction by O. von Schaching, were published in two series, 45 volumes in all (Regensburg, 1903-1904). See H. Keiter,Gräfin Hahn-Hahn(Würzburg, undated); P. Haffner,Gräfin Ida Hahn-Hahn,eine psychologische Studie(Frankfort, 1880); A. Jacoby,Ida Gräfin Hahn-Hahn(Mainz, 1894).

HAI(939-1038), Jewish Talmudical scholar, was born in 939. He was educated by his father Sherira, gaon of Pombeditha (Pumbedita), whom he afterwards assisted in his work. They were cast into prison for a short time by the caliph Qadir, and subsequently on Sherira’s death Hai was appointed gaon in his place (998). This office he held till his death on the 28th of March 1038. He is famous chiefly for his answers to problems of ritual and civil law. He composed important treatises on Talmudic law and theMishnah; many poems are also attributed to him on doubtful authority. In hisresponsahe laid stress on custom and tradition provided no infringement of the law were involved, and was essentially conservative in theology. He had considerable knowledge not only of religious movements within the Jewish body, but also of Mahommedan theology and controversial method, and frequently consulted theologians of other beliefs.

See Steinschneider,Hebr. Übersetz. p. 910, and article inJewish Encyclopedia, vi. 153.

HAIBAK,a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The valley of Haibak, which is 3100 ft. above sea level, is fertile and richly cultivated. The town, which is famed in Persian legend, consists now of only a couple of streets, containing many Hindu shops and a small garrison. The inhabitants call themselves Jagatais, a Turki race, though now generally mixed with Tajiks and speaking Persian. In the neighbourhood of Haibak are some very typical Buddhist ruins. Haibak derives its importance from its position on the main line of communication between Kabul and Afghan Turkestan.

HAIDA,a tribe of North American Indians of Skittagetan stock. They still occupy their original home, the Queen Charlotte islands, British Columbia. They are skilful seamen, making long fishing expeditions in cedarwood canoes. They are noted for their carving and basket-work. They formerly made raids on the coast tribes. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war. The population, some 7000 in the middle of the 19th century, is now reduced to a few hundreds.

SeeHandbook of American Indians(Washington, 1907). For “Haida Texts and Myths,” seeBull. 29 Smithsonian Institution Bureau Amer. Ethnol.(1905).

HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL,Ritter von(1795-1871), Austrian mineralogist, geologist and physicist, was born at Vienna on the 5th of February 1795. His father, Karl Haidinger, contributed largely to the development of mineralogical science in the latter half of the 18th century. Having studied at the normal school of St Anne, and attended classes at the university, Wilhelm, at the age of seventeen, joined Professor F. Mohs at Gratz, and five years later accompanied the professor to Freiberg on the transfer of his labours to the mining academy of that town.

In 1822 Haidinger visited France and England with Count Breunner, and, journeying northward, took up his abode in Edinburgh. He translated into English, with additions of his own, Mohs’sGrundriss der Mineralogie, published at Edinburgh in three volumes under the titleTreatise on Mineralogy(1825). After a tour in northern Europe, including the Scandinavian mining districts, he undertook the scientific direction of the porcelain works at Elbogen, belonging to his brothers. In 1840 he was appointed counsellor of mines (Bergrat) at Vienna in the place of Professor Mohs, a post which included the charge of the imperial cabinet of minerals. He devoted himself to the rearrangement and enrichment of the collections, and the museum became the first in Europe. Shortly after (1843) Haidinger commenced a series of lectures on mineralogy, which was given to the world under the titleHandbuch der bestimmenden Mineralogie(Vienna, 1845; tables, 1846). On the establishment of the imperial geological institute, he was chosen director (1849); and this important position he occupied for seventeen years. He was elected a member of the imperial board of agriculture and mines, and a member of the imperial academy of sciences of Vienna. He organized the society of the Freunde der Naturwissenschaften. As a physicist Haidinger ranked high, and he was one of the most active promoters of scientific progress in Austria. He was the discoverer of the interesting optical appearances which have been called after him “Haidinger’s brushes.” Knighted in 1865, the following year he retired to his estate at Dornbach near Vienna, where he died on the 19th of March 1871.

In addition to the works already named, Haidinger publishedAnfangsgründe der Mineralogie(Leipzig, 1829);Geognostische Übersichtskarte der österreich. Monarchie(Vienna, 1847);Bemerkungen über die Anordnung der kleinsten Theilchen in Christallen(Vienna, 1853);Interferenzlinien am Glimmer(Vienna, 1855);Vergleichungen von Augit und Amphibol(Vienna, 1855). He also edited theNaturwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen(Vienna, 1847); theBerichte über die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften in Wien(Vienna, 1847-1851); and theJahrbuchof the Vienna K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt (1850), &c. Some of his papers will be found in theTransactionsof the Royal Society of Edinburgh (vol. x.) and of the Wernerian Society (1822-1823),Edinburgh Phil. Journal, Brewster’s Journal of Science, andPoggendorff’s Annalen.

(H. B. Wo.)

