CRITICAL NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS.

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb; as, "The masterwhotaught us, was eminent."

If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to admonish him.

This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor.

When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its own member of the sentence; as, "HewhomIserve, is eternal."

NOTE 1.Who, which, what, the relativethat, and their compounds,whomever, whomsoever, &c., though in the objective case, are always placed before the verb; as, "Hewhomyeseek, has gone hence."2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, either expressed or implied; as, "Whosteals my purse, steals trash;" that is,hewho.3. The pronounswhichsoever, whatsoever, and the like, are sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding nouns; as, "Onwhichsidesoeverthekingcast his eyes," &c.4. The pronounwhatis sometimes improperly used instead of the conjunctionthat;as, "He would not believe butwhatI was in fault." It should be "butthat," &c.

NOTE 1.Who, which, what, the relativethat, and their compounds,whomever, whomsoever, &c., though in the objective case, are always placed before the verb; as, "Hewhomyeseek, has gone hence."

2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, either expressed or implied; as, "Whosteals my purse, steals trash;" that is,hewho.

3. The pronounswhichsoever, whatsoever, and the like, are sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding nouns; as, "Onwhichsidesoeverthekingcast his eyes," &c.

4. The pronounwhatis sometimes improperly used instead of the conjunctionthat;as, "He would not believe butwhatI was in fault." It should be "butthat," &c.

That is the friend who I sincerely esteem.

Not proper, becausewho, which is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb "esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to bewhom, in the objective; and then it would be governed by esteem, according to Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule:)—and, also, according to Rule 20. "That is the friendwhomI sincerely esteem."

They who much is given to, will have much to answer for.

From the character of those who you associate with, your own will be estimated.

He is a man who I greatly respect.

Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love, and who we ought to be grateful to.

They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of fortune.

Who did you walk with?

Who did you see there?

Who did you give the book to?

When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question for itssubsequent, which subsequent must agree incasewith the interrogative; as, "Whosebook is that?Joseph's;" "Whogave you this?John."

NOTE. Whether the interrogativereally refersto a subsequent or not, is doubtful; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree in case with the interrogative.

Who gave John those books? Us. Of whom did you buy them? Of a bookseller, he who lives in Pearl street.

Who walked with you? My brother and him.

Who will accompany me to the country? Her and me.

Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, expressed or understood; as, "He is agood, as well as awiseman."

NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns; as, "I ammiserable; Heisindustrious."2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in number with their adjectives, when of thecardinalkind; as, "Tenfeet; Eightyfathoms." But some anomalous and figurative expressions form an exception to this rule; as, "A fleet offortysail;" "Two hundred head of cattle."3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or to a part of a sentence; as, "To seeispleasant; To be blind isunfortunate; To die for our country isglorious."4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of things in connexion with the action by which that quality is produced; as, "Red hotiron;Pale bluelining;Deep sea-greensash; The apples boilsoft; Open your handwide; The clay burnswhite; The fire burnsblue; The eggs boilhard."5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is understood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase; as, "In general, in particular;" that is, generally, particularly.6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify; as, "A tract ofgoodland."7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not literally admit of comparison; such as,more impossible, mostimpossible; more unconquerable, more perfect, &c. See REMARKS on adjectives, page 76.8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects, it should be in the comparative degree; but when more than two are compared, the superlative ought to be employed; as, "Julia is thetallerof the two; Her specimen is thebestof the three."

NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns; as, "I ammiserable; Heisindustrious."

2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in number with their adjectives, when of thecardinalkind; as, "Tenfeet; Eightyfathoms." But some anomalous and figurative expressions form an exception to this rule; as, "A fleet offortysail;" "Two hundred head of cattle."

3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or to a part of a sentence; as, "To seeispleasant; To be blind isunfortunate; To die for our country isglorious."

4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of things in connexion with the action by which that quality is produced; as, "Red hotiron;Pale bluelining;Deep sea-greensash; The apples boilsoft; Open your handwide; The clay burnswhite; The fire burnsblue; The eggs boilhard."

