Chapter 16

See A. Debacker,Bibliothèque des écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus(1853).

HARDT, HERMANN VON DER(1660-1746), German historian and orientalist, was born at Melle, in Westphalia, on the 15th of November 1660. He studied oriental languages in Jena and in Leipzig, and in 1690 he was called to the chair of oriental languages at Helmstedt. He resigned his position in 1727, but lived at Helmstedt until his death on the 28th of February 1746. Among his numerous writings the following deserve mention:Autographa Lutheri aliorumque celebrium virorum, ab anno 1517 ad annum 1546,Reformationis aetatem et historiam egregie illustrantia(1690-1691);Magnum oecumenicum Constantiense concilium(1697-1700);Hebraeae linguae fundamenta(1694);Syriacae linguae fundamenta(1694);Elementa Chaldaica(1693);Historia litteraria reformationis(1717);Enigmata prisci orbis(1723). Hardt left in manuscript a history of the Reformation which is preserved in the Helmstedt Juleum.

See F. Lamey,Hermann von der Hardt in seinen Briefen(Karlsruhe, 1891).

HARDT, THE,a mountainous district of Germany, in the Bavarian palatinate, forming the northern end of the Vosges range. It is, in the main, an undulating high plateau of sandstone formation, of a mean elevation of 1300 ft., and reaching its highest point in the Donnersberg (2254 ft.). The eastern slope, which descends gently towards the Rhine, is diversified by deep and well-wooded valleys, such as those of the Lauter and the Queich, and by conical hills surmounted by the ruins of frequent feudal castles and monasteries. Noticeable among these are the Madenburg near Eschbach, the Trifels (long the dungeon of Richard I. of England), and the Maxburg near Neustadt. Three-fifths of the whole area is occupied by forests, principally oak, beech and fir. The lower eastern slope is highly cultivated and produces excellent wine.

HARDWAR,orHurdwar, an ancient town of British India, and Hindu place of pilgrimage, in the Saharanpur district of the United Provinces, on the right bank of the Ganges, 17 m. N.E. of Rurki, with a railway station. The Ganges canal here takes off from the river. A branch railway to Dehra was opened in 1900. Pop. (1901), 25,597. The town is of great antiquity, and has borne many names. It was originally known as Kapila from the sage Kapila. Hsūan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, in the 7th century visited a city which he calls Mo-yu-lo, the remains of which still exist at Mayapur, a little to the south of the modern town. Among the ruins are a fort and three temples, decorated with broken stone sculptures. The great object of attraction at present is the Hari-ka-charan, or bathingghat, with the adjoining temple of Gangadwara. Thecharanor foot-mark of Vishnu, imprinted on a stone let into the upper wall of theghat, forms an object of special reverence. A great assemblage of people takes place annually, at the beginning of the Hindu solar year, when the sun enters Aries; and every twelfth year a feast of peculiar sanctity occurs, known as aKumbh-mela. The ordinary number of pilgrims at the annual fair amounts to 100,000, and at the Kumbh-mela to 300,000; in 1903 there were 400,000 present. Since 1892 many sanitary improvements have been made for the benefit of the annual concourse of pilgrims. In early days riots and also outbreaks of cholera were of common occurrence. The Hardwar meeting also possesses mercantile importance, being one of the principal horse-fairs in Upper India. Commodities of all kinds, Indian and European, find a ready sale, and the trade in grain and food-stuffs forms a lucrative traffic.

HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE,1st Earl of(1690-1764), English lord chancellor, son of Philip Yorke, an attorney, was born at Dover, on the 1st of December 1690. Through his mother, Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress of Richard Gibbon of Rolvenden, Kent, he was connected with the family of Gibbon the historian. At the age of fourteen, after a not very thorough education at a private school at Bethnal Green, where, however, he showed exceptional promise, he entered an attorney’s office in London. Here he gave some attention to literature and the classics as well as to law; but in the latter he made such progress that his employer, Salkeld, impressed by Yorke’s powers, entered him at the Middle Temple in November 1708; and soon afterwards recommended him to Lord Chief Justice Parker (afterwards earl of Macclesfield) as law tutor to his sons. In 1715 he was called to the bar, where his progress was, says Lord Campbell, “more rapid than that of any other débutant in the annals of our profession,” his advancement being greatly furthered by the patronage of Macclesfield, who became lord chancellor in 1718, when Yorke transferred his practice from the king’s bench to the court of chancery, though he continued to go on the western circuit. In the following year he established his reputation as an equity lawyer in a case in which Sir Robert Walpole’s family was interested, by an argument displaying profound learning and research concerning the jurisdiction of the chancellor, on lines which he afterwards more fully developed in a celebrated letter to Lord Kames on the distinction between law and equity. Through Macclesfield’s influence with the duke of Newcastle Yorke entered parliament in 1719 as member for Lewes, and was appointed solicitor-general, with a knighthood, in 1720, although he was then a barrister of only four years’ standing. His conduct of the prosecution of Christopher Layer in that year for treason as a Jacobite further raised Sir Philip Yorke’s reputation as a forensic orator; and in 1723, having already become attorney-general, he passed through the House of Commons the bill of pains and penalties against Bishop Atterbury. He was excused, on the ground of his personal friendship, from acting for the crown in the impeachment of Macclesfield in 1725, though he did not exert himself to save his patron from disgrace largely brought about by Macclesfield’s partiality for Yorke himself. He soon found a new and still more influential patron in the duke of Newcastle, to whom he henceforth gave his political support. He rendered valuable service to Walpole’s government by his support of the bill for prohibiting loans to foreign powers (1730), of the increase of the army (1732) and of the excise bill (1733). In 1733 Yorke was appointed lord chief justice of the king’s bench, with the title of Lord Hardwicke, and was sworn of the privy council; and in 1737 he succeeded Talbot as lord chancellor, thus becoming a member of Sir Robert Walpole’s cabinet. One of his first official acts was to deprive the poet Thomson of a small office conferred on him by Talbot.