HAIDUK(also writtenHayduk, Heiduc, HeydukeandHeyduque), a term which appears originally to have meant “robber” or “brigand,” a sense it retains in Servia and some other parts of the Balkan Peninsula. It is probably derived from the Turkishhaidūd, “marauder,” but its origin is not absolutely certain. Most of the European races with which the Turks came into close contact during the 15th and 16th centuries seem to have adopted it as a loan-word, and it appears in Magyar ashajdú(pluralhajduk), in Serbo-Croatian, Rumanian, Polish and Čech ashajduk, in Bulgarian ashajdutinand in Greek asχαιντούτης. By the beginning of the 17th century its use had spread north and west as far as Sweden and Great Britain. In Hungary it was applied to a class of mercenary foot-soldiers of Magyar stock. In 1605 these haiduks were rewarded for their fidelity to the Protestant party (seeHungary:History) with titles of nobility and territorial rights over a district situated on the left bank of the river Theiss, known thenceforward as the Haiduk region. This was enlarged in 1876 and converted into the county of Hajdú (Ger.Hajduken).Hajdúis also a common prefix in Hungarian place-names,e.g.Hajdú-Szoboszló, Hajdú-Námás. In Austria-Hungary, Germany, Poland, Sweden and some other countries,haidukcame to mean an attendant in a court of law, or a male servant, dressed in Hungarian semi-military costume. It is also occasionally used as a synonym for “footman” or “lackey.”

HAIFA,a town of Palestine at the foot of Mt. Carmel, on the south of the Bay of Acre. It represents the classical Sycaminum, but the present town is entirely modern. It has developed since about 1890 into an important port, and is connected by railway with Damascus. The population is estimated at 12,000 (Moslems 6000, Christians 4000, Jews 1500, Germans 500; the last belong for the greater part to the Unitarian sect of the “Templars,” who have colonies also at Jaffa and Jerusalem). The exports (grain and oil) were valued at £178,738 in 1900. Much of the trade that formerly went to Acre has been attracted to Haifa. This port is the best natural harbour on the Palestine coast.

HAIK(an Arabic word, fromhak, to weave), a piece of cloth, usually of coarse hand-woven wool, worn by Arabs, Moors and other Mahommedan peoples. It is generally 6 to 6½ yds. long, and about 2 broad. It is either striped or plain, and is worn equally by both sexes, usually as an outer covering; but it is often the only garment of the poorer classes. By women the “haik” is arranged to cover the head and, in the presence of men, is held so as to conceal the face. A thin “haik” of silk, like a veil, is used by brides at their marriage.

HAIL(O. Eng.hæglandhagol,1cf. the cognate Teutonichagel, as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c.; the Gr.κάχληξ, pebble, is probably allied), the name for rounded masses or single pellets of ice falling from the clouds in a shower. True hail has a concentric structure caused by the frozen particles of moisture first descending into a warm cloud, whence they are carried upwards on an ascending current of heated air into a cold stratum where the fresh coating of water vapour deposited in the cloud is frozen. The hailstone descends again, receives a fresh coating, is carried up once more, refrozen, and again descends. Thus the hailstone grows until the current is no longer strong enough to support it when it falls to the ground. At times masses of hail are frozen together, and a very sudden cooling will sometimes result in the formation of ragged masses of ice that fall with disastrous results. Hail must be distinguished from the frozen snow, “soft-hail” or “graupel,” that often falls at the rear of a spring cyclone, since true hail is almost entirely a summer phenomenon, and falls most frequently in thunderstorms which are produced under the conditions that are favourable to the formation of hail,i.e.great heat, a still atmosphere, the production of strong local convection currents in consequence, and the passage of a cold upper drift.

1“Hail,” a call of greeting or salutation, a shout to attract attention, must, of course, be distinguished. This word represents the Old Norwegianheill, prosperity, cognate with O. Eng.hāl, whence “hale,” “whole,” andhæl, whence “health,” “heal.”

HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE,Lord(1726-1792), Scottish lawyer and historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of October 1726. His father, Sir James Dalrymple, Bart., of Hailes, in the county of Haddington, auditor-general of the exchequer of Scotland, was a grandson of James, first Viscount Stair; and his mother, Lady Christian Hamilton, was a daughter of Thomas, 6th earl of Haddington. David was the eldest of sixteen children. He was educated at Eton, and studied law at Utrecht, being intended for the Scottish bar, to which he was admitted shortly after his return to Scotland in 1748. As a pleader he attained neither high distinction nor very extensive practice, but he rapidly established a well-deserved reputation for sound knowledge, unwearied application and strict probity; and in 1766 he was elevated to the bench, when he assumed the title of Lord Hailes. Ten years later he was appointed a lord of justiciary. He died on the 29th of November 1792. He was twice married, and had a daughter by each wife. The baronetcy to which he had succeeded passed to the son of his brother John, provost of Edinburgh. Another brother was Alexander Dalrymple (1737-1808), the first admiralty hydrographer, who distinguished himself in the East India Company’s service and as a geographer. Lord Hailes’s younger daughter married SirJames Fergusson; and their grandson, Sir Charles Dalrymple, 1st Bart. (cr. 1887), M.P. for Bute from 1868 to 1885, afterwards came into Lord Hailes’s estate and took his family name.