5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is understood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase; as, "In general, in particular;" that is, generally, particularly.

6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify; as, "A tract ofgoodland."

7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not literally admit of comparison; such as,more impossible, mostimpossible; more unconquerable, more perfect, &c. See REMARKS on adjectives, page 76.

8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects, it should be in the comparative degree; but when more than two are compared, the superlative ought to be employed; as, "Julia is thetallerof the two; Her specimen is thebestof the three."

Note2. The boat carries thirty tun.

The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom in depth.

Note6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece of furniture.

My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land.

Note7. The contradictions of impiety are still more incomprehensible.

It is the most uncertain way that can be devised.

This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before.

Note8. Which of those two cords is the strongest?

I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three.

Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or understood; as, "Anyman,allmen."

NOTE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number with their nouns; as, "Thisbook,thesebooks;thatsort,thosesorts."2. The pronominal adjectives,each, every, either, neither, another, andone, agree with nouns in the singular number only; as, "Eachman,everyperson,anotherlesson;" unless the plural nouns convey a collective idea: as, "Everysix months."3.Eitheris often improperly employed instead ofeach;as, "The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sateitherof them on his throne."Eachsignifiesbothtaken separately;eitherimplies onlythe oneorthe othertaken disjunctively:—"sateachonhisthrone."

NOTE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number with their nouns; as, "Thisbook,thesebooks;thatsort,thosesorts."

2. The pronominal adjectives,each, every, either, neither, another, andone, agree with nouns in the singular number only; as, "Eachman,everyperson,anotherlesson;" unless the plural nouns convey a collective idea: as, "Everysix months."

3.Eitheris often improperly employed instead ofeach;as, "The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sateitherof them on his throne."Eachsignifiesbothtaken separately;eitherimplies onlythe oneorthe othertaken disjunctively:—"sateachonhisthrone."

Note1. Those sort of favors do real injury.

They have been playing this two hours.

These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. He saw one or more persons enter the garden.

Note2. Let each esteem others better than themselves.

There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible.

Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by the laws of morality and religion.

Note3. On either side of the river was the tree of life.

Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer.

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case; as, "Cesar conqueredPompey;" "Columbus discoveredAmerica;" "Truth ennoblesher."

Ye who were dead, hath he quickened.

Ye, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb "hath quickened;" and therefore it should beyou, in the objective case.Youwould then be governed by "hath quickened," agreeably, to Rule 20.Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case.

Who did they entertain so freely?

They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature.

He and they we know, but who are ye?

She that is negligent, reprove sharply.

He invited my brother and I to pay him a visit.

Who did they send on that mission?

They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to love.

The verbto bemay have the same case after it as before it; as, "Iam theman;" "I believeitto have beenthem;" "Heis thethief."

NOTE 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verbto be, signify thesame thing, they arein apposition, and, therefore, in thesame case. Rule 21 is predicated on the principle contained in Rule 7.2. The verbto beis often understood; as, "The Lord mademe man; He madehim whathe was;" that is, "The Lord made meto beman; He made himto be that whichhe was." "They desired me to callthem brethren;" i.e.by the name ofbrethren. "They namedhim John;" i.e.by the name ofJohn; or, by thenameJohn; putting these two nouns inapposition.

2. The verbto beis often understood; as, "The Lord mademe man; He madehim whathe was;" that is, "The Lord made meto beman; He made himto be that whichhe was." "They desired me to callthem brethren;" i.e.by the name ofbrethren. "They namedhim John;" i.e.by the name ofJohn; or, by thenameJohn; putting these two nouns inapposition.

I know it to be they.

Improper, becauseitis in the objective case before the verb "to be," andtheyis in the nominative after; consequently, Rule 21 is violated.Theyis in apposition withit, thereforetheyshould bethem, in the objective after to be, according to Rule 21. (Repeat the Rule.)

Be composed, it is me.

