REMARKS.—This method of elucidating the articles, which is popular with Blair, Priestley, Lowth, Johnson, Harris, Beattie, Coote, Murray, and many other distinguished philologists, is discarded by some of our modern writers. But, by proving that this theory is exceptionable, they by no means make it appear, that it ought, therefore, to be rejected.
Exceptionable or not, they have not been able to supply its place with one that is moreconvenient in practice. Neither have they adopted onelessexceptionable. The truth is, after all which can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar comprehensive and accurate, they will still be found, when critically examined by men of learning and science, more or less exceptionable. These exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable consequence of the imperfections of the language. Language, as well as every thing else of human invention, will always beimperfect. Consequently, aperfectsystem of grammatical principles, would not suit it. Aperfectgrammar will not be produced, until someperfectbeing writes it for aperfectlanguage; and a perfect language will not be constructed, until somesuper-humanagency is employed in its production. All grammatical principles and systems which are notperfect, areexceptionable.
1. The article isomittedbefore nouns implying the different virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c.; as, "Modestyis becoming;Falsehoodis odious;Grammaris useful," &c.
2. The article is not prefixed to proper nouns; as,BarronkilledDecatur; except by way of eminence, or for the sake of distinguishing a particular family, or when some noun is understood; as, "He is notaFranklin; He isaLee, or of the family oftheLees; We sailed downthe(river) Missouri."
3. Anadjectiveis frequently placed between the article and the noun with which the article agrees; as, "Agoodboy; anindustriousman." Sometimes the adjective precedes the article; as, "Asgreata man as Alexander;Sucha shame."
4. In referring to many individuals, when we wish to bring each separately under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjectivemanyand a singular noun; as, "Wheremany a rosebudrears its blushing head;" "Fullmany a floweris born to blush unseen."
5. The definite articletheis frequently applied toadverbsin the comparative or superlative degree; as, "The moreI examine it,the betterI like it," "I like thisthe leastof any."
You may proceed and parse the following articles, when you shall have committed this
The order of parsing anArticle, is—an article, and why?—definite or indefinite, and why?—with what noun does it agree?—RULE.
"He istheson ofaking."
Theis an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit its signification—definite, it limits the noun to a particular object—it belongs to the noun "son," according to
RULE 2.The definite articlethebelongs to nouns in the singular or plural number.
Ais an article, a word placed before a noun to limit its signification—indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to no particular one—it agrees with "king," agreeably to
RULE 1.The articleaoranagrees with nouns in the singular number only.
NOTE. By considering the original meaning of this article, the propriety of Rule 1, will appear.Aoran, (formerly writtenane,)being equivalent toone, any one, orsome one, cannot be prefixed to nouns in the plural number. There is, however, an exception to this rule.Ais placed before a plural noun when any of the following adjectives come between the article and the noun:few, great, many, dozen, hundred, thousand, million; as,afewmen, athousandhouses, &c.
A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The multitude pursue pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer's grain. Farmers mow the grass. Farmers' boys spread the hay. The clerk sells the merchant's goods. An ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileo invented the telescope. James Macpherson translated Ossian's poems. Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote the Sketch-Book.
I will now offer a few remarks on the misapplication of the articles, which, with the exercise of your own discriminating powers, will enable you to use them with propriety. But, before you proceed, please to answer the following
How many articles are there?—In what sense is a noun taken, when it has no article to limit it?—Repeat theorderof parsing an article.—What rule applies in parsing thedefinitearticle?—What rule in parsing theindefinite?
In a scientific arrangement of grammatical principles,aandthebelong to that class of adjectives denominateddefinitivesorrestrictives.
A, an, ane, orone, is the past participle ofananad, to add, to join. It denotes that the thing to which it is prefixed, isadded, united, aned, an-d, oned, (woned,)or madeone.
Theandthat. According to Horne Tooke,theis the imperative, andthat, the past participle, of the Anglo-Saxon verbthean, to get, take, assume.Theandthathad, originally, the same meaning. The difference in their present application, is a modern refinement. Hence,that, as well asthe, was formerly used, indifferently, before either a singular or a plural noun.
Before what nouns is the article omitted?—Is the articletheever applied to adverbs?—Give examples.—What is the meaning ofaoran? —When isaoranplaced before a plural noun?—From what area, the, andthatderived?
NOTE TO RULE 1.Anis used before a vowel or silenth, andabefore a consonant orulong, and also before the wordone.
It is not only disagreeable to the ear, but, according to this note, improper to say,aapple,ahumble suppliant,anhero,anuniversity, because the wordapplebegins with a vowel, andhis not sounded in the wordhumble, for which reasonsashould beanin the first two examples; but, as thehis sounded inhero, and theuis long inuniversity, aought to be prefixed to these words: thus,anapple,anhumble suppliant:ahero,auniversity. You may correct the following
A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, an heathen, an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. This is an hard saying. They met with an heavy loss. He would not give an hat for an horse.