Lord Hailes’s most important contribution to literature was theAnnals of Scotland, of which the first volume, “From the accession of Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, to the accession of Robert I.,” appeared in 1776, and the second, “From the accession of Robert I., surnamed Bruce, to the accession of the house of Stewart,” in 1779. It is, as Dr Johnson justly described this work at the time of its appearance, a “Dictionary” of carefully sifted facts, which tells all that is wanted and all that is known, but without any laboured splendour of language or affected subtlety of conjecture. The other works of Lord Hailes includeHistorical Memoirs concerning the Provincial Councils of the Scottish Clergy(1769);An Examination of some of the Arguments for the High Antiquity of Regiam Majestatem(1769); three volumes entitledRemains of Christian Antiquity(“Account of the Martyrs of Smyrna and Lyons in the Second Century,” 1776; “The Trials of Justin Martyr, Cyprian, &c.,” 1778; “The History of the Martyrs of Palestine, translated from Eusebius,” 1780);Disquisitions concerning the Antiquities of the Christian Church(1783); and editions or translations of portions of Lactantius, Tertullian and Minucius Felix. In 1786 he publishedAn Inquiry into the Secondary Causes which Mr Gibbon has assigned for the Rapid Growth of Christianity(Dutch translation, Utrecht, 1793), one of the most respectable of the very many replies which were made to the famous 15th and 16th chapters of theDecline and Fall of the Roman Empire.

A “Memoir” of Lord Hailes is prefixed to the 1808 reprint of hisInquiry into the Secondary Causes.

HAILSHAM,a market-town in the Eastbourne parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 54 m. S.S.E. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 4197. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular. The picturesque Augustinian priory of Michelham lies 2 m. W. by the Cuckmere river; it is altered into a dwelling house, but retains a gate-house, crypt and other portions of Early English date. There was also a Premonstratensian house at Otham, 3 m. S., but the remains are scanty. Hailsham has a considerable agricultural trade, and manufactures of rope and matting are carried on.

HAINAN,or, as it is usually called in Chinese,K’iung-chow-fu, a large island belonging to the Chinese province of Kwang-tung, and situated between the Chinese Sea and the Gulf of Tong-king from 20° 8′ to 17° 52′ N., and from 108° 32′ to 111° 15′ E. It measures 160 m. from N.E. to S.W., and the average breadth is about 90 m. The area is estimated at from 1200 to 1400 sq. m., or two-thirds the size of Sicily. From the peninsula of Lei-chow on the north it is separated by the straits of Hainan, which have a breadth of 15 or 20 m.

With the exception of a considerable area in the north, and broad tracts on the north-east and north-west sides, the whole island is occupied by jungle-covered mountains, with rich valleys between. The central range bears the name of Li-mou shan or Wu-tchi shan (the Five-Finger Mountain), and attains a height of 6000 or 7000 ft. Its praises are celebrated in a glowing ode by Ch‘iu, a native poet. The island appears to be well watered, and some of its rivers are not without importance as possible highways of commerce; but the details of its hydrography are very partially ascertained. A navigable channel extends in an irregular curve from the bay of Hoi-how (Hai-K‘ow) in the north to Tan-chow on the west coast. Being exposed to the winter monsoon, the northern parts of the island enjoy much the same sort of temperate climate as the neighbouring provinces of the mainland, but in the southern parts, protected from the monsoon by the mountain ranges, the climate is almost or entirely tropical. Snow falls so rarely that its appearance in 1684 is reported in the native chronicles as a remarkable event. Earthquakes are a much more familiar phenomenon, having occurred, according to the same authority, in 1523, 1526, 1605, 1652, 1677, 1681, 1684, 1702, 1704, 1725, 1742, 1816, 1817 and 1822. Excellent timber of various kinds—eagle-wood, rose-wood, liquidambar, &c.—is one of the principal products of the island, and has even been specially transported to Peking for imperial purposes. The coco palm flourishes freely even in the north, and is to be found growing in clumps with thePinus sinensis. Rice, cotton, sugar, indigo, cinnamon, betel-nuts, sweet potatoes, ground-nuts and tobacco are all cultivated in varying quantities. The aboriginal inhabitants collect a kind of tea called t’ien ch’a, or celestial tea, which looks like the leaves of a wild camellia, and has an earthy taste when infused. Lead, silver, copper and iron occur in the Shi-lu shan or “stone-green-hill”; the silver at least was worked till 1850. Gold and lapis lazuli are found in other parts of the island.

The ordinary cattle of Hainan are apparently a cross between the little yellow cow of south China and the zebu of India. Buffaloes are common, and in the neighbourhood of Nanlu at least they are frequently albinos. Horses are numerous but small. Hogs and deer are both common wild animals, and of the latter there are three species,Cervus Eldi, Cervus hippelaphusandCervus vaginalis. Among the birds, of which 172 species are described by Mr Swinhoe in his paper inThe Ibis(1870), there are eagles, notably a new speciesSpilornis Rutherfordi, buzzards, harriers, kites, owls, goatsuckers and woodpeckers. TheUpupa ceylonensisis familiar to the natives as the “bird of the Li matrons,” and thePalaeornis javanicaas the “sugar-cane bird.”

Hainan forms a fu or department of the province of Kwang-tung, though strictly it is only a portion of the island that is under Chinese administration, the remainder being still occupied by unsubjugated aborigines. The department contains threechowand tenhiendistricts. K‘iung-chow-hien, in which the capital is situated; Ting-an-hien, the only inland district; Wen-ch‘ang-hien, in the north-east of the island; Hui-t‘ung-hien, Lo-hui-hien, Ling-shu-hien, Wan-chow, Yai-chow (the southmost of all), Kan-ēn-hien, Ch’ang-hwa-hien, Tan-chow, Lin-kao-hien and Ch‘ēng-mai-hien. The capital K’iung-chow-fu is situated in the north about 10 li (or 3 m.) from the coast on the river. It is a well-built compact city, and its temples and examination halls are in good preservation. Carved articles in coco-nuts and scented woods are its principal industrial product. In 1630 it was made the seat of a Roman Catholic mission by Benoit de Mathos, a Portuguese Jesuit, and the old cemetery still contains about 113 Christian graves. The port of K‘iung-chow-fu at the mouth of the river, which is nearly dry at low water, is called simply Hoi-how, or in the court dialect Hai-K‘ow,i.e.seaport. The two towns are united by a good road, along which a large traffic is maintained partly by coolie porters but more frequently by means of wheel-barrows, which serve the purpose of cabs and carts. The value of the trade of the port has risen from £670,600 in 1899 to £719,333 in 1904. In the same year 424 vessels, representing a tonnage of 312,554, visited the port. This trade is almost entirely with the British colony of Hong-Kong, with which the port is connected by small coasting steamers, but since 1893 it has had regular steamboat communication with Haiphong in Tongking. The population of K‘iung-chow, including its shipping port of Hoi-how, is estimated at 52,000. The number of foreign residents in 1900 was about 30, most of them officials or missionaries.