I would not act thus, if I were him.

Well may you be afraid; it is him, indeed.

Who do you fancy him to to be?

Whom do men say that I am? Whom say ye that I am?

If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been?

He supposed it was me; but you knew that it was him.

Active-intransitive and passive verbs, the verbto become, and other neuter verbs, have the same case after them as before them, when both words refer to, and signify, the same thing; as, "Tomstruts asoldier;" "Willsneaks ascrivener;" "Hewas calledCesar;" "Thegeneralwas salutedemperor;" "Theyhave becomefools."

NOTE 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive form, and govern the objective case; as, "To dreamadream; To runarace; To walkthehorse; To dancethechild; To flythekite."2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a passive verb, which causes the verb to be followed by anobjectivecase without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition: thus, "Pitticuswas offered a largesumby the king;" "Shewas promisedthem(thejewels) by her mother;" "Iwas asked aquestion." It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the idiom of our language, to say, "A largesumwas offeredto Pitticus;" "Theywere promised(to) her;" "Aquestionwas putto me."3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of compound active verbs. Tosmile, towonder, todream, are intransitive verbs, for which reason they have no passive voice; but, tosmile on, towonder at, todream of, are compound active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive voice; as, "Hewas smiled onby fortune; The accident is notto be wondered at;"

NOTE 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive form, and govern the objective case; as, "To dreamadream; To runarace; To walkthehorse; To dancethechild; To flythekite."

2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a passive verb, which causes the verb to be followed by anobjectivecase without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition: thus, "Pitticuswas offered a largesumby the king;" "Shewas promisedthem(thejewels) by her mother;" "Iwas asked aquestion." It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the idiom of our language, to say, "A largesumwas offeredto Pitticus;" "Theywere promised(to) her;" "Aquestionwas putto me."

3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of compound active verbs. Tosmile, towonder, todream, are intransitive verbs, for which reason they have no passive voice; but, tosmile on, towonder at, todream of, are compound active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive voice; as, "Hewas smiled onby fortune; The accident is notto be wondered at;"

"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,"Thanare dreamed ofin your philosophy."

A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun; as, "Ceaseto do evil;" "We all have ourtalentto be improved;" "She iseagerto learn;" "They arepreparingto go;" "Lethimdo it."

ILLUSTRATION. The supposed principle ofgovernmentreferred to in this rule, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, "Cease to do evil," the peculiar manner in whichceaseis introduced,requiresorcompelsus to put the verbdoin the infinitive mood; and, according to the genius of our language, we cannot express this act of doing, when thus connected withcease, in any other mood, unless we change the construction of the sentence. Hence we say, thatceasegoverns the mood of the verbdo. Similar remarks may be applied to the wordstalent,eager,preparing, andhim, in the respective examples under the rule.Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood invariably to the prepositiontoprefixed, which word they do not, of course, consider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some plausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word. If we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood, the following rule, if substituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps, answer all practical purposes.

Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood invariably to the prepositiontoprefixed, which word they do not, of course, consider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some plausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word. If we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood, the following rule, if substituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps, answer all practical purposes.

A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor.

ILLUSTRATION of the examples under Rule XXIII. "To do" refers tothouunderstood for its agent; "to be improved" refers totalent; "to learn," toshe; "to go," tothey; and "to do," refers tohim.NOTE 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest of the sentence; as, "To confessthe truth, I was in fault."2. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs; as, "An object so highas to beinvisible;" "He is wiseenough to deceive;" "The army isabout to march."

ILLUSTRATION of the examples under Rule XXIII. "To do" refers tothouunderstood for its agent; "to be improved" refers totalent; "to learn," toshe; "to go," tothey; and "to do," refers tohim.

NOTE 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest of the sentence; as, "To confessthe truth, I was in fault."

2. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs; as, "An object so highas to beinvisible;" "He is wiseenough to deceive;" "The army isabout to march."