NOTE 1, TO RULE 2. The articles are often properly omitted: when used they should be justly applied, according to their distinct character; as, "Gold is corrupting;Thesea is green;Alion is bold." It would be improper to say,Thegold is corrupting; Sea is green; Lion is bold.
The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass is good for the horses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks well. Wheat is blighted.
In the first of these sentences, we are not speaking of any particular kind ofgrassorwheat, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to any particular crop or field of grass, or quantity of wheat; but we are speaking of grass and wheat generally, therefore the articletheshould be omitted. In the second sentence, we do not refer to any definite kind, quality, or number ofhorsesormen; but to horses and men generally; that is, the terms are here used to denotewhole species, therefore, the article should be omitted, and the sentence should read thus, "Grass is good for horses, and wheat for men."
In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to the crops ofgrassandwheatnow on the ground, which, in contradistinction to the crops heretofore raised, are considered asparticularobjects; therefore we should say, "Thegrass looks well;Thewheat is blighted."
NOTE 2. When a noun is used in itsgeneralsense, the article should be omitted; as, "Poetryis a pleasing art;" "Orangesgrow in New Orleans."
Corn in the garden, grows well; but corn in the field, does not. How does the tobacco sell? The tobacco is dear. How do you like the study of the grammar? The grammar is a pleasing study. A candid temper is proper for the man. World is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this way unto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, are the four elements of the old philosophers.
An ADJECTIVE is a word added to a noun to express its quality or kind, or to restrict its meaning; as, agoodman, abadman,a freeman, anunfortunateman,oneman,fortymen.
In the phrases, agoodapple, abadapple, alargeapple, asmallapple, aredapple, awhiteapple, agreenapple, asweetapple, asourapple, abitterapple, aroundapple, ahardapple, asoftapple, amellowapple, afairapple, aMayapple, anearlyapple, alateapple, awinterapple, acrabapple, athornapple, awell-tastedapple, anill-lookingapple, awater-coredapple, you perceive that all those words initalicsare adjectives, because each expresses some quality or property of the noun apple, or it shows whatkindof an apple it is of which we are speaking.
The distinction between anounand anadjectiveis very clear. A noun is thenameof a thing; but an adjective denotes simply thequalityorpropertyof a thing. This isfine cloth. In this example, the difference between the word denoting thething, and that denoting thequalityof it, is easily perceived. You certainly cannot be at a loss to know, that the wordclothexpresses thename, andfine, thequality, of thething; consequentlyfinemust be anadjective. If I say, He is awiseman, aprudentman, awickedman, or anungratefulman, the words initalicsare adjectives, because each expresses aqualityof the noun man. And, if I say, He is atallman, ashortman, awhiteman, ablackman, or apersecutedman, the words,tall, short, white, black, andpersecuted, are also adjectives, because they tell whatkindof a man he is of whom I am speaking, or they attribute to him some particular property.
Some adjectivesrestrictorlimitthe signification of the nouns to which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes calleddefinitives; as,oneera,sevenages, thefirstman, thewholemass,notrouble,thosemen,thatbook,allregions.
Other adjectivesdefineordescribenouns, or do both; as,finesilk,bluepaper, aheavyshower,purewater,greenmountains,blandbreezes,gurglingrills,glasswindow,windowglass,beaverhats,chipbonnets,blackberryridge,Monroegarden,Juniatairon,Cincinnatisteam-mill.
Some adjectives aresecondary, and qualify other adjectives; as,palered lining,darkblue silk,deep seagreen sash,softiron blooms,red hotiron plate.
You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun; as, "Thosemenaretall; Alionisbold; Theweatheriscalm; Thetreeis three feetthick."
Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from the other parts of speech, the following sign will enable you to tell it. Any word that will make sense with the wordthingadded, or with any other noun following it, is an adjective; as, ahighthing, alowthing, ahotthing, acoldthing, anunfinishedthing, anew-fashionedthing:—or, apleasantprospect, along-deserteddwelling, anAmericansoldier, aGreekTestament. Are these words adjectives,distant, yonder, peaceful, long-sided, double-headed?A distantobjectorthing, yonderhill, &c. They are. They will make sense with a noun after them. Adjectives sometimes become adverbs. This matter will be explained in Lecture VI. In parsing, you may generally know an adjective by itsqualifying a noun or pronoun.
Most words ending iningarepresent participles. These are frequently used as adjectives; therefore, most participles will make sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other noun, after them; as, apleasingthing, amovingspectacle,moulderingruins.
In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, have gender, number, and case; but in the English language, they have neither gender, person, number, nor case. These properties belong tocreaturesandthings, and not to theirqualities; therefore gender, person, number, and case, are the properties ofnouns, andnotof adjectives.
Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They have three degrees of comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
Thepositive degreeexpresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution; as,good, wise, great.
Thecomparative degreeincreases or lessens the positive in signification; as,better, wiser, greater, less wise.
Thesuperlative degreeincreases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree; as,best, wisest, greatest, least wise.
Moreandmostform the comparative and superlative degrees by increasing the positive; andlessandleast, by diminishing it.
Comparison by increasing the positive
Comparison by diminishing the positive.