The inhabitants of Hainan may be divided into three classes, the Chinese immigrants, the civilized aborigines or Shu-li and the wild aborigines or Sheng-li. The Chinese were for the most part originally from Kwang-si and the neighbouring provinces, and they speak a peculiar dialect, of which a detailed account by Mr Swinhoe was given inThe Phoenix, a Monthly Magazine for China, &c.(1870). The Shu-li as described by Mr Taintor are almost of the same stature as the Chinese, but have a more decided copper colour, higher cheek-bones and more angular features, while their eyes are not oblique. Their hair is long, straight and black, and their beards, if they have any, are very scanty. They till the soil and bring rice, fuel, timber, grass-cloth, &c., to the Chinese markets. The Sheng-li or Li proper, called also La, Le or Lauy, are probably connected with the Laos of Siam and the Lolos of China. Though not gratuitously aggressive, they are highly intractable, and have given great trouble to the Chinese authorities. Among themselves they carry ondeadly feuds, and revenge is a duty and an inheritance. Though they are mainly dependent on the chase for food, their weapons are still the spear and the bow, the latter being made of wood and strung with bamboo. In marriage no avoidance of similarity of name is required. The bride’s face is tattooed according to a pattern furnished by the bridegroom. Their funeral mourning consists of abstaining from drink and eating raw beef, and they use a wooden log for a coffin. When sick they sacrifice oxen. In the spring-time there is a festival in which the men and women from neighbouring settlements move about in gay clothing hand in hand and singing songs. The whole population of the island is estimated at about 2½ millions. At its first conquest 23,000 families were introduced from the mainland. In 1300 the Chinese authorities assign 166,257 inhabitants; in 1370, 291,000; in 1617, 250,524; and in 1835, 1,350,000.

It was in 111B.C.that Lu-Po-Teh, general of the emperor Wu-ti, first made the island of Hainan subject to the Chinese, who divided it into the two prefectures, Tan-urh or Drooping Ear in the south, so-called from the long ears of the native “king,” and Chu-yai or Pearl Shore in the north. During the decadence of the elder branch of the Han dynasty the Chinese supremacy was weakened, but inA.D.43 the natives were led by the success of Ma-yuan in Tong-king to make a new tender of their allegiance. About this time the whole island took the name of Chu-yai. InA.D.627 the name of K‘iung-chow came into use. On its conquest by the generals of Kublai Khan in 1278 the island was incorporated with the western part of the province of Kwang-tung in a new satrapy, Hai-peh Hai-nan Tao,i.e.the circuit north of the sea and south of the sea. It was thus that Hai-nan-Tao, or district south of the sea or strait, came into use as the name of the island, which, however, has borne the official title of K‘iung-chow-fu, probably derived from the Kiung shan or Jade Mountains, ever since 1370, the date of its erection into a department of Kwang-tung. For a long time Hainan was the refuge of the turbulent classes of China and the place of deportation for delinquent officials. It was there, for example, that Su-She or Su-Tung-po was banished in 1097. From the 15th to the 19th century pirates made the intercourse with the mainland dangerous, and in the 17th they were considered so formidable that merchants were allowed to convey their goods only across the narrow Hainan Strait. Since 1863 the presence of English men-of-war has put an end to this evil. According to the treaty of Tientsin, the capital K’iung-chow and the harbour Hoi-how (Hai-Kow) were opened to European commerce; but it was not till 1876 that advantage was taken of the permission.

HAINAU(officiallyHaynau), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the Schnelle Deichsa and the railway from Breslau to Dresden, 12 m. N.W. of Liegnitz. Pop. 10,500. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, manufactories of gloves, patent leather, paper, metal ware and artificial manures, and a considerable trade in cereals. Near Hainau the Prussian cavalry under Blücher inflicted a defeat on the French rearguard on the 26th of May 1813.

HAINAUT(Flem.Henegouwen, Ger.Hennegau), a province of Belgium formed out of the ancient county of Hainaut. Modern Hainaut is famous as containing the chief coal and iron mines of Belgium. There are about 150,000 men and women employed in the mines, and about as many more in the iron and steel works of the province. About 1880 these numbers were not more than half their present totals. The principal towns of Hainaut are Mons, the capital, Charleroi, Tournai, Jumet and La Louvière. The province is watered by both the Scheldt and the Sambre, and is connected with Flanders by the Charleroi-Ghent canal. The area of the province is computed at 930,405 acres or 1453 sq. m. In 1904 the population was 1,192,967, showing an average of 821 per square mile.