The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently put as the nominative case to a verb, or the object of an active-transitive verb; as, "To playis pleasant;" "Boys loveto play;" "That warm climates shorten life, is reasonable to suppose;" "He does not considerhow near he approaches to his end."

NOTE.To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly omitted; as, "I heard himsayit;" instead of, "tosayit."

The verbs which followbid,dare,need,make,see,hear,feel,help,let, and their participles, are in the infinitive mood without the signtoprefixed; as, "He bids mecome;" "I dareengage;" "Let mego;" "Help medo it;" i.e.to come,to go,to doit, &c. "He ishearingmerecite."

Bid him to come.

He durst not to do it without permission.

Hear him to read his lesson.

It is the difference in their conduct, which makes us to approve the one, and to reject the other.

It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal.

I wish him not wrestle with his happiness.

Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived; as, "I saw the tutorinstructinghispupils."

NOTE. The present participle with the definite articlethebefore it, becomes a noun, and must have the prepositionofafter it.Theandofmust both be used, or both be omitted; as, "Bytheobservingoftruth, you will command respect;" or, "By observing truth," &c.

Note. We cannot be wise and good without the taking pains for it.

The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up kings, belong to Providence alone.

These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you may avoid mistakes.

The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the subject or actor; as, "I see aboy running."

The perfect participle belongs, like an adjective, to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood; as, "I saw the boyabused."

NOTE 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as before them; as, "Pontius PilatebeingGovernorof Judea, andHerodbeingTetrarch," &c.2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a substantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition; as, "Taking fromanother without his knowledge or assent, is called stealing; He studied to avoidexpressing himself too severely; I cannot fail ofhaving money, &c.; Bypromising much and performing but little, we become despicable."3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular verbs, are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, 'He begun,' for 'he began;' 'He run,' for 'he ran;' 'He come,' for 'he came;' the participles being here used instead of the imperfect tense; and much more frequently is the imperfect tense employed instead of the participle; as, 'I had wrote,' for 'I had written;' 'I was chose,' for 'I was chosen;' 'I have eat,' for 'I have eaten.' 'He would have spoke;'—spoken. 'He overrun his guide;'—overran. 'The sun had rose;'—risen.

NOTE 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as before them; as, "Pontius PilatebeingGovernorof Judea, andHerodbeingTetrarch," &c.

2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a substantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition; as, "Taking fromanother without his knowledge or assent, is called stealing; He studied to avoidexpressing himself too severely; I cannot fail ofhaving money, &c.; Bypromising much and performing but little, we become despicable."

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular verbs, are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, 'He begun,' for 'he began;' 'He run,' for 'he ran;' 'He come,' for 'he came;' the participles being here used instead of the imperfect tense; and much more frequently is the imperfect tense employed instead of the participle; as, 'I had wrote,' for 'I had written;' 'I was chose,' for 'I was chosen;' 'I have eat,' for 'I have eaten.' 'He would have spoke;'—spoken. 'He overrun his guide;'—overran. 'The sun had rose;'—risen.

I seen him. I have saw many a one.

Seenis improper, the perfect participle being used instead of the imperfect tense of the verb. It ought to be, "Isawhim," according to Note 3,Have sawis also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employed instead of the perfect participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formed by combining the auxiliaryhavewith its perfect participle: therefore the sentence should be written thus, "I haveseenmany a one:" Note 3.

Note3. He done me no harm, for I had wrote my letter before he come home.

Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went to Europe long ago.

The sun had already arose, when I began my journey.

Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted.

The French language is spoke in every state in Europe.

He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they writ on the same subject.

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs; as, "Avery goodpenwrites extremely well;" "Byliving temperately," &c.

