Chapter 13

See G. W. Forrest,History of the Indian Mutiny(1904), andSelections from State Papers(1897); T. R. E. Holmes,History of the Indian Mutiny(1898);Kaye and Mallesonâ€™s History of the Indian Mutiny(1864-1888); R. S. Rait,Life of Lord Gough(1903); Sir W. Lee-Warner,Life of Lord Dalhousie(1904); Sir H. Cunningham,Lord Canning(â€œRulers of Indiaâ€ series), (1890); Sir Owen Tudor Burne,Clyde and Strathnairn(1895); Lord Roberts,Forty-One Years in India(1898); and Sir Evelyn Woodâ€™s articles inThe Timesin the autumn of 1907.

INDIAN OCEAN,the ocean bounded N. by India and Persia; W. by Arabia and Africa, and the meridian passing southwards from Cape Agulhas; and E. by Farther India, the Sunda Islands, West and South Australia, and the meridian passing through South Cape in Tasmania. As in the case of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the southern boundary is taken at either 40Â° S., the line of separation from the great Southern Ocean, or, if the belt of this ocean between the two meridians named be included, at the Antarctic Circle. It attains its greatest breadth, more than 6000 m. between the south points of Africa and Australia, and becomes steadily narrower towards the north, until it is divided by the Indian peninsula into two arms, the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east. Both branches meet the coast of Asia almost exactly on the Tropic of Cancer, but the Arabian Sea communicates with the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf by the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and Ormuz respectively. Both of these, again, extend in a north-westerly direction to 30Â° N. Murray gives the total area, reckoning to 40Â° S. and including the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, as 17,320,550 English square miles, equivalent to 13,042,000 geographical square miles. Karstens gives the area as 48,182,413 square kilometres, or 14,001,000 geographical square miles; of these 10,842,000 square kilometres, or 3,150,000 geographical square miles, about 22% of the whole, lie north of the equator. For the area from 40Â° S. to the Antarctic Circle, Murray gives 9,372,600 English square miles, equivalent to 7,057,568 geographical square miles, and Karstens 24,718,000 square kilometres, equivalent to 7,182,474 geographical square miles. The Indian Ocean receives few large rivers, the chief being the Zambezi, the Shat-el-Arab, the Indus, the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Irawadi. Murray estimates the total land area draining to the Indian Ocean at 5,050,000 geographical square miles, almost the same as that draining to the Pacific. The annual rainfall draining from this area is estimated at 4380 cubic miles.

Relief.â€”Large portions of the bed still remain unexplored, but a fair knowledge of its general form has been gained from the soundings of H.M.S. â€œChallenger,â€ the German â€œGazelleâ€ Expedition, and various cable ships, and in 1898 information was greatly added to by the German â€œValdiviaâ€ Expedition. A ridge, less than 2000 fathoms from the surface, extends south-eastwards from the Cape. This ridge, on which the Crozet Islands and Kerguelen are situated, is directly connected with the submarine plateau of the Antarctic. From it the depth increases north-eastwards, and the greatest depression is found in the angle between Australia and the Sunda Islands, where â€œWharton deep,â€ below the 3000-fathom line, covers an area of nearly 50,000 sq. m. Immediately to the north of Wharton deep is the smaller â€œMaclear deep,â€ and the long narrow â€œJeffreys deepâ€ off the south of Australia completes the list of depressions below 3000 fathoms in the Indian Ocean. The 2000-fathom line approaches close to the coast except (1) in the Bay of Bengal, which it does not enter; (2) to the south-west of India along a ridge on which are the Laccadive and Maldive Islands; and (3) in the Mozambique Channel, and on a bank north and east of Madagascar, on which are the Seychelles, Mascarene Islands and other groups.Islands.â€”Like the Pacific, the Indian Ocean contains more islands in the western than in the eastern half. Towards the centre, the Maldive, Chagos and Cocos groups are of characteristic coral formation, and coral reefs occur on most parts of the tropical coasts. There are many volcanic islands, as Mauritius, the Crozet Islands, and St Paulâ€™s. The chief continental islands are Madagascar, Sokotra and Ceylon. Kerguelen, a desolate and uninhabited island near the centre of the Indian Ocean at its southern border, is noteworthy as providing a base station for Antarctic exploration.Deposits.â€”The bottom of the Bay of Bengal, of the northern part of the Arabian Sea, of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and of the narrow coastal strips on the east and west sides of the ocean, are chiefly covered by blue and green muds. Off the African coasts there are large deposits of Glauconitic sands and muds at depths down to 1000 fathoms, and on banks where coral formation occurs there are large deposits of coral muds and sands. In the deeper parts the bed of the ocean is covered on the west and south by Globigerina ooze except for an elongated patch of red clay extending most of the distance from Sokotra to the Maldives. The red clay covers a nearly square area in the eastern part of the basin bounded on two sides by the Sunda Islands and the west coast of Australia, as well as two strips extending east and west from the southern margin of the square along the south of Australia and nearly to Madagascar. In the northern portion of the square, north and east of Wharton deep, the red clay is replaced over a large tract by Radiolarian ooze.Temperature.â€”The mean temperature of the surface water is over 80Â° F. in all parts north of 13Â° S., except in the north-west of the Arabian Sea, where it is somewhat lower. South of 13Â° S. temperature falls uniformly and quickly to the Southern Ocean. Between the depths of 100 and 1000 fathoms temperature is high in the north-west, and in the south centre and south-west, and low in the north-east, the type of distribution remaining substantially the same. At 1500 fathoms temperature has become very uniform, ranging between 35Â° and 37Â° F., but still exhibiting the same type of distribution, though in a very degenerate form.Salinity.â€”The saltest surface water is found in (a) the Arabian Sea and (b) along a belt extending from West Australia to South Africa, the highest salinity in this belt occurring at the Australian end. South of the belt salinity falls quickly as latitude increases, while to the north of it, in the monsoon region, the surface water is very fresh off the African coast and to the north-east. Little is known with certainty about the distribution of salinity in the depths, the number of trustworthy observations available being still very small. Probably the northern and north-eastern region, within the monsoon area, contains relatively fresh water down to very considerable depths.Circulation.â€”North of the equator the surface circulation is under the control of the monsoons, and changes with them, the currents consisting chiefly of north-east and south-west drifts in the open sea, and induced streams following the coasts. During the northern summer the south-west monsoon, which is sufficiently strong to bring navigation practically to a standstill except for powerful steamers, sets up a strong north-easterly drift in the Arabian Sea, and the water removed from the east African coast is replaced by the upwelling of cold water from below; this is one of the best illustrations of this action extant. Along the line of the equator theIndian counter-currentflows eastwards all the year round, acting as compensation to the greatEquatorial currentflowing westwards between the parallels of 7Â° and 20Â° S. The equatorial current, on meeting the northern extremity of Madagascar, sends a branch southwards along the east coast of that island, sometimes called theMascarene current. When the main equatorial current reaches the African coast a minor stream is sent northwards to the source of the Indian counter-current, but the discharge is chiefly by theMozambique current, which south of Cape Corrientes becomes theAgulhas current, one of the most powerful stream currents of the globe. On the west coast of Madagascar and on the banks of the African coast south of 30Â° S., reaction currents or â€œback-driftsâ€ move in the opposite direction along the flanks of the Agulhas current; these back-drifts are of great importance to navigation. On clearing the land south of the Cape the waters of the Agulhas current meet those of thewest wind driftof the Southern Ocean, and mingle with them in such a manner as to produce, by interdigitation, alternate strips of warm and cold water, which are met with at great distances south-west and southof the Cape. Between South Africa and Australia the waters form a part of the great west wind drift. The waters of this drift are, in general, of very low temperature, but it is remarkable that the interdigitation just mentioned continues far to the eastward, at least as far as Kerguelen. This fact is probably due partly to the actual intrusion of warm water from the Mascarene current east of Madagascar, and partly to the circumstance that the different temperatures of the waters are so compensated by their differences of salinity that they have almost precisely the same specific gravityin situ. The west wind drift sends a stream northwards along the west coast of Australia, theWest Australia current, the homologue of the Benguela current in the South Atlantic. The principal feature in the circulation in the depths of the Indian Ocean is a slow movement of Antarctic water northwards along the bottom to take the place of that removed from the surface by evaporation, and by currents in the lower latitudes. Little is known beyond the bare fact that such movement does take place.