Under the successors of Clovis Hainaut formed part, first of the kingdom of Metz, and then of that of Lotharingia. It afterwards became part of the duchy of Lorraine. The first to bear the title of count of Hainaut was Reginar “Long-Neck” (c.875), who, later on, made himself master of the duchy of Lorraine and died in 916. His eldest son inherited Lower Lorraine, the younger, Reginar II., the countship of Hainaut, which remained in the male line of his descendants, all named Reginar, until the death of Reginar V. in 1036. His heiress, Richildis, marrieden secondes nocesBaldwin VI. of Flanders, and, by him, became the ancestress of the Baldwin (VI. of Hainaut) who in 1204 was raised by the Crusaders to the empire of Constantinople. The emperor Baldwin’s elder daughter Jeanne brought the countship of Hainaut to her husbands Ferdinand of Portugal (d. 1233) and Thomas of Savoy (d. 1259). On her death in 1244, however, it passed to her sister Margaret, on whose death in 1279 it was inherited by her grandson, John of Avesnes, count of Holland (d. 1304). The countship of Hainaut remained united with that of Holland during the 14th and 15th centuries. It was under the counts William I. “the Good” (1304-1337), whose daughter Philippa married Edward III. of England, and William II. (1337-1345) that the communes of Hainaut attained great political importance. Margaret, who succeeded her brother William II. in 1345, by her marriage with the emperor Louis IV. brought Hainaut with the rest of her dominions to the house of Wittelsbach. Finally, early in the 15th century, the countess Jacqueline was dispossessed by Philip the Good of Burgundy, and Hainaut henceforward shared the fate of the rest of the Netherlands.

Authorities.—TheChronicon HanonienseorChronica Honnoniaeof Giselbert of Mons (d. 1223-1225), chancellor of Count Baldwin V., covering the period between 1040 and 1195, is published in Pertz,Monum. Germ.(Hanover, 1840, &c.). TheChronicon Hanoniense, ascribed to Baldwin, count of Avesnes (d. 1289), and written between 1278 and 1281, was published under the titleHist. genealogica comitum Hannoniae, &c., at Antwerp (1691 and 1693) and Brussels (1722). The Annals of Jacques de Guise (b. 1334; d. 1399) were published by de Fortia d’Urban under the title,Histoire de Hainault par Jacques de Guyse, in 19 vols. (Paris, 1826-1838); C. Delacourt, “Bibliographie de l’hist. du Hainaut,” in theAnnales du cercle archéologique de Mons, vol. v. (Mons, 1864); T. Bernier,Dict. géograph. historique, &c., de Hainault(Mons, 1891). See also Ulysse Chevalier,Répertoire des sourcess.v.

HAINBURG,orHaimburg, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 38 m. E.S.E of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 5134. It is situated on the Danube, only 2½ m. from the Hungarian frontier, and since the fire of 1827 Hainburg has been much improved, being now a handsomely built town. It has one of the largest tobacco manufactories in Austria, employing about 2000 hands, and a large needle factory. It occupies part of the site of the old Celtic town Carnuntum (q.v.). It is still surrounded by ancient walls, and has a gate guarded by two old towers. There are numerous Roman remains, among which may be mentioned the altar and tower at the town-house, on the latter of which is a statue, said to be of Attila. A Roman aqueduct is still used to bring water to the town. On the neighbouring Hainberg is an old castle, built of Roman remains, which appears in German tradition under the name of Heimburc; it was wrested from the Hungarians in 1042 by the emperor Henry III. At the foot of the same hill is a castle of the 12th century, where Ottakar of Bohemia was married to Margaret of Austria in 1252; earlier it was the residence of the dukes of Babenberg. Outside the town, on an island in the Danube, is the ruined castle of Röthelstein or Rothenstein, held by the Knights Templars. Hainburg was besieged by the Hungarians in 1477, was captured by Matthias Corvinus in 1482, and was sacked and its inhabitants massacred by the Turks in 1683.

HAINICHEN,a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Kleine Striegis, 15 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, on the railway to Rosswein. Pop. (1905), 7752. It has two Evangelical churches, a park, and commercial and technical schools. Hainichen is a place of considerable industry. Its chief manufacture is that of flannels, baize, and similar fabrics; indeed it may be called the centre of this industry in Germany. The special whiteness and excellence of the flannel made in Hainichen are due to the peculiar nature of the water used in the manufacture. There are also large dye-works and bleaching establishments. Hainichen is the birthplace of Gellert, to whose memory a bronze statue was erected in the market-place in 1865. The Gellert institution for the poor was erected in 1815.

HAI-PHONG,a seaport of Tongking, French Indo-China, on the Cua-Cam, a branch of the Song-koi (Red river) delta. The population numbers between 21,000 and 22,000, of whom 12,500 are Annamese, 7500 Chinese (attracted by the rice trade of the port) and 1200 Europeans. It is situated about 20 m. from the Gulf of Tongking and 58 m. E. by S. of Hanoi, with which it communicates by river and canal and by railway. It is the second commercial port of French Indo-China, is a naval station, and has government and private ship-building yards. The harbour is accessible at all times to vessels drawing 19 to 20 ft., but is obstructed by a bar. Hai-phong is the seat of a resident who performs the functions of mayor, and the residency is the chief building of the town. A civil tribunal, a tribunal of commerce and a branch of the Bank of Indo-China are also among its institutions. It is the headquarters of the river steamboat service (Messageries fluviales) of Tongking, which plies as far as Lao-kay on the Song-koi, to the other chief towns of Tongking and northern Annam, and also to Hong-kong. Cotton-spinning and the manufacture of cement are carried on.