Words used in counting, are callednumeral adjectivesof thecardinalkind; as,one, two, three, four, twenty, fifty,&c.Words used in numbering, are callednumeral adjectivesof theordinalkind; as,first, second, third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth,&c.
Words used in counting, are callednumeral adjectivesof thecardinalkind; as,one, two, three, four, twenty, fifty,&c.
Words used in numbering, are callednumeral adjectivesof theordinalkind; as,first, second, third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth,&c.
NOTE. The wordsmany, few, andseveral, as they always refer to an indefinite number, may be properly callednumeral adjectivesof the indefinite kind.NOTES.1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by addingr, orer; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by addingst, orest, to the end of it; as, Pos. wise, Com. wiser, Sup. wisest; rich, richer, richest; bold, bolder, boldest. The adverbs,moreandmost, lessandleast, when placed before the adjective, have the same effect; as, Pos. wise, Com.morewise, Sup.mostwise; Pos. wise, Com.lesswise, Sup.leastwise.2.Monosyllablesare generally compared by addingerandest; dissyllables, trisyllables, &c. bymoreandmost; as, mild, milder, mildest; frugal, more frugal, most frugal; virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous. Dissyllables ending iny; as, happy, lovely; and inleafter a mute; as, able, ample; and dissyllables accented on the last syllable; as, discreet, polite; easily admit oferandest; as, happier, happiest; politer, politest. Words of more than two syllables very seldom admit of these terminations.3. When the positive ends ind, ort, preceded by asinglevowel, the consonant is doubled in forming the comparative and superlative degrees; as red,redder, reddest; hot,hotter, hottest.4. In some words the superlative is formed by addingmostto the end of them; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, uppermost, foremost.5. In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of analogy,) that are irregular in forming the degrees of comparison; as, "Good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; much or many, more, most; near, nearer, nearest or next; late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest;" and a few others.6. The following adjectives, and many others, are always in thesuperlativedegree, because, by expressing a quality in the highest degree, they carry in themselves a superlative signification:chief, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, honest, just,true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, endless,unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise,eternal.7. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising from the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison; such as,well-formed, frost-bitten, round, square, oblong, circular,quadrangular, conical, &c.8. The terminationishadded to adjectives, expresses a slight degree of quality below the comparative; as,black, blackish; salt,saltish. Very, prefixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of quality, but not always a superlative degree.
NOTE. The wordsmany, few, andseveral, as they always refer to an indefinite number, may be properly callednumeral adjectivesof the indefinite kind.
1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by addingr, orer; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by addingst, orest, to the end of it; as, Pos. wise, Com. wiser, Sup. wisest; rich, richer, richest; bold, bolder, boldest. The adverbs,moreandmost, lessandleast, when placed before the adjective, have the same effect; as, Pos. wise, Com.morewise, Sup.mostwise; Pos. wise, Com.lesswise, Sup.leastwise.
2.Monosyllablesare generally compared by addingerandest; dissyllables, trisyllables, &c. bymoreandmost; as, mild, milder, mildest; frugal, more frugal, most frugal; virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous. Dissyllables ending iny; as, happy, lovely; and inleafter a mute; as, able, ample; and dissyllables accented on the last syllable; as, discreet, polite; easily admit oferandest; as, happier, happiest; politer, politest. Words of more than two syllables very seldom admit of these terminations.
3. When the positive ends ind, ort, preceded by asinglevowel, the consonant is doubled in forming the comparative and superlative degrees; as red,redder, reddest; hot,hotter, hottest.
4. In some words the superlative is formed by addingmostto the end of them; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, uppermost, foremost.
5. In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of analogy,) that are irregular in forming the degrees of comparison; as, "Good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; much or many, more, most; near, nearer, nearest or next; late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest;" and a few others.
6. The following adjectives, and many others, are always in thesuperlativedegree, because, by expressing a quality in the highest degree, they carry in themselves a superlative signification:chief, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, honest, just,true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, endless,unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise,eternal.
7. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising from the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison; such as,well-formed, frost-bitten, round, square, oblong, circular,quadrangular, conical, &c.
8. The terminationishadded to adjectives, expresses a slight degree of quality below the comparative; as,black, blackish; salt,saltish. Very, prefixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of quality, but not always a superlative degree.
Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the NOTES; after which you may parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, and, likewise, the examples that follow. If you cannot repeat all the definitions and rules, spread the Compendium when you parse. But before you proceed, please to commit the
The order of parsing anADJECTIVE, is—an adjective, and why?—compare it—degree of comparison, and why?—to what noun does it belong?—RULE.
The order of parsing anADJECTIVE, is—an adjective, and why?—compare it—degree of comparison, and why?—to what noun does it belong?—RULE.
Thatgreatnationwasoncepowerful; but now it isfeeble.
Greatis an adjective, a word added to a noun to express its quality—pos. great, com. greater, sup. greatest—it is in the positive degree, it expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution, and belongs to the noun "nation," according to
RULE 18.Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or understood.
