CEREAL PRODUCTS
The common grains, sometimes called cereals,[11]yield some of the most important of all the food materials. Those most widely used are wheat, maize, or Indian corn, oats, rice, barley, rye, and millet. In this country wheat and corn are the two great crops upon which our prosperity largely depends, and a shortage in one of these crops is felt in the business world, not only in this country, but abroad. Rice is the important cereal in China, Japan, and India, and a failure of the rice crop may mean famine to millions of people, especially in India. These facts are mentioned to show that the race has learned to depend upon the grains as a staple food, and a study of their composition proves that this common habit is founded in reason. The grains are all members of the grass family, and the edible portion is the seed. From these seeds are manufactured pure starch, breakfast cereals, meal, and flour. Like beans and peas, these seeds are the storehouses of food for the young plants, and we therefore find the high nutritive value depicted in Fig. 37. Notice that the carbohydrate (starch) content is high in all; that all contain protein, oats, wheat, and rye being about equal in this and higher than the others; oats are highest in fat, corn ranking next. The ash contains the same important mineral substances that we found in the fruits, the percentages of each differing somewhat with thedifferent grains and being quite different for the cereals as a class than for the fruits and vegetables as a class. It must be remembered that these percentages are given for the whole grain, and that the amounts of the nutrients in the manufactured product depend upon the process employed.
Manufacture of cereal food materials.[12]—The primitive method of making the material in the grain available for use was by grinding the grain between two stones, or by pounding one stone upon another, and this method is used by the Mexicans and certain of the American Indians to this day, human muscle being the power employed. Wind and water were harnessed for grinding grain, and were the only motive powers available until the invention of steam, the grinding being done by stones. In a Connecticut town there still exists a mill stone, one of a pair so small that they were carried into the settlement on horseback, and when placed in a small mill by a brook, they ground a bushel of corn in a day.
Fig. 37.—Composition of cereals.
Breakfast cereals and meal are now made in the great factories that produce flour; steam is the motive power and the grains are broken, or rolled, between steel rollers. (See Chapter XII.)
Breakfast cereals.—The ready-to-eat breakfast cereal has met the popular demand for a quickly prepared food for the first meal of the day. A few of these are made under known conditions, but they are sometimes manufactured from inferior grain, and the presence of grit at times indicates a possible lack of cleanliness in the process. It is a question, too, whether or not the starch has been subjected to heat for a sufficient length of time, and whether they can be masticated sufficiently to make the grain digestible, and the nutritive material available. Their use for young children is undesirable. For older people, they add varietyto the diet, but they are usually more expensive than the home-cooked breakfast foods, even when the cost of fuel is taken into account. See Fig. 38.
Cooked breakfast cereals.—It is an easy task to cook a cereal, especially now that the fireless cooker in some form is present in so many homes. The cereal for breakfast does not necessitate early rising; as it may be prepared the day or evening before and be served in palatable form in the morning.
The most common breakfast cereals are made from oats, wheat, and corn, varying in fineness of grain from those ground like a meal to the coarser cracked wheat and the samp made from corn. It is well to use kinds made from different grains, but when the worth of a few has been proved, it is not wise to try another kind simply because it has a new label. One manufacturer confessed to a visitor that the same cereal was put into boxes of different colors and sold under different names as a means of inviting purchasers. The cereal foods made from whole grains are especially valuable on account of the high mineral content.
It usually pays to buy in boxes, rather than in bulk, in the case of cereals; and always from a reliable grocer. If you purchase a box of cereal as a “bargain,” weigh its contents and compare the weight with the weight of a box bought in the regular way. Also examine such a box for the presence of insects. These may be recognized sometimes by a webby substance, and again the insects themselves may be detected. Do not buy too large a stock of cereals, since they are better when they are fresh from the factory, and a good firm renews its stock often.
Fig. 38.—100-Calorie portions of starches and cereals.A. Fowler, Photographer.