HAIR(a word common to Teutonic languages), the general term for the characteristic outgrowth of the epidermis forming the coat of mammals. The word is also applied by analogy to the filamentous outgrowths from the body of insects, &c., plants, and metaphorically to anything of like appearance.

For anatomy, &c. of animal hair seeSkin and Exoskeleton;Fibresand allied articles;Fur, andLeather.

Anthropology.—The human hair has an important place among the physical criteria of race. While its general structure and quantity vary comparatively little, its length in individuals and relatively in the two sexes, its form, its colour, its general consistency and the appearance under the microscope of its transverse section show persistent differences in the various races. It is the persistence of these differences and specially in regard to its colour and texture, which has given to hair its ethnological importance. So obvious a racial differentiation had naturally long ago attracted the attention of anthropologists. But it was not until the 19th century that microscopic examination showed the profound difference in structure between the hair characteristic of the great divisions of mankind. It was in 1863 that Dr Pruner-Bey read a paper before the Paris Anthropological Society entitled “On the Human Hair as a Race Character, examined by aid of the Microscope.” This address established the importance of hair as a racial criterion. He demonstrated that the structure of the hair is threefold:—

(1) Short and crisp, generally termed “woolly,” elliptical or kidney-shaped in section, with no distinguishable medulla or pith. Its colour is almost always jet black, and it is characteristic of all the black races except the Australians and aborigines of India. This type of hair has two varieties. When the hairs are relatively long and the spiral of the curls large, the head has the appearance of being completely covered, as with some of the Melanesian races and most of the negroes. Haeckel has called this “eriocomous” or “woolly” proper. In some negroid peoples, however, such as the Hottentots and Bushmen, the hair grows in very short curls with narrow spirals and forms little tufts separated by spaces which appear bare. The head looks as if it were dotted over with pepper-seed, and thus this hair has gained the name of “peppercorn-growth.” Haeckel has called it “lophocomous” or “crested.” Most negroes have this type of hair in childhood and, even when fully grown, signs of it around the temples. The space between each tuft is not bald, as was at one time generally assumed. The hair grows uniformly over the head, as in all races.

2. Straight, lank, long and coarse, round or nearly so in section, with the medulla or pith easily distinguishable, and almost without exception black. This is the hair of the yellow races, the Chinese, Mongols and Indians of the Americas.

3. Wavy and curly, or smooth and silky, oval in section, with medullary tube but no pith. This is the hair of Europeans, and is mainly fair, though black, brown, red or towy varieties are found.

There is a fourth type of hair describable as “frizzy.” It is easily distinguishable from the Asiatic and European types, but not from the negroid wool. It is always thick and black, and is characteristic of the Australians, Nubians, and certain of the Mulattos. Generally hair curls in proportion to its flatness. The rounder it is the stiffer and lanker. These extremes are respectively represented by the Papuans and the Japanese. Of all hair the woolly type is found to be the most persistent, as in the case of the Brazilian Cafusos, negro and native hybrids. Quatrefages quotes the case of a triple hybrid, “half negro, quarter Cherokee, quarter English,” who had short crisp furry-looking hair.

Wavy types of hair vary most in colour: almost the deepest hue of black being found side by side with the most flaxen and towy. Colour varies less in the lank type, and scarcely at all in the woolly. The only important exception to the uniform blackness of the negroid wool is to be found among the Wochuas, a tribe of African pigmies whose hair is described by Wilhelm Junker (Travels in Africa, iii. p. 82) as “of a dark, rusty brown hue.” Fair hair in all its shades is frequent among the populations of northern Europe, but much rarer in the south. According to Dr John Beddoe there are sixteen blonds out of every hundred Scotch, thirteen out of every hundred English, and two only out of a hundred Italians. The percentage of brown hair is 75% among Spaniards, 39 among French and 16 only in Scandinavia. Among the straight-haired races fair hair is far rarer; it is, however, found among the western Finns. Among those races with frizzy hair, red is almost as common as among those with wavy hair. Red hair, however, is an individual anomaly associated ordinarily with freckles. There are no red-haired races.

A certain correlation appears to exist between the nature of hair and its absolute or relative length in the two sexes. Thus straight hair is the longest (Chinese, Red Indians), while woolly is shortest. Wavy hair holds an intermediate position. In the two extremes the difference of length in man and woman is scarcely noticeable. In some lank-haired races, men’s tresses are as long as women’s,e.g.the Chinese pigtail, and the hair of Redskins which grows to the length sometimes of upwards of 9 ft. In the frizzy-haired peoples, men and women have equally short growths. Bushwomen, the female Hottentot and negresses have hair no longer than men’s. It is only in the wavy, and now and again in the frizzy types, that the difference in the sexes is marked. Among European men the length rarely exceeds 12 to 16 in., while with women the mean length is between 25 and 30 in. and in some cases has been known to reach 6 ft. or more.