Islands.â€”Like the Pacific, the Indian Ocean contains more islands in the western than in the eastern half. Towards the centre, the Maldive, Chagos and Cocos groups are of characteristic coral formation, and coral reefs occur on most parts of the tropical coasts. There are many volcanic islands, as Mauritius, the Crozet Islands, and St Paulâ€™s. The chief continental islands are Madagascar, Sokotra and Ceylon. Kerguelen, a desolate and uninhabited island near the centre of the Indian Ocean at its southern border, is noteworthy as providing a base station for Antarctic exploration.

Deposits.â€”The bottom of the Bay of Bengal, of the northern part of the Arabian Sea, of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and of the narrow coastal strips on the east and west sides of the ocean, are chiefly covered by blue and green muds. Off the African coasts there are large deposits of Glauconitic sands and muds at depths down to 1000 fathoms, and on banks where coral formation occurs there are large deposits of coral muds and sands. In the deeper parts the bed of the ocean is covered on the west and south by Globigerina ooze except for an elongated patch of red clay extending most of the distance from Sokotra to the Maldives. The red clay covers a nearly square area in the eastern part of the basin bounded on two sides by the Sunda Islands and the west coast of Australia, as well as two strips extending east and west from the southern margin of the square along the south of Australia and nearly to Madagascar. In the northern portion of the square, north and east of Wharton deep, the red clay is replaced over a large tract by Radiolarian ooze.

Temperature.â€”The mean temperature of the surface water is over 80Â° F. in all parts north of 13Â° S., except in the north-west of the Arabian Sea, where it is somewhat lower. South of 13Â° S. temperature falls uniformly and quickly to the Southern Ocean. Between the depths of 100 and 1000 fathoms temperature is high in the north-west, and in the south centre and south-west, and low in the north-east, the type of distribution remaining substantially the same. At 1500 fathoms temperature has become very uniform, ranging between 35Â° and 37Â° F., but still exhibiting the same type of distribution, though in a very degenerate form.

Salinity.â€”The saltest surface water is found in (a) the Arabian Sea and (b) along a belt extending from West Australia to South Africa, the highest salinity in this belt occurring at the Australian end. South of the belt salinity falls quickly as latitude increases, while to the north of it, in the monsoon region, the surface water is very fresh off the African coast and to the north-east. Little is known with certainty about the distribution of salinity in the depths, the number of trustworthy observations available being still very small. Probably the northern and north-eastern region, within the monsoon area, contains relatively fresh water down to very considerable depths.

Circulation.â€”North of the equator the surface circulation is under the control of the monsoons, and changes with them, the currents consisting chiefly of north-east and south-west drifts in the open sea, and induced streams following the coasts. During the northern summer the south-west monsoon, which is sufficiently strong to bring navigation practically to a standstill except for powerful steamers, sets up a strong north-easterly drift in the Arabian Sea, and the water removed from the east African coast is replaced by the upwelling of cold water from below; this is one of the best illustrations of this action extant. Along the line of the equator theIndian counter-currentflows eastwards all the year round, acting as compensation to the greatEquatorial currentflowing westwards between the parallels of 7Â° and 20Â° S. The equatorial current, on meeting the northern extremity of Madagascar, sends a branch southwards along the east coast of that island, sometimes called theMascarene current. When the main equatorial current reaches the African coast a minor stream is sent northwards to the source of the Indian counter-current, but the discharge is chiefly by theMozambique current, which south of Cape Corrientes becomes theAgulhas current, one of the most powerful stream currents of the globe. On the west coast of Madagascar and on the banks of the African coast south of 30Â° S., reaction currents or â€œback-driftsâ€ move in the opposite direction along the flanks of the Agulhas current; these back-drifts are of great importance to navigation. On clearing the land south of the Cape the waters of the Agulhas current meet those of thewest wind driftof the Southern Ocean, and mingle with them in such a manner as to produce, by interdigitation, alternate strips of warm and cold water, which are met with at great distances south-west and southof the Cape. Between South Africa and Australia the waters form a part of the great west wind drift. The waters of this drift are, in general, of very low temperature, but it is remarkable that the interdigitation just mentioned continues far to the eastward, at least as far as Kerguelen. This fact is probably due partly to the actual intrusion of warm water from the Mascarene current east of Madagascar, and partly to the circumstance that the different temperatures of the waters are so compensated by their differences of salinity that they have almost precisely the same specific gravityin situ. The west wind drift sends a stream northwards along the west coast of Australia, theWest Australia current, the homologue of the Benguela current in the South Atlantic. The principal feature in the circulation in the depths of the Indian Ocean is a slow movement of Antarctic water northwards along the bottom to take the place of that removed from the surface by evaporation, and by currents in the lower latitudes. Little is known beyond the bare fact that such movement does take place.