Hardwicke’s political importance was greatly increased by his removal to the House of Lords, where the incompetency of Newcastle threw on the chancellor the duty of defending the measures of the government. He resisted Carteret’s motion to reduce the army in 1738, and the resolutions hostile to Spain over the affair of Captain Jenkins’s ears. But when Walpole bent before the storm and declared war against Spain, Hardwicke advocated energetic measures for its conduct; and he tried to keep the peace between Newcastle and Walpole. There is no sufficient ground for Horace Walpole’s charge that the fall of Sir Robert was brought about by Hardwicke’s treachery. No one was more surprised than himself when he retained thechancellorship in the following administration, and he resisted the proposal to indemnify witnesses against Walpole in one of his finest speeches in May 1742. He exercised a leading influence in the Wilmington Cabinet; and when Wilmington died in August 1743, it was Hardwicke who put forward Henry Pelham for the vacant office against the claims of Pulteney. For many years from this time he was the controlling power in the government. During the king’s absences on the continent Hardwicke was left at the head of the council of regency; it thus fell to him to concert measures for dealing with the Jacobite rising in 1745. He took a just view of the crisis, and his policy for meeting it was on the whole statesmanlike. After Culloden he presided at the trial of the Scottish Jacobite peers, his conduct of which, though judicially impartial, was neither dignified nor generous; and he must be held partly responsible for the unnecessary severity meted out to the rebels, and especially for the cruel, though not illegal, executions on obsolete attainders of Charles Radcliffe and (in 1753) of Archibald Cameron. He carried, however, a great reform in 1746, of incalculable benefit to Scotland, which swept away the grave abuses of feudal power surviving in that country in the form of private heritable jurisdictions in the hands of the landed gentry. On the other hand his legislation in 1748 for disarming the Highlanders and prohibiting the use of the tartan in their dress was vexatious without being effective. Hardwicke supported Chesterfield’s reform of the calendar in 1751; in 1753 his bill for legalizing the naturalization of Jews in England had to be dropped on account of the popular clamour it excited; but he successfully carried a salutary reform of the marriage law, which became the basis of all subsequent legislation on the subject.

On the death of Pelham in 1754 Hardwicke obtained for Newcastle the post of prime minister, and for reward was created earl of Hardwicke and Viscount Royston; and when in November 1756 the weakness of the ministry and the threatening aspect of foreign affairs compelled Newcastle to resign, Hardwicke retired with him. He played an important and disinterested part in negotiating the coalition between Newcastle and Pitt in 1757, when he accepted a seat in Pitt’s cabinet without returning to the woolsack. After the accession of George III. Hardwicke opposed the ministry of Lord Bute on the peace with France in 1762, and on the cider tax in the following year. In the Wilkes case Hardwicke condemned general warrants, and also the doctrine that seditious libels published by members of parliament were protected by parliamentary privilege. He died in London on the 6th of March 1764.

Although for a lengthy period Hardwicke was an influential minister, he was not a statesman of the first rank. On the other hand he was one of the greatest judges who ever sat on the English bench. He did not, indeed, by his three years’ tenure of the chief-justiceship of the king’s bench leave any impress on the common law; but Lord Campbell pronounces him “the most consummate judge who ever sat in the court of chancery, being distinguished not only for his rapid and satisfactory decision of the causes which came before him, but for the profound and enlightened principles which he laid down, and for perfecting English equity into a systematic science.” He held the office of lord chancellor longer than any of his predecessors, with a single exception; and the same high authority quoted above asserts that as an equity judge Lord Hardwicke’s fame “has not been exceeded by that of any man in ancient or modern times. His decisions have been, and ever will continue to be, appealed to as fixing the limits and establishing the principles of the great juridical system called Equity, which now not only in this country and in our colonies, but over the whole extent of the United States of America, regulates property and personal rights more than the ancient common law.”1Hardwicke had prepared himself for this great and enduring service to English jurisprudence by study of the historical foundations of the chancellor’s equitable jurisdiction, combined with profound insight into legal principle, and a thorough knowledge of the Roman civil law, the principles of which he scientifically incorporated into his administration of English equity in the absence of precedents bearing on the causes submitted to his judgment. His decisions on particular points in dispute were based on general principles, which were neither so wide as to prove inapplicable to future circumstances, nor too restricted to serve as the foundation for a coherent and scientific system. His recorded judgments—which, as Lord Campbell observes, “certainly do come up to every idea we can form of judicial excellence”—combine luminous method of arrangement with elegance and lucidity of language.