The growth of hair on the body corresponds in general with that on the head. The hairiest races are the Australians and Tasmanians, whose heads are veritable mops in the thickness and unkempt luxuriance of the locks. Next to them are the Todas, and other hill-tribesmen of India, and the Hairy Ainu of Japan. Traces, too, of the markedly hairy race, now extinct, supposed to be the ancestor of Toda and Ainu alike, are to be found here and there in Europe, especially among the Russian peasantry. The least hairy peoples are the yellow races, the men often scarcely having rudimentary beards,e.g.Indians of America and the Mongols. Negroid peoples may be said to be intermediate, but usually incline to hairlessness. The wavy-haired populations hold also an intermediate position, but somewhat incline to hairiness. Among negroes especially no rule can be formulated. Bare types such as the Bushmen and western negroes are found contiguous to hairy types such as the inhabitants of Ashantee. Neither is there any rule as to baldness. From statistics taken in America it would seem that it is ten times less frequent among negroes than among whites between the ages of thirty-three and forty-five years, and thirty times less between twenty-one and thirty-two years. Among Mulattos it is more frequent than among negroes but less than among whites. It is rarer among Redskins than among negroes. Thelanugoor downy hairs, with which the human foetus is covered for some time before birth and which is mostly shed in the womb, and the minute hairs which cover nearly every part of the adult human body, may be regarded as rudimentary remains of a complete hairy covering in the ancestors of mankind. The Pliocene, orat all events Miocene precursor of man, was a furred creature. The discovery of Egyptian mummies six thousand years old or more has proved that this physical criterion remains unchanged, and that it is to-day what it was so many scores of centuries back. Perhaps, then, the primary divisions of mankind were distinguished by hair the same in texture and colour as that which characterizes to-day the great ethnical groups. The wavy type bridges the gulf between the lank and woolly types, all in turn derived from a common hair-covered being. In this connexion it is worth mention, as pointed out by P. Topinard, that though the regions occupied by the negroid races are the habitat of the anthropoid apes, the hair of the latter is real hair, not wool. Further in the eastern section of the dark domain, while the Papuan is still black and dolichocephalic, his presumed progenitor, the orang-utan, is brachycephalic with decidedly red hair. Thus the white races are seen to come nearest the higher apes in this respect, yellow next, and black farthest removed.

No test has proved, on repeated examination, to be a safer one of racial purity than the quality of hair, and Pruner-Bey goes so far as to suggest that “a single hair presenting the average form characteristic of the race might serve to define it.” At any rate a hair of an individual bears the stamp of his origin.

See Dr Pruner-Bey inMémoires de la société d’anthropologie, ii. P. A. Brown,Classification of Mankind by the Hair; P. Topinard,L’Homme dans la nature(1891), chap. vi.Commerce.—Hair enters into a considerable variety of manufactures. Bristles are the stout elastic hairs obtained from the backs of certain breeds of pigs. The finest qualities, and the greatest quantities as well, are obtained from Russia, where a variety of pig is reared principally on account of its bristles. The best and most costly bristles are used by shoemakers, secondary qualities being employed for toilet and clothes-brushes, while inferior qualities are worked up into the commoner kinds of brushes used by painters and for many mechanical purposes. For artists’ use and for decorative painting, brushes or pencils of hair from the sable, camel, badger, polecat, &c., are prepared. The hair of various animals which is too short for spinning into yarn is utilized for the manufacture of felt. For this use the hair of rabbits, hares, beavers and of several other rodents is largely employed, especially in France, in making the finer qualities of felt hats. Cow hair, obtained from tanneries, is used in the preparation of roofing felts, and felt for covering boilers or steam-pipes, and for other similar purposes. It is also largely used by plasterers for binding the mortar of the walls and roofs of houses; and it is to some extent being woven up into coarse friezes, horse-cloths, railway rugs and inferior blankets. The tail hair of oxen is also of value for stuffing cushions and other upholstery work, for which purpose, as well as for making the official wigs of law officers, barristers, &c., the tail and body hair of the yak or Tibet ox is also sometimes imported into Europe. The tail and mane hair of horses is in great demand for various purposes. The long tail hair is especially valuable for weaving into hair-cloth, mane hair and the short tail hair being, on the other hand, principally prepared and curled for stuffing the chairs, sofas and couches which are covered with the cloth manufactured from the long hair. The horse hair used in Great Britain is principally obtained from South America, Germany and Russia, and its sorting, cleaning and working up into the various manufactures dependent on the material are industries of some importance. In addition to the purposes already alluded to, horse hair is woven into crinoline for ladies’ bonnets, plaited into fishing lines, woven into bags for oil and cider pressers, and into straining cloths for brewers, &c., and for numerous other minor uses. The manufactures which arise in connexion with human hair are more peculiar than important, although occasionally fashions arise which cause a large demand for human hair. The fluctuations of such fashions determine the value of hair; but at all times long tresses are of considerable value. Grey, light, pale and auburn hair are distinguished as extra colours, and command much higher prices than the common shades. The light-coloured hair is chiefly obtained in Germany and Austria, and the south of France is the principal source of the darker shades. In the south of France the cultivation and sale of heads of hair by peasant girls is a common practice; and hawkers attend fairs for the special purpose of engaging in this traffic. Hair 5 and even 6 ft. long is sometimes obtained. Scarcely any of the “raw material” is obtained in the United Kingdom except in the form of ladies’ “combings.” Bleaching of hair by means of peroxide of hydrogen is extensively practised, with the view of obtaining a supply of golden locks, or of preparing white hair for mixing to match grey shades; but in neither case is the result very successful. Human hair is worked up into a great variety of wigs, scalps, artificial fronts, frizzets and curls, all for supplementing the scanty or failing resources of nature. The plaiting of human hair into articles of jewellery, watch-guards, &c., forms a distinct branch of trade.

See Dr Pruner-Bey inMémoires de la société d’anthropologie, ii. P. A. Brown,Classification of Mankind by the Hair; P. Topinard,L’Homme dans la nature(1891), chap. vi.