(H. N. D.)

INDIANOLA,a city and the county-seat of Warren county, Iowa, U.S.A., about 18 m. S. by E. of Des Moines. Pop. (1890) 2254; (1900) 3261; (1905) 3396; (1910) 3283. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways. Indianola is the seat of Simpson College (coeducational, Methodist Episcopal, 1867), with a college of liberal arts, an academy, a school of education, a school of business, a school of shorthand and typewriting, a conservatory of music, a school of oratory, a school of art and a military academy. In 1908 the college had 32 instructors and 905 students. The city lies in a rich farming region, and has a considerable trade in butter and eggs, vegetables and fruits, and in coal, lumber and live stock from the surrounding country. Indianola was laid out and was selected as the county-seat in 1849, and building began in the following year; it was incorporated as a town in 1864, and was chartered as a city of the second class in 1884.

INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.The name of â€œAmerican Indiansâ€ for the aborigines of America had its origin in the use by Columbus, in a letter (February 1493) written soon after the discovery of the New World, of theThe name â€œAmerican Indians.â€termIndios(i.e.natives of India) for the hitherto unknown human beings, some of whom he brought back to Europe with him. He believed, as did the people of his age in general, that the islands which he had discovered by sailing westward across the Atlantic were actually a part of India, a mistaken idea which later served, to suggest many absurd theories of the origin of the aborigines, their customs, languages, culture, &c. From Spanish the word, with its incorrect connotation, passed into French (Indien), Italian and Portuguese (Indio), German (Indianer), Dutch (Indiane), &c. When the New World came to be known asAmerica, the natives received, in English especially, the name â€œAmerican Indians,â€ to distinguish them from the â€œIndiansâ€ of south-eastern Asia and the East Indies. The appellation â€œAmericansâ€ was for a long time used in English to designate, not the European colonists, but the aborigines, and when, in 1891, Dr D. G. Brinton published his notable monograph on the Indians he entitled itThe American Race, recalling the early employment of the term. The awkwardness of such a term as â€œAmerican Indian,â€ both historically and linguistically, led Major J. W. Powell, the founder of the Bureau of American Ethnology, to put forward as a substitute â€œAmerind,â€ an arbitrary curtailment which had the advantage of lending itself easily to form words necessary and useful in ethnological writings,e.g.pre-Amerind, post-Amerind, pseudo-Amerind, Amerindish, Amerindize, &c. Purists have objected strenuously to â€œAmerind,â€ but the word already has a certain vogue in both English and French. Indeed, Professor A. H. Keane does not hesitate, inThe Worldâ€™s Peoples(London, 1908), to use â€œAmerindsâ€ in lieu of â€œAmerican Indians.â€ Other popular terms for the American Indians, which have more or less currency, are â€œRed race,â€ â€œRed men,â€ â€œRedskins,â€ the last not in such good repute as the corresponding GermanRothÃ¤ute, or FrenchPeaux-rouges, which have scientific standing. The term â€œAmerican Indiansâ€ covers all the aborigines of the New World past and present, so far as is known, although some European writers, especially in France, still seek to separate from the â€œRedskinsâ€ the Aztecs, Mayas, Peruvians, &c., and some American authorities would (anatomically at least) rank the Eskimo as distinct from the Indian proper. When the name â€œIndianâ€ came to be used by the European colonists and their descendants, they did not confine it to â€œwild men,â€ but applied it to many things that were wild, strange, non-European in the new environment (seeJourn. Amer. Folk-Lore, 1902, pp. 107-116;Handbook of Amer. Inds., 1907, pt. i. pp. 605-607). Thus more than one hundred popular names of plants in use in American English (e.g.â€œIndian corn,â€ â€œIndian pink,â€ &c.) contain references to the Indian in this way; also many other things, such as â€œIndian file,â€ â€œIndian ladder,â€ â€œIndian gift,â€ â€œIndian pudding,â€ â€œIndian summer.â€ The Canadian-French, who termed the Indiansauvage(i.e.â€œsavageâ€), remembered him linguistically inbotte sauvage(moccasin),traÃ®ne sauvage(toboggan). The term â€œSiwash,â€ in use in the Chinook jargon of the North Pacific coast, and also in the English of that region, for â€œIndianâ€ is merely a corruption of this Canadian-French appellation. In the literature relating to the Pacific coast there is mention even of â€œSiwash Indians.â€ Throughout Canada and the United States the term â€œIndianâ€ occurs in hundreds of place-names of all sorts (â€œIndian River,â€ â€œIndian Head,â€ â€œIndian Bay,â€ â€œIndian Hill,â€ and the like). There are besides theseIndianaand its capitalIndianapolis. In Newfoundland â€œRed Indian,â€ as the special term for the Beothuks, forms part of a number of place-names. Popeâ€™s characterization of the American aborigine,

â€œLo! the poor Indian, whose untutorâ€™d mindSees God in clouds, or hears Him in the wind,â€

â€œLo! the poor Indian, whose untutorâ€™d mind

Sees God in clouds, or hears Him in the wind,â€

is responsible for the creation in the mind of the people of a â€œMr Lo,â€ who figures in newspaper lore, cartoons, &c. The reputations, deserved and undeserved, of certain Indian tribes north of Mexico have been such that their names have passed into English or into the languages of other civilized nations of Europe as synonyms for â€œruffian,â€ â€œthug,â€ â€œrowdy,â€ &c. Recently â€œles Apachesâ€ have been the terror of certain districts of Paris, as were the â€œMohocksâ€ (Mohawks) for certain parts of London toward the close of the 18th century.