Wasis a verb, a word that signifies to be—neuter, it expresses neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being—third person singular, because its nominative "nation" is a noun of multitude conveyingunityof idea—it agrees with "nation," agreeably to RULE 10.A noun of multitude conveyingunityof idea, may have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in thesingular.
Powerfulis an adjective belonging to "nation," according to Rule 18.Feeblebelongs to "it," according to Note 1, under Rule 18.Isis a neuter verb agreeing with "it," agreeably to Rule 4.
"Bonaparte entered Russia with 400,000 men."
Four-hundred-thousandis a numeral adjective of the cardinal kind, it is a word used in counting, and belongs to the noun "men," according to Note 2, under Rule 18.Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in number with their adjectives.
If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words about which you are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and parse all the foregoing examples again. This course will enable you to proceed without any difficulty.
Moreis an adverb.Ofandtoare prepositions, governing the nouns that follow them in the objective case.
A benevolent man helps indigent beggars. Studious scholars learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own large ships. The heavy ships bear large burdens; the lighter ships carry less burdens. Just poets use figurative language. Ungrammatical expressions offend a true critic's ear. Weak critics magnify trifling errors. No composition is perfect. The rabble was tumultuous. The late-washed grass looks green. Shady trees form a delightful arbor. The setting sun makes a beautiful appearance; the variegated rainbow appears more beautiful. Epaminondas was the greatest of the Theban generals; Pelopidas was next to Epaminondas.
The first fleet contained three hundred men; the second contained four thousand. The earth contains one thousand million inhabitants. Many a cheering ray brightens the good man's pathway.
NOTE.Like, Worth. The adjectivelikeis a contraction of the participlelikened, and generally has the prepositionuntounderstood after it. "She islike[unto] her brother." "They areunlike[to] him." "The kingdom of heaven islike[likenedor madelike]untoa householder."The nounworthhas altogether dropped its associated words. "The cloth isworthten dollarsayard;" that is, The cloth isof theworthoften dollarsby theyard, orfor a, one, orevery yard.Some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an ellipsis afterlike, worth, ere, but, except, andthan, but consider them prepositions. See Anomalies, in the latter part of this work.
NOTE.Like, Worth. The adjectivelikeis a contraction of the participlelikened, and generally has the prepositionuntounderstood after it. "She islike[unto] her brother." "They areunlike[to] him." "The kingdom of heaven islike[likenedor madelike]untoa householder."
The nounworthhas altogether dropped its associated words. "The cloth isworthten dollarsayard;" that is, The cloth isof theworthoften dollarsby theyard, orfor a, one, orevery yard.
Some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an ellipsis afterlike, worth, ere, but, except, andthan, but consider them prepositions. See Anomalies, in the latter part of this work.
A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its noun, should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood; as, "Thevirtuous[persons] and thesincere[persons] are always respected;" "Providence rewards thegood[people,] and punishes thebad[people.]""Theevil[deedordeeds] that men do, lives after them;"Thegood[deedordeeds] is oft-interred with their bones."But sometimes the adjective, by itsmannerof meaning, becomes a noun, and has another adjective joined to it; as, "the chiefgood;" "The vastimmense[immensity] of space."Various nouns placed before other nouns, assume the character of adjectives, according to theirmannerof meaning; as, "Seafish,ironmortar,winevessel,goldwatch,cornfield,meadowground,mountainheight."The principle which recognisescustomas the standard of grammatical accuracy, might rest for its support on the usage of onlysixwords, and defy all the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it. If the genius and analogy of our language were the standard, it would be correct to observe this analogy, and say, "Good, gooder, goodest; bad, badder, baddest; little, littler, littlest; much, mucher; muchest." "Bythis mean;" "Whatarethenews." But such a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who attempt to establish it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire, the good sense of the people will cause them, in this instance, as well as in a thousand others, to yield tocustom, and say, "Good,better, best; bad,worse, worst; little,less, least; much,more, most;" "Bythis means;" "Whatisthenews?"With regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, care must be taken, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity or nonsense. Let the following general remark, which is better than a dozen rules, put you on your guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put your pen on paper to write, weigh well in your mindthe meaning of the wordswhich you are about to employ. See that they convey precisely the ideas which you wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid innumerable errors. In speaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, he isverywicked, orexceedinglylavish, because the termswickedandlavishare adjectives that admit of comparison; but, if we take the words in their literal acceptation, there is a solecism in calling a manveryhonest, orexceedinglyjust, for the wordshonestandjust, literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a man ishonestordishonest, justorunjust: there can be no medium or excess in this respect.Verycorrect,veryincorrect,veryright,verywrong, are common expressions; but they are notliterallyproper. What is notcorrect, must beincorrect; and that which is notincorrect, must becorrect: what is notright, must bewrong; and that which is notwrong, must beright. To avoid that circumlocution which must otherwise take place, our best speakers and writers, however, frequently compare adjectives which do not literally admit of comparison: "Themost establishedpractice;" "Themost uncertainmethod;" "Irving, as a writer,is far more accuratethan Addison;" "The metaphysical investigations of our philosophical grammars, arestill more incomprehensibleto the learner." Comparisons like these, should generally be avoided; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice, as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with the principles of grammar, only by considering them as figurative.Comparative members of sentences, should be set indirect oppositionto each other; as, "Pope wasrich, but Goldsmith waspoor." The following sentences are inaccurate: "Solomon waswiserthan Cicero waseloquent." "The principles of the reformation weredeeperin the prince's mind than to beeasily eradicated." This latter sentence containsno comparisonat all; neither does it literally conveyany meaning. Again, if the Psalmist had said, "I am the wisest of my teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, because the phrase would imply, that he was one of his teachers. But in saying, "I am wiserthanmy teachers," he does not consider himself one of them, but places himself in contradistinction to them.