NOTE 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs, after verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He made avery sensiblediscourse, and wasattentivelyheard."2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expressesquality, it must be an adjective, but when it expressesmanner, an adverb should be used; as, "She lookscold;She lookscoldlyon him; He feelswarm;He feelswarmlythe insult offered to him." If the verbto becan be substituted for the one employed, an adjective should follow, and not an adverb; as, "She looks[is] cold; The hay smells[is] sweet; The fields look[are] green; The apples taste[are] sour; The wind blows[is] fresh."3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbshere, there, andwhere, to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbshither, thither, whither; thus, "He camehere [hither]hastily;" "They rodethere [thither]in two hours;" "Where [whither]will he go?" But in familiar style, these constructions are so far sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible.4. The use ofwhere, instead ofin which, in constructions like the following, is hardly admissible: "The immortal sages of '76, formed a charter,where [in which]their rights are boldlyasserted."5. As the adverbshence, thence, andwhence, literally supply the place of a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism in employing a preposition in conjunction with them: "From whenceit follows;" "He camefrom thencesince morning." Better, "whenceit follows;" "He camethence." The following phrases are also exceptionable: "Thethenministry;" "Theaboveargument;" "Ask meneverso much dowry;" "Charm heneverso wisely." Better, "The ministryof that timeorperiod;" "Theprecedingargument;" "Everso much dowry;" "Everso wisely."

NOTE 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs, after verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He made avery sensiblediscourse, and wasattentivelyheard."

2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expressesquality, it must be an adjective, but when it expressesmanner, an adverb should be used; as, "She lookscold;She lookscoldlyon him; He feelswarm;He feelswarmlythe insult offered to him." If the verbto becan be substituted for the one employed, an adjective should follow, and not an adverb; as, "She looks[is] cold; The hay smells[is] sweet; The fields look[are] green; The apples taste[are] sour; The wind blows[is] fresh."

3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbshere, there, andwhere, to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbshither, thither, whither; thus, "He camehere [hither]hastily;" "They rodethere [thither]in two hours;" "Where [whither]will he go?" But in familiar style, these constructions are so far sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible.

4. The use ofwhere, instead ofin which, in constructions like the following, is hardly admissible: "The immortal sages of '76, formed a charter,where [in which]their rights are boldlyasserted."

5. As the adverbshence, thence, andwhence, literally supply the place of a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism in employing a preposition in conjunction with them: "From whenceit follows;" "He camefrom thencesince morning." Better, "whenceit follows;" "He camethence." The following phrases are also exceptionable: "Thethenministry;" "Theaboveargument;" "Ask meneverso much dowry;" "Charm heneverso wisely." Better, "The ministryof that timeorperiod;" "Theprecedingargument;" "Everso much dowry;" "Everso wisely."

Note1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to remonstrate.

He was pleasing not often, because he was vain.

These things should be never separated.

We may happily live, though our possessions are small.

Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to an affirmative; as, "Such things arenot uncommon;" i.e. they are common.

NOTE. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression; as, "His language, though inelegant, isnot ungrammatical;" that is, it is grammatical.But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey anegativemeaning. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: "I cannotbynomeans allow him what his argument must prove." It should be, "I cannot byanymeans," &c., or, "Icanbynomeans."

But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey anegativemeaning. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: "I cannotbynomeans allow him what his argument must prove." It should be, "I cannot byanymeans," &c., or, "Icanbynomeans."

Note, 2d part. I don't know nothing about it.

I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her.

Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise.

There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity.

Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example.

Prepositions govern the objective case; as, "He wentfromUticatoRome, and then passedthroughRedfield."

Each is accountable for hisself.

They settled it among theirselves.

It is not I who he is displeased with.

Who did you go with?

Who did you receive instruction from?

Home, and nouns signifyingdistance, timewhen,how long, &c. are generally governed by a prepositionunderstood; as, "The horse ran a mile;" "He camehomelast June;" "My friend lived fouryearsat college;" that is, ranthrough the space ofa mile; or, ranover a space calleda mile;tohis homeinlast June;duringfour years, &c.