The North American Indians have been the subject of numerous popular fallacies, some of which have gained world-wide currency. Here belongs a mass of pseudo-scientific and thoroughly unscientific literature embodying absurd and extravagantPopular fallacies.theories and speculations as to the origin of the aborigines and their â€œcivilizationsâ€ which derive them (in most extraordinary ways sometimes), in recent or in remote antiquity, from all regions of the Old Worldâ€”Egypt and Carthage, Phoenicia and Canaan, Asia Minor and the Caucasus, Assyria and Babylonia, Persia and India, Central Asia and Siberia, China and Tibet, Korea, Japan, the East Indies, Polynesia, Greece and ancient Celtic Europe and even medieval Ireland and Wales. Favourite theories of this sort have made the North American aborigines the descendants of refugees from sunken Atlantis, Tatar warriors, Malayo-Polynesian sea-farers, Hittite immigrants from Syria, the â€œLost Ten Tribes of Israel,â€ &c., or attributed their social, religious and political ideas and institutions to the advent of stray junks from Japan, Buddhist votaries from south-eastern Asia, missionaries from early Christian Europe, Norse vikings, Basque fishermen and the like.Particularly interesting are the theories of â€œWelsh (or white) Indiansâ€ and the â€œLost Ten Tribes.â€ The myth of the â€œWelsh Indians,â€ reputed to be the descendants of a colony founded aboutA.D.1170 by Prince Madoc (well known from Southeyâ€™s poem), has been studied by James Mooney (Amer. Anthrop.iv., 1891, 393-394), who traces its development from statements in an article inThe Turkish Spy, published in London about 1730. At first these â€œWelsh Indians,â€ who are subsequently described as speaking Welsh, possessing Welsh Bibles, beads, crucifixes, &c., are placed near the Atlantic coast and identified with the Tuscaroras, an Iroquoian tribe, but by 1776 they had retreated inland to the banks of the Missouri above St Louis. A few years later they were far up the Red river, continuing, as time went on, to recede farther and farther westward, being identified successively with the Mandans, in whose language Catlin thought he detected a Welsh element, the Moqui, a Pueblos tribe of north-eastern Arizona, and the Modocs (here the name was believed to re-echo Madoc) of south-western Oregon, until at last they vanished over the waters of the Pacific Ocean. The theory that the American Indians were the â€œLost Ten Tribes of Israelâ€ has not yet entirely disappeared from ethnological literature. Many of the identities and resemblances in ideas, customs and institutions between the American Indians and the ancient Hebrews, half-knowledge or distorted views of whichformed the basis of the theory, are discussed, and their real significance pointed out by Colonel Garrick Mallery in his valuable address on â€œIsraelite and Indian: A Parallel in Planes of Cultureâ€ (Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci.vol. xxxviii., 1889, pp. 287-331). The whole subject has been discussed by Professor H. W. Henshaw in his â€œPopular Fallacies respecting the Indiansâ€ (Amer. Anthrop.vol. vii. n.s., 1905, pp. 104-113).

Particularly interesting are the theories of â€œWelsh (or white) Indiansâ€ and the â€œLost Ten Tribes.â€ The myth of the â€œWelsh Indians,â€ reputed to be the descendants of a colony founded aboutA.D.1170 by Prince Madoc (well known from Southeyâ€™s poem), has been studied by James Mooney (Amer. Anthrop.iv., 1891, 393-394), who traces its development from statements in an article inThe Turkish Spy, published in London about 1730. At first these â€œWelsh Indians,â€ who are subsequently described as speaking Welsh, possessing Welsh Bibles, beads, crucifixes, &c., are placed near the Atlantic coast and identified with the Tuscaroras, an Iroquoian tribe, but by 1776 they had retreated inland to the banks of the Missouri above St Louis. A few years later they were far up the Red river, continuing, as time went on, to recede farther and farther westward, being identified successively with the Mandans, in whose language Catlin thought he detected a Welsh element, the Moqui, a Pueblos tribe of north-eastern Arizona, and the Modocs (here the name was believed to re-echo Madoc) of south-western Oregon, until at last they vanished over the waters of the Pacific Ocean. The theory that the American Indians were the â€œLost Ten Tribes of Israelâ€ has not yet entirely disappeared from ethnological literature. Many of the identities and resemblances in ideas, customs and institutions between the American Indians and the ancient Hebrews, half-knowledge or distorted views of whichformed the basis of the theory, are discussed, and their real significance pointed out by Colonel Garrick Mallery in his valuable address on â€œIsraelite and Indian: A Parallel in Planes of Cultureâ€ (Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci.vol. xxxviii., 1889, pp. 287-331). The whole subject has been discussed by Professor H. W. Henshaw in his â€œPopular Fallacies respecting the Indiansâ€ (Amer. Anthrop.vol. vii. n.s., 1905, pp. 104-113).

Of ways of classifying the races of mankind and their subdivisions the number is great, but that which measures them by their speech is both ancient and convenient. The multiplicity of languages among the American IndiansLinguistic stocks.was one of the first things that struck the earliest investigators of a scientific turn of mind, no less than the missionaries who preceded them. The AbbÃ© Hervas, the first serious student of the primitive tongues of the New World, from the classificatory point of view, noted this multiplicity of languages in hisCatalogo delle lingue conosciute e notizia della loro affinitÃ e diversitÃ (Cesena, 1784); and after him Balbi, Adelung and others. About the same time in America Thomas Jefferson, who besides being a statesman was also a considerable naturalist (seeAmer. Anthrop.ix. n.s., 1907, 499-509), was impressed by the same fact, and in hisNotes on the State of Virginiaobserved that for one â€œradical languageâ€ in Asia there would be found probably twenty in America. Jefferson himself collected and arranged (the MSS. were afterwards lost) the vocabularies of about fifty Indian languages and dialects, and so deserves rank among the forerunners of the modern American school of comparative philologists. After Jefferson came Albert Gallatin, who had been his secretary of the treasury, as a student of American Indian languages in the larger sense. He had also himself collected a number of Indian vocabularies. Gallatinâ€™s work is embodied in the well-known â€œSynopsis of the Indian Tribes within the United States East of the Rocky Mountains, and in the British and Russian Possessions in North America,â€ published in theTransactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society(ii. 1-422) for 1836. In this, really the first attempt in America to classify on a linguistic basis the chief Indian tribes of the better-known regions of North America, Gallatin enumerated the following twenty-nine separate divisions: Adaize, Algonkin-Lenape, Athapascas, Atnas, Attacapas, Blackfeet, Caddoes, Catawbas, Chahtas, Cherokees, Chetimachas, Chinooks, Eskimaux, Fall Indians, Iroquois, Kinai, Koulischen, Muskhogee, Natches, Pawnees, Queen Charlotteâ€™s Island, Salish, Salmon River (Friendly Village), Shoshonees, Sioux, Straits of Fuca, Utchees, Wakash, Woccons. These do not all represent distinct linguistic stocks, as may be seen by comparison with the list given below; such peoples as the Caddo and Pawnee are now known to belong together, the Blackfeet are Algonkian, the Catawba Siouan, the Adaize Caddoan, the Natchez Muskogian, &c. But the monograph is a very good first attempt at classifying North American Indian languages.