A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its noun, should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood; as, "Thevirtuous[persons] and thesincere[persons] are always respected;" "Providence rewards thegood[people,] and punishes thebad[people.]"
But sometimes the adjective, by itsmannerof meaning, becomes a noun, and has another adjective joined to it; as, "the chiefgood;" "The vastimmense[immensity] of space."
Various nouns placed before other nouns, assume the character of adjectives, according to theirmannerof meaning; as, "Seafish,ironmortar,winevessel,goldwatch,cornfield,meadowground,mountainheight."
The principle which recognisescustomas the standard of grammatical accuracy, might rest for its support on the usage of onlysixwords, and defy all the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it. If the genius and analogy of our language were the standard, it would be correct to observe this analogy, and say, "Good, gooder, goodest; bad, badder, baddest; little, littler, littlest; much, mucher; muchest." "Bythis mean;" "Whatarethenews." But such a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who attempt to establish it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire, the good sense of the people will cause them, in this instance, as well as in a thousand others, to yield tocustom, and say, "Good,better, best; bad,worse, worst; little,less, least; much,more, most;" "Bythis means;" "Whatisthenews?"
With regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, care must be taken, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity or nonsense. Let the following general remark, which is better than a dozen rules, put you on your guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put your pen on paper to write, weigh well in your mindthe meaning of the wordswhich you are about to employ. See that they convey precisely the ideas which you wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid innumerable errors. In speaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, he isverywicked, orexceedinglylavish, because the termswickedandlavishare adjectives that admit of comparison; but, if we take the words in their literal acceptation, there is a solecism in calling a manveryhonest, orexceedinglyjust, for the wordshonestandjust, literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a man ishonestordishonest, justorunjust: there can be no medium or excess in this respect.Verycorrect,veryincorrect,veryright,verywrong, are common expressions; but they are notliterallyproper. What is notcorrect, must beincorrect; and that which is notincorrect, must becorrect: what is notright, must bewrong; and that which is notwrong, must beright. To avoid that circumlocution which must otherwise take place, our best speakers and writers, however, frequently compare adjectives which do not literally admit of comparison: "Themost establishedpractice;" "Themost uncertainmethod;" "Irving, as a writer,is far more accuratethan Addison;" "The metaphysical investigations of our philosophical grammars, arestill more incomprehensibleto the learner." Comparisons like these, should generally be avoided; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice, as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with the principles of grammar, only by considering them as figurative.
Comparative members of sentences, should be set indirect oppositionto each other; as, "Pope wasrich, but Goldsmith waspoor." The following sentences are inaccurate: "Solomon waswiserthan Cicero waseloquent." "The principles of the reformation weredeeperin the prince's mind than to beeasily eradicated." This latter sentence containsno comparisonat all; neither does it literally conveyany meaning. Again, if the Psalmist had said, "I am the wisest of my teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, because the phrase would imply, that he was one of his teachers. But in saying, "I am wiserthanmy teachers," he does not consider himself one of them, but places himself in contradistinction to them.
Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the following
What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective?—By what sign may an adjective be known?—Are participles ever used as adjectives?—Does gender, person, number, or case, belong to adjectives?—How are they varied?—Name the three degrees of comparison.—What effect havelessandleastin comparing adjectives?—Repeat the order of parsing an adjective.—What rule applies in parsing an adjective?—What rule in parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveyingunityof idea?—What Note should be applied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun?—What Note in parsingnumeraladjectives?