NOTE 1. The prepositionstoandforare often understood, chiefly before the pronouns; as, "Give [to]mea book; Get [for]himsome paper."2.Toorunto, is, by some, supposed to be understood afterlikeandunlike; as, "He islike[unto] his brother; She isunlike[to] him." Others consider this mode of expression an idiom of the language, and maintain thatlikegoverns the objective following it.3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or value, are used without a governing word; as, "The Ohio is one thousandmileslong; She is tenyearsold; My hat is worth tendollars." These are sometimes considered anomalies. See page 163.

NOTE 1. The prepositionstoandforare often understood, chiefly before the pronouns; as, "Give [to]mea book; Get [for]himsome paper."

2.Toorunto, is, by some, supposed to be understood afterlikeandunlike; as, "He islike[unto] his brother; She isunlike[to] him." Others consider this mode of expression an idiom of the language, and maintain thatlikegoverns the objective following it.

3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or value, are used without a governing word; as, "The Ohio is one thousandmileslong; She is tenyearsold; My hat is worth tendollars." These are sometimes considered anomalies. See page 163.

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case; as, "The master taughtherandmeto write;" "Heandsheare associates."

My brother and him are grammarians.

You and me enjoy great privileges.

Him and I went to the city in company; but John and him returned without me.

Between you and I there is a great disparity of years.

Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like moods and tenses; as, "If thou sincerelydesire, andearnestlypursuevirtue, shewillassuredlybe foundby thee,and provea rich reward."

NOTE 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by conjunctions, the nominative must be repeated; as, "Hemay return, buthe willnottarry."2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the subjunctive mood after them; as, "Ifhestudy, he will improve." See pages 135, 145, and 155.3. The conjunctionsif,though,unless,except,whether, andlest, generally require the subjunctive mood after them.4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying no doubt, require the indicative mood; as, "Asvirtueadvances, sovicerecedes."

NOTE 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by conjunctions, the nominative must be repeated; as, "Hemay return, buthe willnottarry."

2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the subjunctive mood after them; as, "Ifhestudy, he will improve." See pages 135, 145, and 155.

3. The conjunctionsif,though,unless,except,whether, andlest, generally require the subjunctive mood after them.

4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying no doubt, require the indicative mood; as, "Asvirtueadvances, sovicerecedes."

Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him?

Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind.

Note1. He has gone home, but may return.

The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more.

Note2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains.

If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind.

A noun or pronoun following the conjunctionthan,as, orbut, is nominative to a verb, or governed by a verb or preposition, expressed or understood; as, "Thou art wiserthanI [am."] "I saw nobodybut[I saw] him."

NOTE 1. The conjunctionas, when it is connected withsuch,many, orsame, is sometimes, though erroneously, called arelative pronoun; as, "Letsuchas presume to advise others," &c.; that is, Letthem who, &c. See page 116.2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted, which must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically; as "Wo is me;" that is,tome; "To sleep all night;" i.e.throughallthenight; "He has gone a journey;" i.e.ona journey; "They walked a league;" i.e.over a space calleda league.3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its force, they must be expressed.4. In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other, we should pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or sentences which they connect: all the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other, and a regular and clear construction throughout should be carefully preserved.

2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted, which must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically; as "Wo is me;" that is,tome; "To sleep all night;" i.e.throughallthenight; "He has gone a journey;" i.e.ona journey; "They walked a league;" i.e.over a space calleda league.

3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its force, they must be expressed.

4. In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other, we should pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or sentences which they connect: all the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other, and a regular and clear construction throughout should be carefully preserved.

They are much greater gainers than me.

They know how to write as well as him; but he is a better grammarian than them.

They were all well but him.

None were rewarded but him and me.

Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray.

1. In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which,in point of time, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed.

Instead of saying, "The Lordhath given, and the Lordhath takenaway;" we should say, "The Lordgave, and the Lordhath takenaway." Instead of, "Irememberthe family more than twenty years;" it should be, "Ihave rememberedthe family more than twenty years."

2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the tenses, and of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, is this very general one;Observe what the sense necessarily requires.