No.KindWeight of PortionOunceS1.Shredded Wheat1.02.Cornmeal1.03.Farina1.04.Rice1.05.Tapioca1.06.Cornstarch1.07.Hominy Grits1.08.Rolled Oats1.09.Flaked Wheat1.010.Corn Flakes1.011.Puffed Wheat1.012.Puffed Rice1.0
Principles of cooking.—1. Softening of the fiber by long-continued low temperature with a supply of water present.2. Complete opening of the starch granules by the boiling temperature of water.3. The protein present presents no special problem. Its digestibility is not especially affected, but the softening of the fiber of the cereal makes the protein available to us.Methods.—There are two classes into which the cereals may be divided,—the flaked and the granular. The weighing experiments (page62) show that the granular is the heavier. This means that more water will be absorbed by a given measure of the granular, because it contains more material.In experimenting with a cereal at home it is well to try the proportion of water and cereal printed on the box the first time, altering the proportion if the first result is not satisfactory. There should be enough water to soften the cereal, andonlyjust enough. If the cooked cereal is stiff, the measure of water is short; if so thin that the cereal runs on the plate, too much water was allowed.1. Preparation of breakfast cereal.Ingredients.1 part, by measure, flaked cereal to 2 of water.1 part granular cereal to 3 to 4 of water.1 cup of dry cereal will serve three or four people.Samp, cracked wheat, and coarse corn meal will take from 4 to 6 parts of water.Salt. A tablespoonful to a quart of water is an average amount.Utensils: a measuring cup; a double boiler; a fork.Method.—Measure the cereal and water, put the water into the inner part of the double boiler with the salt. Have the lower part of the boiler ready—about half full of hot water; place the inner boiler directly upon the stove or over the flame. When the water is boiling rapidly, shake the cereal into the water from a cup,so slowly that the water does not stop boiling. This is the first secret of a well-cooked cereal. The rapidly boiling water keeps the grains of cereal in motion, and thus they do not stick to the vessel nor to each other, and the heat reaches the starch in the grains equally. If the grains begin to settle, shake the vessel gently, but do not stir, even with a fork. Allow this process to continue for about five minutes, or until you see a thickening of the mass, so much so that the separategrains do not settle. If toward the end of this stage there is danger of sticking,liftthe mass with the fork, but do not stir it, as this motion will break the grains. This first process opens the starch grains. Place the inner part of the boiler in the outer over boiling water and allow the cooking to continue forat leastone hour. For this is the second secret of the perfect cereal,—a long-continued process that softens the fiber and develops flavor. One cereal, advertised as being cooked in three minutes, remains unpalatable after that length of time, but is delicious at the end of two hours. If you have a fireless cooker, put the cereal in the double boiler into the cooker overnight for the second stage. Any low temperature apparatus gives the desired result.2. The uses of cold cereal.—Never throw away cooked cereals. The cold cereal is useful in many ways.(a) Mold in small cups with dates or other fruit, and serve with sugar and cream for luncheon.(b) Cool corn meal mush in a flat dish, cut it in slices when cold, and brown the slices in a frying pan, with beef fat, or a butter substitute. Serve with sugar, molasses, or sirup for breakfast or luncheon.(c) Rice or hominy may be mixed with a beaten egg, molded into small cakes, and browned either in the frying pan, or in the oven.(d) A small remaining portion of any cereal may be used to thicken soup.(e) Any cooked cereal may be used in muffins or even yeast bread. (See those chapters.)3. Corn meal “mush.”—This is cooked by the same method as the other cereals, except that the amount of water is larger and the first boiling should continue longer. The meal must be scattered slowly into the boiling water, or else be mixed first with cold water, as it lumps very easily. The second stage of the process should continue several hours.
Principles of cooking.—1. Softening of the fiber by long-continued low temperature with a supply of water present.
2. Complete opening of the starch granules by the boiling temperature of water.
3. The protein present presents no special problem. Its digestibility is not especially affected, but the softening of the fiber of the cereal makes the protein available to us.
Methods.—There are two classes into which the cereals may be divided,—the flaked and the granular. The weighing experiments (page62) show that the granular is the heavier. This means that more water will be absorbed by a given measure of the granular, because it contains more material.
In experimenting with a cereal at home it is well to try the proportion of water and cereal printed on the box the first time, altering the proportion if the first result is not satisfactory. There should be enough water to soften the cereal, andonlyjust enough. If the cooked cereal is stiff, the measure of water is short; if so thin that the cereal runs on the plate, too much water was allowed.
1. Preparation of breakfast cereal.
Ingredients.
1 part, by measure, flaked cereal to 2 of water.1 part granular cereal to 3 to 4 of water.1 cup of dry cereal will serve three or four people.Samp, cracked wheat, and coarse corn meal will take from 4 to 6 parts of water.Salt. A tablespoonful to a quart of water is an average amount.