Repeat all the various ways of forming the degrees of comparison, mentioned in the first five NOTES.—Compare these adjectives;ripe, frugal, mischievous, happy, able, good, little, muchormany, near, late, old.—Name some adjectives that are always in the superlative, and never compared.—Are compound adjectives compared?—What is said of the terminationish, and of the adverbvery?—When does an adjective become a noun?—What character does a noun assume when placed before another noun?—How can you prove thatcustomis the standard of grammatical accuracy?PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.ADNOUNS.AdnounorAdjective, comes from the Latin,adandjicio, toadd to.Adnouns are a class of words added to nouns to vary their comprehension, or to determine their extension. Those which effect the former object, are calledadjectives, orattributes;and those which effect the latter,restrictives. It is not, in all cases, easy to determine to which of these classes an adnoun should be referred. Words which express simply thequalitiesof nouns, are adjectives; and such as denote theirsituationornumber, are restrictives.Adjectives were originally nouns or verbs.Some consider the adjective, in its present application,exactlyequivalent to a noun connected to another noun by means of juxtaposition, of a preposition, or of a corresponding flexion. "Agoldencup," say they, "is the same as agoldcup, or a cupof gold." But this principle appears to be exceptionable. "A cupof gold," may mean either a cup-fullof gold, or a cupmadeof gold. "Anoakencask," signifies anoakcask, or a caskof oak; i.e. a caskmadeof oak; but abeercask, and a caskof beer, are two different things. Avirtuousson; a sonof virtue.The distinguishing characteristic of the adjective, appears to consist in its bothnaminga quality, andattributingthat quality to some object.The terminationsen, ed, andig(our moderny,) signifyinggive, add, join, denote that the names of qualities to which they are postfixed, are to be attributed to other nouns possessing such qualities: wood-en, wood-y. See page 37.Leftis the past participle of the verbleave. Horne Tooke definesrightto be that which isorderedordirected. Therighthand is that which your parents and custom direct you to use in preference to the other. And when you employ that in preference, the other is theleaved, leav'd, orlefthand; i.e. the oneleavedorleft. "The one shall be taken, and the other(leaved) left."Own. Formerly a man'sownwas what heworked for, ownbeing a past participle of a verb signifying towork.Restrictive. Some restrictives, in modern times, are applied only to singular nouns; such asaoran, another, one, this, that, each, every, either. Others, only to plural nouns; as,these, those, two, three, few, several, all. But most restrictives, like adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural nouns:first, second, last, the, former, latter, any, such, same, some, which, what.Numerals. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by the fingers; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost extent of its signification.Tenis the past participle oftynan, to close, to shut in. The handstyned, tened, closed, or shut in, signifiedten; for there numerationclosed. To denote a number greater than ten, we must begin again,tenandone, tenandtwo, &c.Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane, is a compound oftwo (twa, twae, twee, twi, twoordwoorduo)andone (ane, ain, an.)It signifiestwounitsjoined, united, aned,oroned. Twenty (twa-ane-ten)signifiestwo tens aned, oned, orunited. Thingsseparatedinto parcels of twenty each, are calledscores. Scoreis the past participle ofshear, toseparate.The Ordinalsare formed like abstract nouns ineth. Fifth, sixth, ortenthis the number whichfiv-eth, six-eth, ten-eth, or mak-ethup the numberfive, six, orten.Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in which they wereoriginallyemployed, and suppose that all the complicated, yet often definable, associations which the gradual progress of language and intellect has connected with words, are to be reduced tothe standard of our forefathers; appear not to have sufficiently attended to thechangeswhich this principle of association actually produces. As language is transmitted from generation to generation, many words become the representatives of ideas with which they were not originally associated; and thus they undergo a change, not only in themodeof their application, but also in their meaning. Words being the signs of things, their meaning must necessarily change as much,at least, as things themselves change; but this variation in their import more frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the ideas connected with a word that which was once of primary, becomes only of secondary importance; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses altogether its connexion with the word, giving place to others with which, from some accidental causes, it has been associated.Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks. In an ancient English version of the New Testament, we find the following language: "I, Paul, arascalof Jesus Christ, unto you Gentiles," &c. But who, in the present acceptation of the word, would dare to call "the great apostle of the Gentiles" arascal? Rascalformerly meant aservant:one devoted to the interest of another; but now it is nearly synonymous withvillain. Villainonce had none of the odium which is now associated with the term;but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or heldlands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant,"As you are an accomplishedvillain, I order that you receive £700 out of the public treasury." The wordvillain, then, has given upits original idea, and become the representative of a new one, thewordtenanthaving supplanted it. To prove that the meaning of wordschanges, a thousand examples could be adduced; but with theintelligent reader, proof is unnecessary.QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.How are adnouns divided?—What constitutes the true character of an adjective?—What are the signification and denotement of the terminations,en, ed, andig?—What doleftandownsignify?—Name the three ways in which restrictives are applied.—How was numeration originally performed?—What is said oftwain, twenty, score, and the ordinal numbers?—What is said of the changes produced in the meaning of words, by the principle of association?
Repeat all the various ways of forming the degrees of comparison, mentioned in the first five NOTES.—Compare these adjectives;ripe, frugal, mischievous, happy, able, good, little, muchormany, near, late, old.—Name some adjectives that are always in the superlative, and never compared.—Are compound adjectives compared?—What is said of the terminationish, and of the adverbvery?—When does an adjective become a noun?—What character does a noun assume when placed before another noun?—How can you prove thatcustomis the standard of grammatical accuracy?
AdnounorAdjective, comes from the Latin,adandjicio, toadd to.
Adnouns are a class of words added to nouns to vary their comprehension, or to determine their extension. Those which effect the former object, are calledadjectives, orattributes;and those which effect the latter,restrictives. It is not, in all cases, easy to determine to which of these classes an adnoun should be referred. Words which express simply thequalitiesof nouns, are adjectives; and such as denote theirsituationornumber, are restrictives.