Gallatinâ€™s coloured map of the distribution of the Indian tribes in question is also a pioneer piece of work. In 1840 George Bancroft, in the third volume of hisHistory of the Colonization of the United States, discussed the Indian tribes east of the Mississippi, listing the following eight families: Algonquin, Catawba, Cherokee, Huron-Iroquois, Mobilian (Choctaw and Muskhogee), Natchez, Sioux or Dahcota, Uchee. He gives also a linguistic map, modified somewhat from that of Gallatin. The next work of great importance in American comparative philology is Horatio Haleâ€™s monograph forming the sixth volume (Phila., 1846),Ethnography and Philology, of the publications of the â€œUnited States Exploring Expedition, during the years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1842, under the Command of Charles Wilkes, U.S. Navy,â€ which added much to our knowledge of the languages of the Indians of the Pacific coast regions. Two years later Gallatin published in the second volume of theTransactions of the American Ethnological Society(New York) a monograph entitled â€œHaleâ€™s Indians of North-west America, and Vocabularies of North America,â€ in which he recognized the following additional groups: Arrapahoes, Jakon, Kalapuya, Kitunaha, Lutuami, Palainih, Sahaptin, Saste, Waiilatpu. In 1853 he contributed a brief paper to the third volume of Schoolcraftâ€™sInformation Respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, adding to the â€œfamiliesâ€ already recognized by him the following: Cumanches, Gros Ventres, Kaskaias, Kiaways, Natchitoches, Towiacks, Ugaljachmutzi. Some modifications in the original list were also made. During the period 1853-1877 many contributions to the classification of the Indian languages of North America, those of the west and the north-west in particular, were made by Gibbs, Latham, Turner, Buschmann, Hayden, Dall, Powers, Powell and Gatschet. The next important step, and the most scientific, was taken by Major J. W. Powell, who contributed to theSeventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1885-1886(Washington, 1891) his classic monograph (pp. 1-142) on â€œIndian Linguistic Families of America North of Mexico.â€ In 1891 also appeared Dr D. G. Brintonâ€™sThe American Race: A Linguistic Classification and Ethnographic Description of the Native Tribes of North and South America(New York, p. 392). With these two works the adoption of language as the means of distinction and classification of the American aborigines north of Mexico for scientific purposes became fixed. Powell, using the vocabulary as the test of relationship or difference, enumerated, in the area considered, 58 separate linguistic stocks, or families of speech, each â€œas distinct from one another in their vocabularies and apparently in their origin as from the Aryan or the Scythian familiesâ€ (p. 26).

The 58 distinct linguistic stocks of American Indians north of Mexico, recognized by Powell, were as follows: (1) Adaizan; (2) Algonquian; (3) Athapascan; (4) Attacapan; (5) Beothukan; (6) Caddoan; (7) Chimakuan; (8) Chimarikan; (9) Chimmesyan; (10) Chinookan; (11) Chitimachan; (12) Chumashan; (13) Coahuiltecan; (14) Copehan; (15) Costanoan; (16) Eskimauan; (17) Esselenian; (18) Iroquoian; (19) Kalapooian; (20) Karankawan; (21) Keresan; (22) Kiowan; (23) Kitunahan; (24) Koluschan; (25) Kulanapan; (26) Kusan; (27) Lutuamian; (28) Mariposan; (29) Moquelumnan; (30) Muskhogean; (31) Natchesan; (32) Palaihnihan; (33) Piman; (34) Pujunan; (35) Quoratean; (36) Salinan; (37) Salishan; (38) Sastean; (39) Shahaptian; (40) Shoshonean; (41) Siouan; (42) Skittagetan; (43) Takilman; (44) TaÃ±oan; (45) Timuquanan; (46) Tonikan; (47) Tonkawan; (48) Uchean; (49) Waiilatpuan; (50) Wakashan; (51) Washoan; (52) Weitspekan; (53) Wishoskan; (54) Yakonan; (55) Yanan; (56) Yukian; (57) Yuman; (58) ZuÃ±ian.

This has been the working-list of students of American Indian languages, but since its appearance the scientific investigations of Boas, Gatschet, Dorsey, Fletcher, Mooney, Hewitt, Hale, Morice, Henshaw, Hodge, Matthews, Kroeber, Dixon, Goddard, Swanton and others have added much to our knowledge, and not a few serious modifications of Powellâ€™s classification have resulted. With Powellâ€™s monograph was published a coloured map showing the distribution of all the linguistic stocks of Indians north of Mexico. Of this a revised edition accompanies theHandbook of American Indians North of Mexico, published by the Bureau of American Ethnology in 1907-1910, now the standard book of reference on the subject. The chief modifications made in Powellâ€™s list are as follows: The temporary presence in a portion of south-west Florida of a new stock, the Arawakan, is now proved. The Adaizan language has been shown to belong to the Caddoan family; the Natchez to the Muskogian; the Palaihnian to the Shastan; the Piman to the Shoshonian. The nomenclature of Powellâ€™s classification has never been completely satisfactory to American philologists, and a movement is now well under way (seeAmer. Anthrop.vii. n.s., 1905, 579-593) to improve it. In the present article the writer has adopted some of the suggestions made by a committee of the American Anthropological Society in 1907, covering several of the points in question.

In the light of the most recent and authoritative researches and investigations the linguistic stocks of American aborigines north of Mexico, past and present, the areas occupied, earliest homes (or original habitats), number of tribes, subdivisions, &c., and population, may be given as follows:â€”

1.Algonkian.

Most of N. and E. North America, between lat. 35Â° and 55Â°; centred in the region of the Great Lakes and Hudsonâ€™s Bay.

N. of the St Lawrence and E. of Lake Ontario (Brinton); N.W. of the Great Lakes (Thomas).

Some 50-60, with many minor groups.

About 90,000, of which some 50,000 in Canada.

2.Arawakan.

Within the territory of the Calusas in S.W. Florida.

Central South America.

Small colony from Cuba.

Extinct about end of 16th century.

3.Atakapan.

Louisiana and N.E. Texas.

In part of S.W. or N.E. Texas.