Nor was the creation of modern English equity Lord Hardwicke’s only service to the administration of justice. Born within two years of the death of Judge Jeffreys his influence was powerful in obliterating the evil traditions of the judicial bench under the Stuart monarchy, and in establishing the modern conception of the duties and demeanour of English judges. While still at the bar Lord Chesterfield praised his conduct of crown prosecutions as a contrast to the former “bloodhounds of the crown”; and he described Sir Philip Yorke as “naturally humane, moderate and decent.” On the bench he had complete control over his temper; he was always urbane and decorous and usually dignified. His exercise of legal patronage deserves unmixed praise. As a public man he was upright and, in comparison with most of his contemporaries, consistent. His domestic life was happy and virtuous. His chief fault was avarice, which perhaps makes it the more creditable that, though a colleague of Walpole, he was never suspected of corruption. But he had a keen and steady eye to his own advantage, and he was said to be jealous of all who might become his rivals for power. His manners, too, were arrogant. Lord Waldegrave said of Hardwicke that “he might have been thought a great man had he been less avaricious, less proud, less unlike a gentleman.” Although in his youth he contributed to theSpectatorover the signature “Philip Homebred,” he seems early to have abandoned all care for literature, and he has been reproached by Lord Campbell and others with his neglect of art and letters. He married, on the 16th of May 1719, Margaret, daughter of Charles Cocks (by his wife Mary, sister of Lord Chancellor Somers), and widow of John Lygon, by whom he had five sons and two daughters. His eldest daughter, Elizabeth, married Lord Anson; and the second, Margaret, married Sir Gilbert Heathcote. Three of his younger sons attained some distinction. Charles Yorke (q.v.), the second son, became like his father lord chancellor; the third, Joseph, was a diplomatist, and was created Lord Dover; while James, the fifth son, became bishop of Ely.

Hardwicke was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son,Philip Yorke(1720-1795), 2nd earl of Hardwicke, born on the 19th of March 1720, and educated at Cambridge. In 1741 he became a fellow of the Royal Society. With his brother, Charles Yorke, he was one of the chief contributors toAthenian Letters; or the Epistolary Correspondence of an agent of the King of Persia residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian War(4 vols., London, 1741), a work that for many years had a considerable vogue and went through several editions. He sat in the House of Commons as member for Reigate (1741-1747), and afterwards for Cambridgeshire; and he kept notes of the debates which were afterwards embodied in Cobbett’sParliamentary History. He was styled Viscount Royston from 1754 till 1764, when he succeeded to the earldom. In politics he supported the Rockingham Whigs. He held the office of teller of the exchequer, and was lord-lieutenant of Cambridgeshire and high steward of Cambridge University. He edited a quantity of miscellaneous state papers and correspondence, to be found in MSS. collections in the British Museum. He died in London, on the 16th of May 1790. He married Jemima Campbell, only daughter of John, 3rd earl of Breadalbane, and grand-daughter and heiress of Henry de Grey, duke of Kent, who became in her own right marchioness de Grey.

In default of sons, the title devolved on his nephew,PhilipYorke(1757-1834), 3rd earl of Hardwicke, eldest son of Charles Yorke, lord chancellor, by his first wife, Catherine Freman, who was born on the 31st of May 1757 and was educated at Cambridge. He was M.P. for Cambridgeshire, following the Whig traditions of his family; but after his succession to the earldom in 1790 he supported Pitt, and took office in 1801 as lord lieutenant of Ireland (1801-1806), where he supported Catholic emancipation. He was created K.G. in 1803, and was a fellow of the Royal Society. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James Lindsay, 5th earl of Balcarres, in 1782, but left no son.

He was succeeded in the peerage by his nephew,Charles Philip Yorke(1799-1873), 4th earl of Hardwicke, English admiral, eldest son of Admiral Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke (1768-1831), who was second son of Charles Yorke, lord chancellor, by his second wife, Agneta Johnson. Charles Philip was born at Southampton on the 2nd of April 1799 and was educated at Harrow. He entered the royal navy in 1815, and served on the North American station and in the Mediterranean, attaining the rank of captain in 1825. He represented Reigate (1831) and Cambridgeshire (1832-1834) in the House of Commons; and after succeeding to the earldom in 1834, was appointed a lord in waiting by Sir Robert Peel in 1841. In 1858 he retired from the active list with the rank of rear-admiral, becoming vice-admiral in the same year, and admiral in 1863. He was a member of Lord Derby’s cabinet in 1852 as postmaster-general and lord privy seal in 1858. In 1833 he married Susan, daughter of the 1st Lord Ravensworth, by whom he had five sons and three daughters. His eldest son,Charles Philip Yorke(1836-1897), 5th earl of Hardwicke, was comptroller of the household of Queen Victoria (1866-1868) and master of the buckhounds (1874-1880). He married in 1863, Sophia Georgiana, daughter of the 1st Earl Cowley. He was succeeded by his only sonAlbert Edward Philip Henry Yorke(1867-1904), 6th earl of Hardwicke, who, after holding the posts of under-secretary of state for India (1900-1902) and for war (1902-1903), died unmarried on the 29th of November 1904; the title then went to his uncle,John Manners Yorke(1840-1909), 7th earl of Hardwicke, second son of Charles Philip, the 4th earl, who joined the royal navy and served in the Baltic and in the Crimea (1854-1855). This earl died on the 13th of March 1909 and was succeeded by his son Charles Alexander (b. 1869) as 8th earl.