Commerce.—Hair enters into a considerable variety of manufactures. Bristles are the stout elastic hairs obtained from the backs of certain breeds of pigs. The finest qualities, and the greatest quantities as well, are obtained from Russia, where a variety of pig is reared principally on account of its bristles. The best and most costly bristles are used by shoemakers, secondary qualities being employed for toilet and clothes-brushes, while inferior qualities are worked up into the commoner kinds of brushes used by painters and for many mechanical purposes. For artists’ use and for decorative painting, brushes or pencils of hair from the sable, camel, badger, polecat, &c., are prepared. The hair of various animals which is too short for spinning into yarn is utilized for the manufacture of felt. For this use the hair of rabbits, hares, beavers and of several other rodents is largely employed, especially in France, in making the finer qualities of felt hats. Cow hair, obtained from tanneries, is used in the preparation of roofing felts, and felt for covering boilers or steam-pipes, and for other similar purposes. It is also largely used by plasterers for binding the mortar of the walls and roofs of houses; and it is to some extent being woven up into coarse friezes, horse-cloths, railway rugs and inferior blankets. The tail hair of oxen is also of value for stuffing cushions and other upholstery work, for which purpose, as well as for making the official wigs of law officers, barristers, &c., the tail and body hair of the yak or Tibet ox is also sometimes imported into Europe. The tail and mane hair of horses is in great demand for various purposes. The long tail hair is especially valuable for weaving into hair-cloth, mane hair and the short tail hair being, on the other hand, principally prepared and curled for stuffing the chairs, sofas and couches which are covered with the cloth manufactured from the long hair. The horse hair used in Great Britain is principally obtained from South America, Germany and Russia, and its sorting, cleaning and working up into the various manufactures dependent on the material are industries of some importance. In addition to the purposes already alluded to, horse hair is woven into crinoline for ladies’ bonnets, plaited into fishing lines, woven into bags for oil and cider pressers, and into straining cloths for brewers, &c., and for numerous other minor uses. The manufactures which arise in connexion with human hair are more peculiar than important, although occasionally fashions arise which cause a large demand for human hair. The fluctuations of such fashions determine the value of hair; but at all times long tresses are of considerable value. Grey, light, pale and auburn hair are distinguished as extra colours, and command much higher prices than the common shades. The light-coloured hair is chiefly obtained in Germany and Austria, and the south of France is the principal source of the darker shades. In the south of France the cultivation and sale of heads of hair by peasant girls is a common practice; and hawkers attend fairs for the special purpose of engaging in this traffic. Hair 5 and even 6 ft. long is sometimes obtained. Scarcely any of the “raw material” is obtained in the United Kingdom except in the form of ladies’ “combings.” Bleaching of hair by means of peroxide of hydrogen is extensively practised, with the view of obtaining a supply of golden locks, or of preparing white hair for mixing to match grey shades; but in neither case is the result very successful. Human hair is worked up into a great variety of wigs, scalps, artificial fronts, frizzets and curls, all for supplementing the scanty or failing resources of nature. The plaiting of human hair into articles of jewellery, watch-guards, &c., forms a distinct branch of trade.

HAIR-TAIL(Trichiurus), a marine fish belonging to theAcanthopterygii scombriformes, with a long band-like body terminating in a thread-like tail, and with strong prominent teeth in both jaws. Several species are known, of which one, common in the tropical Atlantic, not rarely reaches the British Islands.

HAITI[Haïti,Hayti,San Domingo, orHispaniola], an island in the West Indies. It lies almost in the centre of the chain and, with the exception of Cuba, is the largest of the group. Its greatest length between Cape Engano on the east and Cape des Irois on the west is 407 m., and its greatest breadth between Cape Beata on the south and Cape Isabella on the north 160 m. The area is 28,000 sq. m., being rather less than that of Ireland. From Cuba, 70 m. W.N.W., and from Jamaica, 130 m. W.S.W., it is separated by the Windward Passage; and from Porto Rico, 60 m. E., by the Mona Passage. It lies between 17° 37′ and 20° 0′ N. and 68° 20′ and 74° 28′ W. From the west coast project two peninsulas. The south-western, of which Cape Tiburon forms the extremity, is the larger. It is 150 m. long and its width varies from 20 to 40 m. Columbus landed at Mole St Nicholas at the point of the north-western peninsula, which is 50 m. long, with an average breadth of 40 m. Between these lies the Gulf of Gonaïve, a triangular bay, at the apex of which stands the city of Port-au-Prince. The island of Gonaïve, opposite the city at a distance of 27 m., divides the entrance to Port-au-Prince into two fine channels, and forms an excellent harbour, 200 sq. m. In extent, the coral reefs along the coast being its only defect. On the north-east coast is the magnificent Bay of Samana, formed by the peninsula of that name, a mountain range projecting into the sea; its mouth is protected by a coral reef stretching 8½m. from the south coast. There is however, a good passage for ships, and within lies a safe and beautiful expanse of water 300 sq. m. in extent. Beyond Samana, with the exception of the poor harbour of Santo Domingo, there are no inlets on the east and south coasts until the Bays of Ocoa and Neyba are reached. The south coast of the Tiburon peninsula has good harbours at Jacmel, Bainet, Aquin and Les Cayes or Aux Cayes. The only inlets of any importance between Aux Cayes and Port-au-Prince are Jeremie and the Bay of Baraderes. The coast line is estimated at 1250 m.

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