Utensils: a measuring cup; a double boiler; a fork.
Method.—Measure the cereal and water, put the water into the inner part of the double boiler with the salt. Have the lower part of the boiler ready—about half full of hot water; place the inner boiler directly upon the stove or over the flame. When the water is boiling rapidly, shake the cereal into the water from a cup,so slowly that the water does not stop boiling. This is the first secret of a well-cooked cereal. The rapidly boiling water keeps the grains of cereal in motion, and thus they do not stick to the vessel nor to each other, and the heat reaches the starch in the grains equally. If the grains begin to settle, shake the vessel gently, but do not stir, even with a fork. Allow this process to continue for about five minutes, or until you see a thickening of the mass, so much so that the separategrains do not settle. If toward the end of this stage there is danger of sticking,liftthe mass with the fork, but do not stir it, as this motion will break the grains. This first process opens the starch grains. Place the inner part of the boiler in the outer over boiling water and allow the cooking to continue forat leastone hour. For this is the second secret of the perfect cereal,—a long-continued process that softens the fiber and develops flavor. One cereal, advertised as being cooked in three minutes, remains unpalatable after that length of time, but is delicious at the end of two hours. If you have a fireless cooker, put the cereal in the double boiler into the cooker overnight for the second stage. Any low temperature apparatus gives the desired result.
2. The uses of cold cereal.—Never throw away cooked cereals. The cold cereal is useful in many ways.
(a) Mold in small cups with dates or other fruit, and serve with sugar and cream for luncheon.
(b) Cool corn meal mush in a flat dish, cut it in slices when cold, and brown the slices in a frying pan, with beef fat, or a butter substitute. Serve with sugar, molasses, or sirup for breakfast or luncheon.
(c) Rice or hominy may be mixed with a beaten egg, molded into small cakes, and browned either in the frying pan, or in the oven.
(d) A small remaining portion of any cereal may be used to thicken soup.
(e) Any cooked cereal may be used in muffins or even yeast bread. (See those chapters.)
3. Corn meal “mush.”—This is cooked by the same method as the other cereals, except that the amount of water is larger and the first boiling should continue longer. The meal must be scattered slowly into the boiling water, or else be mixed first with cold water, as it lumps very easily. The second stage of the process should continue several hours.
Rice.—Rice varies very much in quality and in the shape of the grain. Louisiana and Chinese rice are among those that have a firm and large grain keeping its shape well whencooked. Inferior varieties become too soft, and the finished product is pasty and poor in color and flavor. Much is said at present about the harmful effect of the polishing process upon the quality of the rice. An unpolished rice may sometimes be found on the market, brownish in color and with a good flavor.
4. Boiled rice.—Rice may be cooked in the double boiler by the same method as other cereals, allowing 1 part of rice to 3 of water. The rice should be well washed in cold water.The second stage need not be continued so long, from three quarters of an hour to an hour being sufficient. The flavor is improved by the use of milk in place of half of the water. By this method the nutritive value is much increased.Another method used by the Chinese continues the boiling throughout the whole process. A very large amount of water is used, several quarts for one cup of rice, and when the water is boiling violently the rice is scattered in very slowly. The boiling continues from twenty minutes to half an hour, or until the grains are tender, and then the water is drained off, through a colander. The rice in the colander should then be placed where the remaining moisture will steam off. By this method nutrients are lost, but the grains of the rice stand out distinctly and are light and dry. It is a difficult method for the novice, because its success depends upon the removal of the rice from the water just at the moment it is tender, but not too soft. The grains should be tested in twenty minutes.
4. Boiled rice.—Rice may be cooked in the double boiler by the same method as other cereals, allowing 1 part of rice to 3 of water. The rice should be well washed in cold water.
The second stage need not be continued so long, from three quarters of an hour to an hour being sufficient. The flavor is improved by the use of milk in place of half of the water. By this method the nutritive value is much increased.
Another method used by the Chinese continues the boiling throughout the whole process. A very large amount of water is used, several quarts for one cup of rice, and when the water is boiling violently the rice is scattered in very slowly. The boiling continues from twenty minutes to half an hour, or until the grains are tender, and then the water is drained off, through a colander. The rice in the colander should then be placed where the remaining moisture will steam off. By this method nutrients are lost, but the grains of the rice stand out distinctly and are light and dry. It is a difficult method for the novice, because its success depends upon the removal of the rice from the water just at the moment it is tender, but not too soft. The grains should be tested in twenty minutes.