The contemporary authorities for the life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke are voluminous, being contained in the memoirs of the period and in numerous collections of correspondence in the British Museum. See, especially, theHardwicke Papers; theStowe MSS.;Hist. MSS. Commission(Reports 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11); Horace Walpole,Letters(ed. by P. Cunningham, 9 vols., London, 1857-1859);Letters to Sir H. Mann(ed. by Lord Dover, 4 vols., London, 1843-1844);Memoirs of the Reign of George II.(ed. by Lord Holland, 2nd ed. revised, London, 1847);Memoirs of the Reign of George III.(ed. by G. F. R. Barker, 4 vols., London, 1894);Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors of England, Scotland and Ireland(ed. by T. Park, 5 vols., London, 1806). Horace Walpole was violently hostile to Hardwicke, and his criticism, therefore, must be taken with extreme reserve. See also the earl Waldegrave,Memoirs 1754-1758(London, 1821); Lord Chesterfield,Letters(ed. by Lord Mahon, 5 vols., London, 1892); Richard Cooksey,Essay on John, Lord Somers, and Philip, Earl of Hardwicke(Worcester, 1791); William Coxe,Memoirs of Sir R. Walpole(4 vols., London, 1816);Memoirs of the Administration of Henry Pelham(2 vols., London, 1829); Lord Campbell,Lives of the Lord Chancellors, vol. v. (8 vols., London, 1845); Edward Foss,The Judges of England, vols. vii. and viii. (9 vols., London, 1848-1864); George Harris,Life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke; with Selections from his Correspondence, Diaries, Speeches and Judgments(3 vols., London, 1847). The last-named work may be consulted for the lives of the 2nd and 3rd earls. For the 3rd earl see also the duke of Buckingham,Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George III.(4 vols., London, 1853-1855). For the 4th earl seeCharles Philip Yorke, by his daughter, Lady Biddulph of Ledbury (1910).

(R. J. M.)

1Lord Campbell,Lives of the Lord Chancellors, v. 43 (London, 1846).

HARDY, ALEXANDRE(1569?-1631), French dramatist, was born in Paris. He was one of the most fertile of all dramatic authors, and himself claimed to have written some six hundred plays, of which, however, only thirty-four are preserved. He seems to have been connected all his life with a troupe of actors headed by a clever comedian named Valleran-Lecomte, whom he provided with plays. Hardy toured the provinces with this company, which gave some representations in Paris in 1599 at the Hôtel de Bourgogne. Valleran-Lecomte occupied the same theatre in 1600-1603, and again in 1607, apparently for some years. In consequence of disputes with the Confrérie de la Passion, who owned the privilege of the theatre, they played elsewhere in Paris and in the provinces for some years; but in 1628, when they had long borne the title of “royal,” they were definitely established at the Hôtel de Bourgogne. Hardy’s numerous dedications never seem to have brought him riches or patrons. His most powerful friend was Isaac de Laffemas (d. 1657), one of Richelieu’s most unscrupulous agents, and he was on friendly terms with the poet Théophile, who addressed him in some verses placed at the head of hisThéâtre(1632), and Tristan l’Hermite had a similar admiration for him. Hardy’s plays were written for the stage, not to be read; and it was in the interest of the company that they should not be printed and thus fall into the common stock. But in 1623 he publishedLes Chastes et loyales amours de Théagène et Cariclée, a tragi-comedy in eight “days” or dramatic poems; and in 1624 he began a collected edition of his works,Le Théâtre d’Alexandre Hardy, parisien, of which five volumes (1624-1628) were published, one at Rouen and the rest in Paris. These comprise eleven tragedies:Didon se sacrifiant,Scédase ou l’hospitalité violée,Panthée,Méléagre,La Mort d’Achille,Coriolan,Marianne, a trilogy on the history of Alexander,Alcméon, ou la vengeance féminine; five mythological pieces; thirteen tragi-comedies, among themGésippe, drawn from Boccaccio;Phraarte, taken from Giraldi’sCent excellentes nouvelles(Paris, 1584);Cornélie,La Force du sang,Félismène,La Belle Égyptienne, taken from Spanish subjects; and five pastorals, of which the best isAlphée, ou la justice d’amour. Hardy’s importance in the history of the French theatre can hardly be over-estimated. Up to the end of the 16th century medieval farce and spectacle kept their hold on the stage in Paris. The French classical tragedy of Étienne Jodelle and his followers had been written for the learned, and in 1628 when Hardy’s work was nearly over and Rotrou was on the threshold of his career, very few literary dramas by any other author are known to have been publicly represented. Hardy educated the popular taste, and made possible the dramatic activity of the 17th century. He had abundant practical experience of the stage, and modified tragedy accordingly, suppressing chorus and monologue, and providing the action and variety which was denied to the literary drama. He was the father in France of tragi-comedy, but cannot fairly be called a disciple of the romantic school of England and Spain. It is impossible to know how much later dramatists were indebted to him in detail, since only a fraction of his work is preserved, but their general obligation is amply established. He died in 1631 or 1632.

The sources for Hardy’s biography are extremely limited. The account given by the brothers Parfaict in theirHist. du théâtre français(1745, &c., vol. iv. pp. 2-4) must be received with caution, and no documents are forthcoming. Many writers have identified him with the provincial playwright picturesquely described in chap. xi. ofLe Page disgrâcié(1643), the autobiography of Tristan l’Hermite, but if the portrait is drawn from life at all, it is more probably drawn from Théophile. SeeLe Théâtre d’Alexandre Hardy, edited by E. Stengel (Marburg and Paris, 1883-1884, 5 vols.); E. Lombard, “Étude sur Alexandre Hardy,” inZeitschr. für neufranz. Spr. u. Lit.(Oppeln and Leipzig, vols. i. and ii., 1880-1881); K. Nagel,A. Hardy’s Einfluss auf Pierre Corneille(Marburg, 1884); and especially E. Rigal,Alexandre Hardy ...(Paris, 1889) andLe Théâtre français avant la période classique(Paris, 1901.)