To say, "Ihavevisited Washington last summer; Ihave seenthe work more than a month ago," is not goodsense. The constructions should be, "IvisitedWashington, &c.; Isawthe work, &c." "This mode of expressionhas beenformerly much admired:"—"wasformerly much admired." "If Ihad havebeen there;" "If Ihad haveseen him;" "Hadyouhaveknown him," are solecisms too gross to need correction. We can say, Ihavebeen, Ihadbeen; but what sort of a tense is,had have been? To placehadbefore thedefectiveverb ought, is an error equally gross and illiterate:—"hadought,hadn'tought." This is as low a vulgarism as the use oftheirn,hern, andhizzen,tother,furder,baynt,this ere, Iseedit, Itell'dhim.

3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of that time in which it took place; remains, theimperfecttense should be used; but if there is still remaining some portion of the time in which we declare that the thing has been done, theperfecttense should be employed.

Thus, we say, "Philosophersmadegreat discoveries in the last century;" "Hewasmuch afflicted last year;" but when we refer to the present century, year, week, day, &c. we ought to use theperfecttense; as, "Philosophershave madegreat discoveries in the present century;" "Hehas beenmuch afflicted this year;" "Ihave readthe president's message this week;" "Wehave heardimportant news this morning;" because these events occurred in this century, this year, this week, and to-day, and still there remains a part of this century, year, week, and day, of which I speak.In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is connected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the author of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect tense ought not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, "Theyhave, in all ages,claimedgreat powers;" because the general order of the priesthood still exists; but we cannot properly say, "The Druid priestshave claimedgreat powers;" because that order is now extinct. We ought, therefore, to say, "The Druid priestsclaimedgreat powers."The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper use and application of the tenses. "My brother has recently been to Philadelphia." It should be, "wasrecently at Philadelphia;" because the adverbrecentlyrefers to a time completely past, without any allusion to the present time. "Charles is grown considerably since I have seen him the last time." Corrected, "Charleshasgrown, since Isawhim," &c. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for its being so long postponed." Corrected, "for itshaving beenso long postponed." "They were arrived an hour before we reached the city:"—"Theyhadarrived.""The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession of it." It should be, "willhave completedthe building," &c. "This curious piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers for more than fifty years past:"—"has beenpreserved, andbeenshown to strangers," &c. "I had rather write than beg:"—"Iwouldrather write than beg.""On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paul was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." It ought to be, "because hewould know; or,being willing to know," &c. "The blind man said, 'Lord, that I might receive my sight;'" "If by any means I might attain unto the resurrection of the dead." In both these examples,maywould be preferable tomight. "I feared that I should have lost the parcel, before I arrived:"—"that I shouldlose." "It would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." It ought to be, "if I couldhave performedit;" or, "Itwould affordme no satisfaction, if Icould performit." "This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published:"—"thathas been, orwill be published."

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is connected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the author of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect tense ought not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, "Theyhave, in all ages,claimedgreat powers;" because the general order of the priesthood still exists; but we cannot properly say, "The Druid priestshave claimedgreat powers;" because that order is now extinct. We ought, therefore, to say, "The Druid priestsclaimedgreat powers."

The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper use and application of the tenses. "My brother has recently been to Philadelphia." It should be, "wasrecently at Philadelphia;" because the adverbrecentlyrefers to a time completely past, without any allusion to the present time. "Charles is grown considerably since I have seen him the last time." Corrected, "Charleshasgrown, since Isawhim," &c. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for its being so long postponed." Corrected, "for itshaving beenso long postponed." "They were arrived an hour before we reached the city:"—"Theyhadarrived."

"The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession of it." It should be, "willhave completedthe building," &c. "This curious piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers for more than fifty years past:"—"has beenpreserved, andbeenshown to strangers," &c. "I had rather write than beg:"—"Iwouldrather write than beg."