Corn products.—Corn being our most abundant grain, it is the cheapest, and we should promote its use. Hominy and samp and Indian meal, when well cooked, are all most palatable. There is a difference between old and new process corn meal, to be noticed in the flavor and in the behavior of the two kinds in cooking. The new process meal now more largely on the market has been deprived of the germ, which contains a large amount of oil, and although the meal does not deteriorate so soon, there is some loss of flavor. Moreover,when the new process meal is used in an old-time recipe, more wetting must be used than the recipe calls for and a larger amount of fat.
The old process of grinding between stones is still employed in some localities. Southern and Rhode Island corn meal are ground in this way, and may be found at some groceries. There are also two colors, the yellow and the white, each with a distinctive flavor, and some people who think they dislike corn meal find the white meal agreeable.
Pure starches.—These occur as food materials in several forms. Cornstarch is the starchy portion only removed from the grain of corn. Wheat starch is more largely used for laundry purposes than for food. Rice flour may be treated as starch in cooking. Arrowroot is a fine starch from the roots of a family of plants growing in the West Indies and other warm climates. It is used principally in cooking for invalids. Cassava, manioca, tapioca, and sago are starchy materials in granular form. The first three are made from the pith of the cassava plant, the sago from the sago palm. The pure starches are all easily digested and inexpensive. Corn starch is the most abundant and cheapest pure starch in this country.
The starch granule.—To understand the behavior of materials like cornstarch, rice flour, and arrowroot in cooking, we need to know more of the starch grain. Cornstarch is composed of myriads of tiny granules somewhat like those pictured in Fig. 39, but smaller. The starch granules of different plants differ in size and even in shape, but they all have a covering lying in folds, the pure starch being within. The granule unfolds or bursts when exposed to heat. When these granules are floating in water, and, being heated, open at the same moment, the starch paste is smooth; otherwise, the starch lumps.
A. Starch experiments.Starch turns a characteristic blue color in the presence of iodine. This is an unfailing starch test, but must be used in the cold.1. Grate a piece of potato into a small amount of water, and strain out the pulp. The starch settles from the water in a few minutes. Pour off the water, and add a drop of diluted iodine to the remaining starch. If a microscope is available, dilute this mixture and with a dropper tube place a drop upon a slide. The potato starch granules are comparatively large and easy to see through the microscope.2. Drop a teaspoonful of dry starch into boiling water.3. Mix a teaspoonful of starch with a small quantity of cold water, and stir this into boiling water.4. Mix a teaspoonful of starch with ¼ cup of cold water, and bring the water to the boiling point, stirring the mixture as it heats.Why are 3 and 4 similar in result, and different from 2?
A. Starch experiments.
Starch turns a characteristic blue color in the presence of iodine. This is an unfailing starch test, but must be used in the cold.
1. Grate a piece of potato into a small amount of water, and strain out the pulp. The starch settles from the water in a few minutes. Pour off the water, and add a drop of diluted iodine to the remaining starch. If a microscope is available, dilute this mixture and with a dropper tube place a drop upon a slide. The potato starch granules are comparatively large and easy to see through the microscope.
2. Drop a teaspoonful of dry starch into boiling water.
3. Mix a teaspoonful of starch with a small quantity of cold water, and stir this into boiling water.
4. Mix a teaspoonful of starch with ¼ cup of cold water, and bring the water to the boiling point, stirring the mixture as it heats.
Why are 3 and 4 similar in result, and different from 2?
Fig. 39.—Changes of starch cells in cooking:a, cells of a raw potato with starch grains in natural condition;b, cells of a partially cooked potato;c, cells of a thoroughly boiled potato.Farmers’ Bulletin No. 295, U. S. Dept. Agriculture.
Desserts from the starches.—Cornstarch, in particular, is often disliked, because it is undercooked, and too large a proportion is used. It may be made very palatable, and is too valuable in cooking and too inexpensive to be discarded.