HARDY, THOMAS(1840- ), English novelist, was born in Dorsetshire on the 2nd of June 1840. His family was one of the branches of the Dorset Hardys, formerly of influence in and near the valley of the Frome, claiming descent from John Le Hardy of Jersey (son of Clement Le Hardy, lieutenant-governor of that island in 1488), who settled in the west of England. His maternal ancestors were the Swetman, Childs or Child, and kindred families, who before and after 1635 were small landed proprietors in Melbury Osmond, Dorset, and adjoining parishes. He was educated at local schools, 1848-1854, and afterwards privately, and in 1856 was articled to Mr John Hicks, anecclesiastical architect of Dorchester. In 1859 he began writing verse and essays, but in 1861 was compelled to apply himself more strictly to architecture, sketching and measuring many old Dorset churches with a view to their restoration. In 1862 he went to London (which he had first visited at the age of nine) and became assistant to the late Sir Arthur Blomfield, R.A. In 1863 he won the medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects for an essay onColoured Brick and Terra-cotta Architecture, and in the same year won the prize of the Architectural Association for design. In March 1865 his first short story was published inChambers’s Journal, and during the next two or three years he wrote a good deal of verse, being somewhat uncertain whether to take to architecture or to literature as a profession. In 1867 he left London for Weymouth, and during that and the following year wrote a “purpose” story, which in 1869 was accepted by Messrs Chapman and Hall. The manuscript had been read by Mr George Meredith, who asked the writer to call on him, and advised him not to print it, but to try another, with more plot. The manuscript was withdrawn and re-written, but never published. In 1870 Mr Hardy took Mr Meredith’s advice too literally, and constructed a novel that was all plot, which was published in 1871 under the titleDesperate Remedies. In 1872 appearedUnder the Greenwood Tree, a “rural painting of the Dutch school,” in which Mr Hardy had already “found himself,” and which he has never surpassed in happy and delicate perfection of art.A Pair of Blue Eyes, in which tragedy and irony come into his work together, was published in 1873. In 1874 Mr Hardy married Emma Lavinia, daughter of the late T. Attersoll Gifford of Plymouth. His first popular success was made byFar from the Madding Crowd(1874), which, on its appearance anonymously in theCornhill Magazine, was attributed by many to George Eliot. Then cameThe Hand of Ethelberta(1876), described, not inaptly, as “a comedy in chapters”;The Return of the Native(1878), the most sombre and, in some ways, the most powerful and characteristic of Mr Hardy’s novels;The Trumpet-Major(1880);A Laodicean(1881);Two on a Tower(1882), a long excursion in constructive irony;The Mayor of Casterbridge(1886);The Woodlanders(1887);Wessex Tales(1888);A Group of Noble Dames(1891);Tess of the D’Urbervilles(1891), Mr Hardy’s most famous novel;Life’s Little Ironies(1894);Jude the Obscure(1895), his most thoughtful and least popular book;The Well-Beloved, a reprint, with some revision, of a story originally published in theIllustrated London Newsin 1892 (1897);Wessex Poems, written during the previous thirty years, with illustrations by the author (1898); andThe Dynasts(2 parts, 1904-1906). In 1909 appearedTime’s Laughing-stocks and other Verses. In all his work Mr Hardy is concerned with one thing, seen under two aspects; not civilization, nor manners, but the principle of life itself, invisibly realized in humanity as sex, seen visibly in the world as what we call nature. He is a fatalist, perhaps rather a determinist, and he studies the workings of fate or law (ruling through inexorable moods or humours), in the chief vivifying and disturbing influence in life, women. His view of women is more French than English; it is subtle, a little cruel, not as tolerant as it seems, thoroughly a man’s point of view, and not, as with Mr Meredith, man’s and woman’s at once. He sees all that is irresponsible for good and evil in a woman’s character, all that is untrustworthy in her brain and will, all that is alluring in her variability. He is her apologist, but always with a reserve of private judgment. No one has created more attractive women of a certain class, women whom a man would have been more likely to love or to regret loving. In his earlier books he is somewhat careful over the reputation of his heroines; gradually he allows them more liberty, with a franker treatment of instinct and its consequences.Jude the Obscureis perhaps the most unbiassed consideration in English fiction of the more complicated questions of sex. There is almost no passion in his work, neither the author nor his characters ever seeming able to pass beyond the state of curiosity, the most intellectually interesting of limitations, under the influence of any emotion. In his feeling for nature, curiosity sometimes seems to broaden into a more intimate communion. The heath, the village with its peasants, the change of every hour among the fields and on the roads of that English countryside which he has made his own—the Dorsetshire and Wiltshire “Wessex”—mean more to him, in a sense, than even the spectacle of man and woman in their blind and painful and absorbing struggle for existence. His knowledge of woman confirms him in a suspension of judgment; his knowledge of nature brings him nearer to the unchanging and consoling element in the world. All the entertainment which he gets out of life comes to him from his contemplation of the peasant, as himself a rooted part of the earth, translating the dumbness of the fields into humour. His peasants have been compared with Shakespeare’s; he has the Shakespearean sense of their placid vegetation by the side of hurrying animal life, to which they act the part of chorus, with an unconscious wisdom in their close, narrow and undistracted view of things. The order of merit was conferred upon Mr Hardy in July 1910.

See Annie Macdonell,Thomas Hardy(London, 1894); Lionel P. Johnson,The Art of Thomas Hardy(London, 1894).

(A. Sy.)

HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS(1804-1878), English antiquary, was the third son of Major Thomas Bartholomew Price Hardy, and belonged to a family several members of which had distinguished themselves in the British navy. Born at Port Royal in Jamaica on the 22nd of May 1804, he crossed over to England and in 1819 entered the Record Office in the Tower of London. Trained under Henry Petrie (1768-1842) he gained a sound knowledge of palaeography, and soon began to edit selections of the public records. From 1861 until his death on the 15th of June 1878 he was deputy-keeper of the Record Office, which just before his appointment had been transferred to its new London headquarters in Chancery Lane. Hardy, who was knighted in 1873, had much to do with the appointment of the Historical Manuscripts Commission in 1869.

Sir T. Hardy edited the Close Rolls,Rotuli litterarum clausarum, 1204-1227(2 vols., 1833-1844), with an introduction entitled “A Description of the Close Rolls, with an Account of the early Courts of Law and Equity”; and the Patent Rolls,Rotuli litterarum patentium, 1201-1216(1835), with introduction, “A Description of the Patent Rolls, to which is added an Itinerary of King John.” He also edited theRotuli de oblatis et finibus(1835), which deal also with the time of King John; theRotuli Normanniae, 1200-1205, and1417-1418(1835), containing letters and grants of the English kings concerning the duchy of Normandy; the Charter Rolls,Rotuli chartarum, 1199-1216(1837), giving with this work an account of the structure of charters; the Liberate Rolls,Rotuli de liberate ac de misis et praestitis regnante Johanne(1844); and theModus tenendi parliamentum, with a translation (1846). He wroteA Catalogue of Lords Chancellors, Keepers of the Great Seal, Masters of the Rolls and Officers of the Court of Chancery(1843); the preface to Henry Petrie’sMonumenta historica Britannica(1848); andDescriptive Catalogue of Materials relating to the History of Great Britain and Ireland(3 vols., 1862-1871). He edited William of Malmesbury’sDe gestis regum anglorum(2 vols., 1840); he continued and corrected John le Neve’sFasti ecclesiae Anglicanae(3 vols., Oxford, 1854); and with C. T. Martin he edited and translatedL’Estorie des Englesof Geoffrey Gaimar (1888-1889). He wroteSyllabus in English of Documents in Rymer’s Foedera(3 vols., 1869-1885), and gave an account of the history of the public records from 1837 to 1851 in hisMemoirs of the Life of Henry, Lord Langdale(1852), Lord Langdale (1783-1851), master of the rolls from 1836 to 1851, being largely responsible for the erection of the new Record Office. Hardy took part in the controversy about the date of the Athanasian creed, writingThe Athanasian Creed in connection with the Utrecht Psalter(1872); andFurther Report on the Utrecht Psalter(1874).

His younger brother,Sir William Hardy(1807-1887), was also an antiquary. He entered the Record Office in 1823, leaving it in 1830 to become keeper of the records of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1868, when these records were presented by Queen Victoria to the nation, he returned to the Record Office as an assistant keeper, and in 1878 he succeeded his brother Sir Thomas as deputy-keeper, resigning in 1886. He died on the 17th of March 1887.

Sir W. Hardy edited Jehan de Waurin’sRecueil des croniques et anchiennes istories de la Grant Bretaigne(5 vols., 1864-1891); and he translated and edited theCharters of the Duchy of Lancaster(1845).

HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN,Bart. (1769-1839), British vice-admiral, of the Portisham (Dorsetshire) family of Hardy, was born on the 5th of April 1769, and in 1781 beganhis career as a sailor. He became lieutenant in 1793, and in 1796, being then attached to the “Minerve” frigate, attracted the attention of Nelson by his gallant conduct. He continued to serve with distinction, and in 1798 was promoted to be captain of the “Vanguard,” Nelson’s flagship. In the “St George” he did valuable work before the battle of Copenhagen in 1801, and his association with Nelson was crowned by his appointment in 1803 to the “Victory” as flag-captain, in which capacity he was engaged at the battle of Trafalgar in 1805, witnessed Nelson’s will, and was in close attendance on him at his death. Hardy was created a baronet in 1806. He was then employed on the North American station, and later (1819), was made commodore and commander-in-chief on the South American station, where his able conduct came prominently into notice. In 1825 he became rear-admiral, and in December 1826 escorted the expeditionary force to Lisbon. In 1830 he was made first sea lord of the admiralty, being created G.C.B. in 1831. In 1834 he was appointed governor of Greenwich hospital, where thenceforward he devoted himself with conspicuous success to the charge of the naval pensioners; in 1837 he became vice-admiral. He died at Greenwich on the 20th of September 1839. In 1807 he had married Anne Louisa Emily, daughter of Sir George Cranfield Berkeley, under whom he had served on the North American station, and by her he had three daughters, the baronetcy becoming extinct.

See Marshall,Royal Naval Biography, ii. and iii.; Nicolas,Despatches of Lord Nelson; Broadley and Bartelot,The Three Dorset Captains at Trafalgar(1906), andNelson’s Hardy, his Life, Letters and Friends(1909).