Practically extinct; in 1885 4 individuals living in Louisiana, and 5 in Texas.

4.Athabaskan.

Interior of Alaska and Canada; W. of Hudsonâ€™s Bay and N. of the Algonkian; also represented in Oregon, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and northern Mexico.

Interior of Alaska or N.W. Canada.

Some 50, with numerous minor groups.

About 54,000, of which some 20,000 in Canada.

5.Beothukan.

Newfoundland.

Some part of Newfoundland or Labrador.

Local settlements only.

Extinct; last representatives died in 1829.

6.Caddoan.

Country between the Arkansas and Colorado rivers in Louisiana, Texas, &c., particularly on the Red River and its affluents; later also in Kansas, Nebraska Dakota, and Oklahoma

On the lower Red River, or, perhaps, somewhere to the S.W.

Some 12-15.

About 2000.

7.Chemakuan.

On the N.W. shore of Puget Sound, Washington; also on Pacific coast near Cape Flattery.

Some part of N.W. Washington.

About 200.

8.Chimarikan.

In N. California, on Trinity river, N.W. of the Copehan.

Somewhere in N. California.

Practically extinct; in 1903 only nine individuals reported living.

9.Chinookan.

On the lower Columbia river, from the Cascades to the Pacific Ocean; on the coast, N. to Shoalwater Bay and S. to Tillamook Head, in Washington and Oregon.

N. of the Columbia, in W. Washington.

Some 10 or 12 with numerous villages.

About 300.

10.Chitimachan.

Part of S.E. Louisiana.

Region of Grand Lake and river, Louisiana.

Nearly extinct; in 1881 only 50 individuals surviving.

11.Chumashan.

In S.W. California, S. of the Salinan and Mariposan; in the basins of the Sta Maria, Sta Inez, lower Sta Clara,&c., on the coast, and the northern Sta. Barbara Islands.

Somewhere in S.W. California.

7 or more dialects, with many settle ments.

Nearly extinct; only 15-20 individuals still living.

12.Copehan(Wintun).

In central N. California, W. of the Pujunan; W. of the Coast range, from San Pablo and Suisun Bays N. to Mount Shasta.

Somewhere in N. California.

2 chief divisions, with many small settlements.

About 130 at various villages, and as many on Round Valley Reservation.

13. Costanoan.

In the coast region of central California, N. of the Salinan; from about San Fransisco S. to Point Sur and Big Panoche Creek, and from the Pacific Ocean to the San Joaquin river.

Somewhere in central California.

No true tribes, but 15-20 settlements.

Nearly extinct; only 25-30 individuals still living.

14. Eskimoan.

Greenland and some of the Arctic islands, the whole northern coast N. of the Algonkian and Athabaskan, from the straits of Belle Isle to the end of the Aleutian Islands; also in extreme N.E. Asia W. to the Anadyr river; in E. North America in earlier times possibly considerably farther south.

Interior of Alaska (Rink); in the region W. of Hudsonâ€™s Bay (Boas); preferably the latter.

9 well-marked groups, with 60-70 â€œsettlements,â€ &c.

About 28,000, of which there are in Greenland 11,000 Alaska 13,000, Canada 4500, and Asia 1200.

15. Esselenian.

On the coast of W. California, S. of Monterey, N. of the Salinan.

Somewhere in W. or central California.

Many small settlements.

Extinct; last speaker of language died about 1890.

16.Haidan(Skittagetan).

The Queen Charlotte Islands, off the N.W. coast of British Columbia, and part of the Prince of Wales Archipelago, Alaska.

Interior of Alaska or N.W. Canada.

2 dialects; about 25 chief â€œtowns,â€ and many minor settlements.

About 900, of which 300 are in Alaska.

17. Iroquoian.

The region about Lakes Erie and Ontario (Ontario, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c.), and on both banks of the St Lawrence, on the N. to beyond the Saguenay, on the S. to GaspÃ©; also represented in the S.E. United States by the Toscarora, Cherokee, &c. (now chiefly in Oklahoma).

Somewhere between the lower St Lawrence andHudsonâ€™sBay (Brinton, Hale); in S. Ohio and Kentucky (Boyle, Thomas).

Some 15 chief tribes with many minor subdivisions.

About 40,000, of which 10,000 are in Canada; of those in the United States 28,000 are Cherokee.

18. Kalapuyan.

In N.W. Oregon in the valley of the Willamette, above the Falls.

Somewhere in N.W. Oregon.

About 15-18, with minor divisions.

Only some 140 individuals still living.

19. Karankawan.

On the Texas coast, from Galveston to Padre Island.

Somewhere in S. Texas.

5-6, with minor divisions.

Extinct probably in 1858; a few survived later, possibly, in Mexico.

20. Keresan.

In N. central New Mexico, on the Rio Grande and its tributaries, the Jemez, San JosÃ©, &c.

Somewhere in the New Mexico-Arizona region.

17 â€œvillagesâ€ (pueblos); earlier more.

3990, in 6 pueblos (some 150 at Isleta).

21. Kiowan.

On the upper Arkansas and Canadian rivers, in Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, &c.; formerly on the head-waters of the Platte, and still earlier on the upper Yellowstone and Missouri, in S.W. Montana.

At the foot of the Rocky Mountains in S.W. Montana.

1219 in Oklahoma.

22. Kitunahan.

In S.E. British Columbia, N. Idaho, and part of N.W. Montana.

Somewhere E. of the Rocky Mountains in Montana or Alberta.

2 chief divisions and 3 others.

About 1100; half in Canada and half in the United States.

23.Koluschan(Tlingit).

On the coast and adjacent islands of S. Alaska, from 55Â° to 60Â° N. lat.; also some in Canada.

Somewhere in the interior of Alaska or N.W. Canada.

Some 12-15.

About 2000.

24.Kulanapan(Pomo).

On the coast in N.W. California (Sonoma, Lake and Mendocino counties), W. of the Yukian.

Somewhere in N.W. California.

About 30 local divisions, &c.; no true tribes.

About 1000.

25. Kusan.

On the coast of central Oregon, on Coos Bay and Coos and Coquille rivers, S. of the Yakonan; now mostly on Siletz Reservation.

Somewhere inland from Coos Bay, Oregon.

4, earlier more.

About 50.

26.Lutuamian(Klamath).

In the region of the Klamath and Tule lakes, Lost and Sprague rivers, &c., in Oregon (chiefly) and N.E. California; now on Klamath Reservation, Oregon, with a few also in Oklahoma.