Adjectives were originally nouns or verbs.
Some consider the adjective, in its present application,exactlyequivalent to a noun connected to another noun by means of juxtaposition, of a preposition, or of a corresponding flexion. "Agoldencup," say they, "is the same as agoldcup, or a cupof gold." But this principle appears to be exceptionable. "A cupof gold," may mean either a cup-fullof gold, or a cupmadeof gold. "Anoakencask," signifies anoakcask, or a caskof oak; i.e. a caskmadeof oak; but abeercask, and a caskof beer, are two different things. Avirtuousson; a sonof virtue.
The distinguishing characteristic of the adjective, appears to consist in its bothnaminga quality, andattributingthat quality to some object.
The terminationsen, ed, andig(our moderny,) signifyinggive, add, join, denote that the names of qualities to which they are postfixed, are to be attributed to other nouns possessing such qualities: wood-en, wood-y. See page 37.
Leftis the past participle of the verbleave. Horne Tooke definesrightto be that which isorderedordirected. Therighthand is that which your parents and custom direct you to use in preference to the other. And when you employ that in preference, the other is theleaved, leav'd, orlefthand; i.e. the oneleavedorleft. "The one shall be taken, and the other(leaved) left."
Own. Formerly a man'sownwas what heworked for, ownbeing a past participle of a verb signifying towork.
Restrictive. Some restrictives, in modern times, are applied only to singular nouns; such asaoran, another, one, this, that, each, every, either. Others, only to plural nouns; as,these, those, two, three, few, several, all. But most restrictives, like adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural nouns:first, second, last, the, former, latter, any, such, same, some, which, what.
Numerals. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by the fingers; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost extent of its signification.Tenis the past participle oftynan, to close, to shut in. The handstyned, tened, closed, or shut in, signifiedten; for there numerationclosed. To denote a number greater than ten, we must begin again,tenandone, tenandtwo, &c.
Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane, is a compound oftwo (twa, twae, twee, twi, twoordwoorduo)andone (ane, ain, an.)It signifiestwounitsjoined, united, aned,oroned. Twenty (twa-ane-ten)signifiestwo tens aned, oned, orunited. Thingsseparatedinto parcels of twenty each, are calledscores. Scoreis the past participle ofshear, toseparate.
The Ordinalsare formed like abstract nouns ineth. Fifth, sixth, ortenthis the number whichfiv-eth, six-eth, ten-eth, or mak-ethup the numberfive, six, orten.
Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in which they wereoriginallyemployed, and suppose that all the complicated, yet often definable, associations which the gradual progress of language and intellect has connected with words, are to be reduced tothe standard of our forefathers; appear not to have sufficiently attended to thechangeswhich this principle of association actually produces. As language is transmitted from generation to generation, many words become the representatives of ideas with which they were not originally associated; and thus they undergo a change, not only in themodeof their application, but also in their meaning. Words being the signs of things, their meaning must necessarily change as much,at least, as things themselves change; but this variation in their import more frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the ideas connected with a word that which was once of primary, becomes only of secondary importance; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses altogether its connexion with the word, giving place to others with which, from some accidental causes, it has been associated.
Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks. In an ancient English version of the New Testament, we find the following language: "I, Paul, arascalof Jesus Christ, unto you Gentiles," &c. But who, in the present acceptation of the word, would dare to call "the great apostle of the Gentiles" arascal? Rascalformerly meant aservant:one devoted to the interest of another; but now it is nearly synonymous withvillain. Villainonce had none of the odium which is now associated with the term;but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or heldlands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant,"As you are an accomplishedvillain, I order that you receive £700 out of the public treasury." The wordvillain, then, has given upits original idea, and become the representative of a new one, thewordtenanthaving supplanted it. To prove that the meaning of wordschanges, a thousand examples could be adduced; but with theintelligent reader, proof is unnecessary.
How are adnouns divided?—What constitutes the true character of an adjective?—What are the signification and denotement of the terminations,en, ed, andig?—What doleftandownsignify?—Name the three ways in which restrictives are applied.—How was numeration originally performed?—What is said oftwain, twenty, score, and the ordinal numbers?—What is said of the changes produced in the meaning of words, by the principle of association?
NOTE 9, under RULE 18. DoubleComparativesandSuperlativesshould be avoided; such as,worser, lesser, moredeeper,morewickeder, &c.:chiefest, supremest, perfectest, rightest; ormoreperfect,mostperfect,mostsupreme, &c.
Virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man, and it should be his chiefest desire.
He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night.
The phrases "most supreme," and "chiefest," in the first sentence, are incorrect, becausesupremeandchiefare in the superlative degree without having the superlative form superadded, which addition makes them double superlatives. They should be written, "confers supreme dignity," and, "his chief desire."We can say, one thing islessthan another, orsmallerthan another, because the adjectiveslessandsmallerare in the comparative degree; but the phrase "lesserlight," in the second sentence, is inaccurate.Lesseris a double comparative, which, according to the preceding Note, should be avoided.Lesseris as incorrect asbadder, gooder, worser. "Thesmallerlight," would be less exceptionable. You can correct the following without my assistance. Correct themfourtimes over.