HARDYNGorHARDING, JOHN(1378-1465), English chronicler, was born in the north, and as a boy entered the service of Sir Henry Percy (Hotspur), with whom he was present at the battle of Shrewsbury (1403). He then passed into the service of Sir Robert Umfraville, under whom he was constable of Warkworth Castle, and served in the campaign of Agincourt in 1415 and in the sea-fight before Harfleur in 1416. In 1424 he was on a diplomatic mission at Rome, where at the instance of Cardinal Beaufort he consulted the chronicle of Trogus Pompeius. Umfraville, who died in 1436, had made Hardyng constable of Kyme in Lincolnshire, where he probably lived till his death about 1465. Hardyng was a man of antiquarian knowledge, and under Henry V. was employed to investigate the feudal relations of Scotland to the English crown. For this purpose he visited Scotland, at much expense and hardship. For his services he says that Henry V. promised him the manor of Geddington in Northamptonshire. Many years after, in 1439, he had a grant of £10 a year for similar services. In 1457 there is a record of the delivery of documents relating to Scotland by Hardyng to the earl of Shrewsbury, and his reward by a further pension of £20. It is clear that Hardyng was well acquainted with Scotland, and James I. is said to have offered him a bribe to surrender his papers. But the documents, which are still preserved in the Record Office, have been shown to be forgeries, and were probably manufactured by Hardyng himself. Hardyng spent many years on the composition of a rhyming chronicle of England. His services under the Percies and Umfravilles gave him opportunity to obtain much information of value for 15th century history. As literature the chronicle has no merit. It was written and rewritten to suit his various patrons. The original edition ending in 1436 had a Lancastrian bias and was dedicated to Henry VI. Afterwards he prepared a version for Richard, duke of York (d. 1460), and the chronicle in its final form was presented to Edward IV. after his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville in 1464.

The version of 1436 is preserved in Lansdowne MS. 204, and the best of the later versions in Harley MS. 661, both in the British Museum. Richard Grafton printed two editions in January 1543, which differ much from one another and from the now extant manuscripts. Stow, who was acquainted with a different version, censured Grafton on this point somewhat unjustly. Sir Henry Ellis published the longer version of Grafton with some additions from the Harley MS. in 1812.See Ellis’ preface to Hardyng’sChronicle, and Sir F. Palgrave’sDocuments illustrating the History of Scotland(for an account of Hardyng’s forgeries).

See Ellis’ preface to Hardyng’sChronicle, and Sir F. Palgrave’sDocuments illustrating the History of Scotland(for an account of Hardyng’s forgeries).

(C. L. K.)

HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT(1834-1903), English writer and traveller, was born at Rome in 1834. He was educated at Harrow school and at University College, Oxford. His name is familiar as the author of a large number of guide-books to the principal countries and towns of Europe, most of which were written to order for John Murray. They were made up partly of the author’s own notes of travel, partly of quotations from others’ books taken with a frankness of appropriation that disarmed criticism. He also wroteMemorials of a Quiet Life—that of his aunt by whom he had been adopted when a baby (1872), and a tediously long autobiography in six volumes,The Story of My Life. He died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the 22nd of January 1903.

HARE, SIR JOHN(1844- ), English actor and manager, was born in Yorkshire on the 16th of May 1844, and was educated at Giggleswick school, Yorkshire. He made his first appearance on the stage at Liverpool in 1864, coming to London in 1865, and acting for ten years with the Bancrofts. He soon made his mark, particularly in T. W. Robertson’s comedies, and in 1875 became manager of the Court theatre. But it was in association with Mr and Mrs Kendal at the St James’s theatre from 1879 to 1888 that he established his popularity in London, in important “character” and “men of the world” parts, the joint management of Hare and Kendal making this theatre one of the chief centres of the dramatic world for a decade. In 1889 he became lessee and manager of the Garrick theatre, where (though he was often out of the cast) he produced several important plays, such as Pinero’sThe ProfligateandThe Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith, and had a remarkable personal success in the chief part in Sydney Grundy’sA Pair of Spectacles. In 1897 he took the Globe theatre, where his acting in Pinero’sGay Lord Quexwas another personal triumph. He became almost as well known in the United States as in England, his last tour in America being in 1900 and 1901. He was knighted in 1907.

HARE, JULIUS CHARLES(1795-1855), English theological writer, was born at Valdagno, near Vicenza, in Italy, on the 13th of September 1795. He came to England with his parents in 1799, but in 1804-1805 spent a winter with them at Weimar, where he met Goethe and Schiller, and received a bias to German literature which influenced his style and sentiments throughout his whole career. On the death of his mother in 1806, Julius was sent home to the Charterhouse in London, where he remained till 1812, when he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. There he became fellow in 1818, and after some time spent abroad he began to read law in London in the following year. From 1822 to 1832 he was assistant-tutor at Trinity College. Turning his attention from law to divinity, Hare took priest’s orders in 1826; and, on the death of his uncle in 1832, he succeeded to the rich family living of Hurstmonceaux in Sussex, where he accumulated a library of some 12,000 volumes, especially rich in German literature. Before taking up residence in his parish he once more went abroad, and made in Rome the acquaintance of the Chevalier Bunsen, who afterwards dedicated to him part of his work,Hippolytus and his Age. In 1840 Hare was appointed archdeacon of Lewes, and in the same year preached a course of sermons at Cambridge (The Victory of Faith), followed in 1846 by a second,The Mission of the Comforter. Neither series when published attained any great popularity. Archdeacon Hare married in 1844 Esther, a sister of his friend Frederick Maurice. In 1851 he was collated to a prebend in Chichester; and in 1853 he became one of Queen Victoria’s chaplains. He died on the 23rd of January 1855.