In S. Oregon, N. of the Klamath lakes.

2, with local subdivisions.

1034; of these 755 Klamath, and 279 Modoc (56 in Oklahoma).

27.Mariposan(Yokuts).

In S. central California, in the valley of the San Joaquin, on the Tule, Kaweah, Kingâ€™s rivers, &c.; E. of the Salinan, S. of the Moquelumnan.

Somewhere in central California.

30-40 groups with special dialects.

About 150, at Tule river reservation, &c.

28.Moquelumnan(Miwok).

In central California, in three sections: the main area on the W. slope of the Sierras, from the Cosumnes river on the N. to the Fresno on the S.; a second on the N. shore of San Francisco Bay, and a third (small) S. of Clear Lake on the head-waters of Putah Creek.

Somewhere in central California.

7 dialects, no true tribes; about 20 local groups with numerous minor ones.

Several hundred; much scattered.

29.Muskogian(Muskhogean).

In the Gulf States, E. of the Mississippi, most of Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia, part of Tennessee, S. Carolina, Florida and Louisiana; now mostly in Oklahoma.

Somewhere W. of the lower Mississippi.

About 12, with many minor divisions.

About 40,000; of these 38,000 in Oklahoma, 1000 in Mississippi, 350 in Florida, and a few in Louisiana.

30.Pakawan(Coahuiltecan).

On both banks of the Rio Grande in Texas and Mexico, from its mouth to beyond Laredo; at one time possibly E. to Antonio, and W. to the Sierra Madre.

Some part of N.E. Mexico.

20-25, some very small.

Practically extinct; in 1886 about 30 individuals still living, mostly on the Mexican side of the Rio Grande.

31.Pujunan(Maidu).

In N.E. California, E. of the Sacramento river, between the Shastan and Moquelumnan.

N.E. California.

No true tribes; several larger and very many smaller local divisions, â€œvillages,â€ &c.

About 250 full-bloods.

32.Quoratean(Karok).

In extreme N.W. California, on the Klamath river, &c.; W. of the Shastan.

Somewhere in N. California.

Many â€œvillages,â€ &c.

In 1889 some 600; much reduced since; possibly 300.

33. Sahaptian.

In the region of the Columbia and its tributaries, in parts of Washington, Idaho and Oregon; between lat. 44Â° and 47Â°, and from the Cascades to the Bitter Root Mountains.

Somewhere in the region of the Columbia, or farther N.

5-7.

About 4200.

34. Salinan.

On the Pacific coast of S.W. California, from above S. Antonio, to below S. Louis Obispo; W. of the Mariposan.

Somewhere in S.W. California.

2 or 3 larger divisions; no true tribes.

Practically extinct; in 1884 only 10-12 individuals living.

35. Salishan.

A large part of S. British Columbia and Washington, with parts of Idaho and Montana; also part of Vancouver Island, and outliers in N. British Columbia (Bilqula), and S.W. Oregon.

Central or N. British Columbia.

Some 60-65, of which a number are merely local divisions.

About 15,000 in Canada, and some 6300 in the United States.

36. Shastan.

In N. California and S. Oregon, in the basins of the Pit and Klamath rivers, on Rogue river and to beyond the Siskiyou Mountains; S. of the Lutuamian.

In N. California or Oregon.

6 or more linguistic divisions.

Less than 40 Shasta full-bloods; some 1200 Achomawi.

37. Shoshonian.

In the W. part of the United States; most of the country between lat. 35Â° and 45Â° and long. 105Â° and 120Â°, with extensions N., S., and S.E. outside this area; represented also in California, and in Mexico by the Piman, Sonoran and Nahuatlan tribes.

Foot-hills and plains E. of the Rocky Mountains in N.W. United States or Canada, but residence in Plateau region long-continued.

Some 12-15 in the United States; many more in Mexico, ancient and modern.

In the United States, some 24,000.

38. Siouan.

In the basin of the Missouri and the upper Mississippi; from about N. lat. 33Â° to 53Â° and, at the broadest, from 89Â° to 110Â° W. long.; also represented in Wisconsin (Winnebago), Louisiana, the Carolinas, and Virginia (formerly).

In the Carolina-Virginia region.

Some 20 large and many minor ones.

About 38,000; of which some 1400 in Canada.

39. Takelman.

In S.W. Oregon, in the middle valley of Rogue river, on the upper Rogue, and to about the California line or beyond.

In some part of S. Oregon.

Practically extinct; perhaps 6 speakers of the language alive.

40. Tanoan.

In New Mexico, on the Rio Grande, &c., from lat. 33Â° to 36Â°; also a settlement with the Moqui in N.E. Arizona, and another on the Rio Grande at the boundary line, partly in Mexico.

Some part of New Mexico.

Some 14-15 pueblos.

About 4200 in 12 pueblos.

41. Timuquan.

In Florida, from the N. border and the Ocilla river to Lake Okeechobee, perhaps farther N. and S.

Some part of Florida.

Some 60 or more settlements.

Extinct in 18th century.

42. Tonikan.

In part of E. Louisiana and part of Mississippi; in Avoyelles parish, La., &c.

Somewhere in the Louisiana-Mississippi region.

Practically extinct; in 1886 some 25 individuals living at Marksville, La.

43. Tonkawan.

In S.E. Texas, N.W. of the Karankawan; remnants now in Oklahoma.

Somewhere in S. or W. Texas.

Nearly extinct; in 1884 only 78 individuals living; in 1905 but 47, with Ponkas, in Oklahoma.

44.Tsimshian(Chimmesyan).

In N.W. British Columbia, on the Nass and Skeena rivers, and the adjacent islands and coast S. to Millbank Sound; also (since 1887) on Annette Island, Alaska.

On the headwaters of the Skeena river.

3 main and several minor divisions.

About 3200 in Canada, and 950 in Alaska.

45. Wailatpuan.

A western section (Molala) in the Cascade region between Mounts Hood and Scott, in Washington and Oregon; an eastern (Cayuse) on the headwaters of the Wallawalla, Umatilla and Grande Ronde rivers.

In Oregon, S. of the Columbia river.

Language practically extinct; 405 Cayuse (in 1888 only 6 spoke their mother tongue) are still living; in 1881 about 20 Molalas.

46.Wakashan(Kwakiutl-Nootka).