The phrases "most supreme," and "chiefest," in the first sentence, are incorrect, becausesupremeandchiefare in the superlative degree without having the superlative form superadded, which addition makes them double superlatives. They should be written, "confers supreme dignity," and, "his chief desire."
We can say, one thing islessthan another, orsmallerthan another, because the adjectiveslessandsmallerare in the comparative degree; but the phrase "lesserlight," in the second sentence, is inaccurate.Lesseris a double comparative, which, according to the preceding Note, should be avoided.Lesseris as incorrect asbadder, gooder, worser. "Thesmallerlight," would be less exceptionable. You can correct the following without my assistance. Correct themfourtimes over.
The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of imagination or sense. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the lesser weight it carries. The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. The Most Highest hath created us for his glory, He was admitted to the chiefest offices. The first witness gave a strong proof of the fact; the next more stronger still; but the last witness, the most stronger of all. He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof of the truer friendship.
A PARTICIPLE is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective.Verbs have three participles, the present or imperfect, the perfect, and the compound.Thepresentorimperfectparticiple denotes action or being continued, but not perfected. It always ends ining; as,ruling, being: "I amwritinga letter."Theperfectparticiple denotes action or being perfected or finished. When derived from a regular verb, it ends ined, and corresponds with the imperfect tense; as,ruled, smiled:"The letter iswritten."Thecompoundparticiple implies action or being completed before the time referred to. It is formed by placinghavingbefore the perfect participle; as,having ruled, having been ruled: "Having writtenthe letter, he mailed it."
A PARTICIPLE is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective.
Verbs have three participles, the present or imperfect, the perfect, and the compound.
Thepresentorimperfectparticiple denotes action or being continued, but not perfected. It always ends ining; as,ruling, being: "I amwritinga letter."
Theperfectparticiple denotes action or being perfected or finished. When derived from a regular verb, it ends ined, and corresponds with the imperfect tense; as,ruled, smiled:"The letter iswritten."
Thecompoundparticiple implies action or being completed before the time referred to. It is formed by placinghavingbefore the perfect participle; as,having ruled, having been ruled: "Having writtenthe letter, he mailed it."
The termParticiplecomes from the Latin wordparticipio, which signifies topartake: and this name is given to this part of speech, because itpartakesof the nature of the verb and of the adjective.
By many writers, the participle is classed with the verb, and treated as a part of it; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of the nature of an adjective, requires many syntactical rules which apply not to the verb, and, in some other respects, has properties peculiar to itself, it is believed that its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb, to entitle it to the rank of a separate part of speech. It is, in fact, the connecting link between, not only the adjective and the verb, but also the noun and the verb.
All participles are compound in their meaning and office. Like verbs, they express action and being, and denote time; and, like adjectives, they describe the nouns of which they denote the action or being. In the sentences, The boatman iscrossingthe river; I see a manlaboringin the field; Charles isstanding; you perceive that the participlescrossingandlaboringexpress the actions of the boatman and the man, andstandingthe state of being of Charles. In these respects, then, they partake of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that theydescribethe several nouns associated with them, like describing adjectives; and that, in this respect, they participate the properties of adjectives. And, furthermore, you observe they denote actions which are still going on; that is,incompleteorunfinishedactions; for which reason we call themimperfectparticiples.
Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When the imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns, they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denominatedparticipial adjectives; as, Alovingcompanion; Theripplingstream;Roaringwinds; Awiltedleaf; Anaccomplishedscholar. Here the wordsloving, rippling, roaring, wilted, andaccomplished, describe or define the nouns with which they are associated. And where the participles are placed after their nouns, they have, also, this descriptive quality. If I say, I see the moonrising; The horse isrunninga race; The dog isbeaten; I describe the several objects, as arisingmoon, arunninghorse, and abeatendog, as well as when I place these participles before the nouns. The same word is a participle or a participial adjective, according to its manner of meaning. The preceding illustration, however, shows that this distinction is founded on a very slight shade of difference in the meaning of the two. The following examples will enable you to distinguish the one from the other.
Thepresentorimperfectparticiple is known by its ending ining; as, floating, riding, hearing, seeing. These are derived from the verbs,float, ride, hear, andsee. But some words ending iningare not participles; such asevening, morning, hireling, sapling, uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontrolling. When you parse a word ending ining, you should always consider whether it comes from a verb or not. There is such a verb asinterest, hence you know that the wordinterestingis a participle; but there is no such verb asuninterest, consequently,uninteresting cannotbe a participle: but it is an adjective; as, anuninterestingstory. You will be able very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts of speech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of the verb.
Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, shun, smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, overrate, disengage. Thus, Pres.learning, Perf.learned, Comp.having learned. Pres.walking, Perf.walked, Compound,having walked, and so on.
You may now commit theorderof parsing a participle, and then proceed with me.