Julius Hare belonged to what has been called the “Broad Church party,” though some of his opinions approach very closely to those of the Evangelical Arminian school, while others again seem vague and undecided. He was one of the first of his countrymen to recognize and come under the influence of German thought and speculation, and, amidst an exaggerated alarm of German heresy, did much to vindicate the authority of the sounder German critics. His writings, which are chiefly theological and controversial, are largely formed of charges to his clergy, and sermons on different topics; but, though valuable and full of thought, they lose some of their force by the cumbrous German structure of the sentences, and by certain orthographical peculiarities in which the authorindulged. In 1827Guesses at Truth by Two Brothers1appeared. Hare assisted Thirlwall, afterwards bishop of St David’s, in the translation of the 1st and 2nd volumes of Niebuhr’sHistory of Rome(1828 and 1832), and published aVindication of Niebuhr’s Historyin 1829. He wrote many similar works, among which is aVindication of Luther against his recent English Assailants(1854). In 1848 he edited theRemains of John Sterling, who had formerly been his curate. Carlyle’sLife of John Sterlingwas written through dissatisfaction with the “Life” prefixed to Archdeacon Hare’s book.Memorials of a Quiet Life, published in 1872, contain accounts of the Hare family.

1Julius Hare’s co-worker in this book was his brother Augustus William Hare (1792-1834), who, after a distinguished career at Oxford, was appointed rector of Alton Barnes, Wiltshire. He died prematurely at Rome in 1834. He was the author ofSermons to a Country Congregation, published in 1837.

HARE,the name of the well-known English rodent now designatedLepus europaeus(although formerly termed, incorrectly,L. timidus). In a wider sense the name includes all the numerous allied species which do not come under the designation of rabbits (seeRabbit). Over the greater part of Europe, where the ordinary species (fig. 1) does not occur, its place is taken by the closely allied Alpine, or mountain hare (fig. 2), the trueL. timidusof Linnaeus, and the type of the genusLepusand the familyLeporidae(seeRodentia). The second is a smaller animal than the first, with a more rounded and relatively smaller head, and the ears, hind-legs and tail shorter. In Ireland and the southern districts of Sweden it is permanently of a light fulvous grey colour, with black tips to the ears, but in more northerly districts the fur—except the black ear-tips—changes to white in winter, and still farther north the animal appears to be white at all seasons of the year. The range of the common or brown hare, inclusive of its local races, extends from England across southern and central Europe to the Caucasus; while that of the blue or mountain species, likewise inclusive of local races, reaches from Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia through northern Europe and Asia to Japan and Kamchatka, and thence to Alaska.

The brown hare is a night-feeding animal, remaining during the day on its “form,” as the slight depression is called which it makes in the open field, usually among grass. This it leaves at nightfall to seek fields of young wheat and other cereals whose tender herbage forms its favourite food. It is also fond of gnawing the bark of young trees, and thus often does great damage to plantations. In the morning it returns to its form, where it finds protection in the close approach which the colour of its fur makes to that of its surroundings; should it thus fail, however, to elude observation it depends for safety on its extraordinary fleetness. On the first alarm of danger it sits erect to reconnoitre, when it either seeks concealment by clapping close to the ground, or takes to flight. In the latter case its great speed, and the cunning endeavours it makes to outwit its canine pursuers, form the chief attractions of coursing. The hare takes readily to the water, where it swims well; an instance having been recorded in which one was observed crossing an arm of the sea about a mile in width. Hares are remarkably prolific, pairing when scarcely a year old, and the female bringing forth several broods in the year, each consisting of from two to five leverets (from the Fr.lièvre), as the young are called. These are born covered with hair and with the eyes open, and after being suckled for a month are able to look after themselves. In Europe this species has seldom bred in confinement, although an instance has recently been recorded. It will interbreed with the blue hare. Hares (and rabbits) have a cosmopolitan distribution with the exception of Madagascar and Australasia; and are now divided into numerous genera and subgenera, mentioned in the articleRodentia. Reference may here be made to a few species. Asia is the home of numerous species, of which the Common IndianL. ruficaudatusand the black-necked hareL. nigricollis, are inhabitants of the plains of India; the latter taking its name from a black patch on the neck. In Assam there is a small spiny hare (Caprolagus hispidus), with the habits of a rabbit; and an allied species (Nesolagus nitscheri) inhabits Sumatra, and a third (Pentalagus furnessi) the Liu-kiu Islands. The plateau of Tibet is very rich in species, among whichL. hypsibiusis very common.

Of African species, the Egyptian Hare (L. aegyptius) is a small animal, with long ears and pale fur; and in the south there are the Cape hare (L. capensis), the long-eared rock-hare (L. saxatilis) and the diminutivePronolagus crassicaudatus, characterized by its thick red tail.

North America is the home of numerous hares, some of which are locally known as “cotton-tails” and others as “jack-rabbits.” The most northern are the Polar hare (L. arcticus), the Greenland hare (L. groenlandicus) and the Alaska hare (L. timidus tschuktschorum), all allied to the blue hare. Of the others, two, namely the large prairie-hare (L. campestris) and the smaller varying hare (L.[Poecilolagus]americanus), turn white in winter; the former having long ears and the whole tail white, whereas in the latter the ears are shorter and the upper surface of the tail is dark. Of those which do not change colour, the wood-hare, grey-rabbit or cotton-tail,Sylvilagus floridanus, is a southern form, with numerous allied kinds. Distantly allied to the prairie-hare or white-tailed jack-rabbit, are several forms distinguished by having a more or less distinct black stripe on the upper surface of the tail. These include a buff-bellied species found in California, N. Mexico and S.W. Oregon (L.[Macrotolagus]californicus), a large, long-legged form from S. Arizona and Sonora (L.[M.]alleni), the Texan jack-rabbit (L.[M.]texanus) and the black-eared hare (L.[M.]melanotis) of the Great Plains, which differs from the third only by its shorter ears and richer coloration. In S. America, the small tapiti or Brazilian hare (Sylvilagus brasiliensis) is nearly allied to the wood-hare, but has a yellowish brown under surface to the tail.

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