Most of Vancouver Island (except some2â„3of the E. coast) and most of the coast of British Columbia from Gardner channel to Cape Mudge; also part of extreme N.W. Washington.

Somewhere in the interior of British Columbia.

3 main divisions, with more than 50 â€œtribes.â€

4765, of which 435 are in the United States.

47. Washoan.

In E. central California and the adjoining part of Nevada, in the region of Lake Tahoe and the lower Carson valley.

In N.W. Nevada.

About 200, in the region of Carson, Reno, &c.

48.Weitspekan(Yurok).

In N.W. California, W. of the Quoratean.

In N. California or S. Oregon.

6 divisions; no true tribes.

A few hundreds; in 1870 estimated at 2000 or more.

49.Wishoskan(Wiyot).

In N.W. California, in the coast region, S. of the Weitspekan.

In N. California.

3-5 divisions; no true tribes.

Nearly extinct.

50. Yakonan.

In W. Oregon, in the coast region and on the rivers from the Yaquina to the Umpqua.

W. central Oregon.

4 chief divisions, with numerous villages.

About 300, on the Siletz Reservation

51. Yanan.

In central N. California in the region of Round Mountain. &c., S. of the Shastan.

Somewhere farther E.

Practically extinct; in 1884 but 35 individuals living.

52. Yuchian.

In E. Georgia, on the Savannah river from above Augusta down to the Ogeechee, and also on Chatahoochee river; remnants now in Oklahoma.

Somewhere E. of the Chatahoochee.

About 500, with Creeks in Oklahoma.

53. Yukian.

In N.W. California, E. of the Copehan, with a N. and a S. section; in the Round Valley region.

N. or central California.

5 divisions; no true tribes.

About 250.

54. Yuman.

In the extreme S.W. of the United States (lower Colorado and Gila valley), part of California, most of Lower California, and a small part of Mexico.

N.W. Arizona.

9-10.

In the United States about 4800.

55. ZuÃ±ian.

In N.W. New Mexico, on the ZuÃ±i river.

Some part of the New Mexico-Arizona region.

1500.

Of these 55 different linguistic stocks 5 (Arawakan, Beothukan, Esselenian, Karankawan and Timuquan) are completely extinct, the Arawakan, of course, in North America only; 13 (Atakapan, Chimarikan, Chitimachan, Chumashan, Costanoan, Kusan, Pakawan, Salinan, Takelman, Tonikan, Tonkawan, Wishoskan, Yakonan) practically extinct; while the speakers of a few other languages or the survivors of the people once speaking them (e.g.Chemakuan, Chinookan, Copehan, Kalapuyan, Mariposan, Washoan, Yukian), number about 200 or 300, in some cases fewer. Of the Wailatpuans, although some individuals belonging to the stock are still living, the language itself is practically extinct. The distribution of the various stocks reveals some interesting facts. Among these are the stretch of the Eskimoan along the whole Arctic coast and its extension into Asia; the immense areas occupied by the Athabaskan and the Algonkian, and (less notably) the Shoshonian and the Siouan; the existence of few stocks on the Atlantic slope (from Labrador to Florida, east of the Mississippi, only 8 are represented); the great multiplicity of stocks in the Pacific coast region, particularly in Oregon and California; the extension of the Shoshonian, Yuman and Athabaskan southward into Mexico, the Shoshonian in ancient, the Athabaskan in modern times; the existence of an Arawakan colony in south-western Florida, a 16th-century representative in North America of a South American linguistic stock. Some stocks,e.g.Atakapan, Beothukan, Chemakuan, Chimarikan, Chitimachan, Kiowan, Kitunahan, Lutuamian, Takelman, Tonkawan, Wailatpuan, Yanan, Yuchian, ZuÃ±i, &c., were not split up into innumerable dialects, possessing at most but two, three or four, usually fewer. Of the larger stocks, the Athabaskan, Algonkian, Shoshonian, Siouan, Iroquoian, Salishan, &c., possess many dialects often mutually unintelligible. In marked contrast with this is the case of the Eskimoan stock, where, in spite of the great distance over which it has extended, dialect variations are at a minimum, and the people â€œhave retained their language in all its minor features for centuriesâ€ (Boas). As to the reason for the abundance of linguistic stocks in the region of the Pacific (from Alaska to Lower California, west of long. 115Â°, there are 37: Eskimoan, Koluschan, Athabaskan, Haidan, Tsimshian, Wakashan, Salishan, Kitunahan, Chimakuan, Chinookan, Sahaptian, Wailatpuan, Shoshonian, Kalapuyan, Yakonan, Kusan, Takelman, Lutuamian, Quoratean, Weitspekan, Wishoskan, Shastan, Yanan, Chimarikan, Yukian, Copehan, Pujunan, Washoan, Kulanapan, Moquelumnan, Mariposan, Costanoan, Esselenian, Salinan, Chumashan, Yuman) there has been much discussion. Of these no fewer than 18 are confined practically to the limits of the present state of California. Dialects of Athabaskan, Shoshonian and Yuman also occur within the Californian areas, thus making, in all, representatives of 21 linguistic stocks in a portion of the continent measuring less than 156,000 sq. m. In explanation of this great diversity of speech several theories have been put forward. One is to the effect that here, as in the region of the Caucasus in the Old World, the multiplicity of languages is due to the fact that tribe after tribe has been driven into the mountain valleys, &c., by the pressure of stronger and more aggressive peoples, who were setting forth on careers of migration and conquest. Another view, advocated by Horatio Hale in 1886 (Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci.; alsoProc. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 1888), is that this great diversity of human speech is due to the language-making instinct of children, being the result of â€œits exercise by young children accidentally isolated from the teachings and influence of grown companions.â€ A pair of young human beings, separating thus from the parent tribe and starting social life in a new environment by themselves, would, according to Mr Hale, soon produce a new dialect or a new language. This theory was looked upon with favour by Romanes, Brinton, and other psychologists and ethnologists. Dr R. B. Dixon (Congr. intern. des. AmÃ©r., Quebec, 1906, pp. 255-263), discussing some aspects of this question, concludes â€œthat the great linguistic and considerable cultural complexity of this whole California-Oregon region is due to progressive differentiation rather than to the crowding into this restricted area of remnants of originally discrete stocks.â€ How far two dialects of one stock can go in the way of such differentiation without becoming absolutely distinct is illustrated by the Achomawi branches of the Shastan family of speech, which Dr Dixon has very carefully investigated.

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