"On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paul was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." It ought to be, "because hewould know; or,being willing to know," &c. "The blind man said, 'Lord, that I might receive my sight;'" "If by any means I might attain unto the resurrection of the dead." In both these examples,maywould be preferable tomight. "I feared that I should have lost the parcel, before I arrived:"—"that I shouldlose." "It would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." It ought to be, "if I couldhave performedit;" or, "Itwould affordme no satisfaction, if Icould performit." "This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published:"—"thathas been, orwill be published."

4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood with propriety, particular attention should be paid to the meaning of what we express.

Verbs expressive ofhope,desire,intention, orcommand, ought to be followed by the PRESENT tense of theInfinitive mood.

"Last week I intended tohave written," is improper. The intention of writing was thenpresentwith me; and, therefore, the construction should be, "I intendedto write." The following examples are also inaccurate; "I found him better than I expectedto have foundhim;" "My purpose was, after spending ten months more in commerce,to have withdrawnmy wealth to another country." They should be, "expectedto findhim;" "to withdrawmy wealth.""This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose name it bears." It ought to be "which proves itselfto have been written," &c. "To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life." Corrected, "To have seenhim;" or, "To seehimwould affordme pleasure," &c. "The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who heard them:"—"were sufficientto satisfy." "History painters would have found it difficult to have invented such a species of beings:"—"to inventsuch a species."

"This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose name it bears." It ought to be "which proves itselfto have been written," &c. "To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life." Corrected, "To have seenhim;" or, "To seehimwould affordme pleasure," &c. "The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who heard them:"—"were sufficientto satisfy." "History painters would have found it difficult to have invented such a species of beings:"—"to inventsuch a species."

5. General and immutable truths ought to be expressed in thepresenttense.

Instead of saying, "He did not know that eight and twentywereequal to twenty and eight;" "The preacher said very audibly, that whateverwasuseful,wasgood;" "My opponent would not believe, that virtuewasalways advantageous.;" The constructions should be, "areequal to twenty;" "whateverisuseful,isgood;" "virtueisalways advantageous."

We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity.

On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which exist among men.

The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts.

Is it me or him who you requested to go?

Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven.

There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them.

By exercising of our memories, they are improved.

The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were wholly consumed.

Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will not recommend us to the wise and good.

The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue.

They that honor me, I will honor; and them that despise me, shall be lightly esteemed.

I intended to have called last week, but could not.

The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain.

The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper.

I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen. Andrew Jackson, he who is now president.

Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last.

The Chinese wall is thirty foot high.

It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely.

I have saw him who you wrote to; and he would have came back with me, if he could.

Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understand the nature of the religion which they reject.

If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned.

Education is not attended to properly in Spain.

He know'd it was his duty; and he ought, therefore, to do it.

He has little more of the great man besides the title.

Richard acted very independent on the occasion.

We have done no more than it was our duty to have done.

The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived.

His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw.

Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, they will go out of themselves.

Those two authors have each of them their merit.

Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense,Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence.

A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature with wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur, than if they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry.

A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder.

The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle.

If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they would be too indolent to improve.

It is reported that the governor will come here to-morrow.

Beauty and innocence should be never separated.

Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will have much to fear and little to hope.

Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed in their knowledge of the Scriptures.

Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences.

An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind.

To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek revenge, is the duty of a Christian.

The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all his pleasures: the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him.

There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will, incline him to offend.

This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection.

They that honor me, them will I honor.

Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves.

Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athenians, that he might be said to attain a monarchical power in Athens.

Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, shall deliver us from it in due time.

That writer has given us an account of the manner in which Christianity has formerly been propagated among the heathens.

Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your attention.

In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless professions. After I visited Europe, I returned to America.

I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust.

I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been again disappointed.

Five and eight makes thirteen; five from eight leaves three.

If he goes to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times that he has visited that renowned watering place.

I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was nobler than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the brightest virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man.

The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices.

He would not believe, that honesty was the best policy.

The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have been.

Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever.

If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, &c.?

He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do it better.

The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when they have looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid ascribing their origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt a propensity to adore their Creator.

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