5. Chocolate cornstarch.Milk1 pintCornstarch3 tablespoonfuls,levelCocoa (Baker’s)3 tablespoonfuls,levelSugar1⁄2cupSalt1⁄4teaspoonfulVanilla1 teaspoonfulWhat utensils? You should be able to plan the method of mixing. The milk must be heated in a double boiler. Which method of mixing in the cornstarch will you use? How can you best add the cocoa, sugar, and salt? The vanilla?It is difficult to boil milk directly over the fire or flame, without scorching it. Since the starch cannot well be exposed to the boiling temperature in this case, the process must continue in the double boiler until the mixture has thickened well, for at least half an hour, three quarters being better. When the cooking is finished, pour the mixture into molds which have been wet in cold water. When the mixture is cooled, chill it in the refrigerator. Serve with cream or milk and sugar for those who may want it sweeter. This gives a soft mold, that is much more palatable than one so stiff, that it has a firm shape. This will serve four or five people.6. Tapioca and sago.—These materials make delicious desserts with fruit. They are also used with eggs and milk. (See Chapter XV.)Laboratory management.—The undivided portion of cereal may be1⁄4cup. Cornstarch may be made with1⁄2cup of liquid.
5. Chocolate cornstarch.Milk1 pintCornstarch3 tablespoonfuls,levelCocoa (Baker’s)3 tablespoonfuls,levelSugar1⁄2cupSalt1⁄4teaspoonfulVanilla1 teaspoonful
Milk1 pintCornstarch3 tablespoonfuls,levelCocoa (Baker’s)3 tablespoonfuls,levelSugar1⁄2cupSalt1⁄4teaspoonfulVanilla1 teaspoonful
What utensils? You should be able to plan the method of mixing. The milk must be heated in a double boiler. Which method of mixing in the cornstarch will you use? How can you best add the cocoa, sugar, and salt? The vanilla?
It is difficult to boil milk directly over the fire or flame, without scorching it. Since the starch cannot well be exposed to the boiling temperature in this case, the process must continue in the double boiler until the mixture has thickened well, for at least half an hour, three quarters being better. When the cooking is finished, pour the mixture into molds which have been wet in cold water. When the mixture is cooled, chill it in the refrigerator. Serve with cream or milk and sugar for those who may want it sweeter. This gives a soft mold, that is much more palatable than one so stiff, that it has a firm shape. This will serve four or five people.
6. Tapioca and sago.—These materials make delicious desserts with fruit. They are also used with eggs and milk. (See Chapter XV.)
Laboratory management.—The undivided portion of cereal may be1⁄4cup. Cornstarch may be made with1⁄2cup of liquid.
Macaroni,spaghetti, andvermicelliare valuable cereal products made from flour, this form of cereal food having originated in Italy. The Italians manufacture the paste in a large variety of forms, and some of the small fancy shapes are also used in soup. The composition of macaroni is shown in Fig. 51. It is a valuable material, and when served or cooked with cheese may well be the main dish of a home luncheon.
7. Boiled macaroni.Ingredients.Macaroni3⁄4cup, broken in inch piecesBoiling water2 quartsSalt1 tablespoonfulCream1⁄2cupMethod.—Cook macaroni in boiling salted water twenty minutes or until soft, drain in a strainer, pour cold water over it to remove stickiness. Add cream and reheat. A thin white sauce may be used in place of the cream.8. Macaroni baked with cheese.—Cover the bottom of a baking dish with plain boiled macaroni. Sprinkle with grated cheese. Add another layer of macaroni and another of cheese. Repeat until the dish is full. Pour a thin sauce over this, almost filling the dish. Cover with buttered crumbs and bake in hot oven until crumbs are brown. Some prefer to omit the crumbs and have a thick layer of the cheese on top which becomes crisp and brown. Boiled macaroni and spaghetti may be served with tomato sauce and a little grated cheese. This is called “Italian style.”
7. Boiled macaroni.
Ingredients.Macaroni3⁄4cup, broken in inch piecesBoiling water2 quartsSalt1 tablespoonfulCream1⁄2cup
Macaroni3⁄4cup, broken in inch piecesBoiling water2 quartsSalt1 tablespoonfulCream1⁄2cup
Method.—Cook macaroni in boiling salted water twenty minutes or until soft, drain in a strainer, pour cold water over it to remove stickiness. Add cream and reheat. A thin white sauce may be used in place of the cream.
8. Macaroni baked with cheese.—Cover the bottom of a baking dish with plain boiled macaroni. Sprinkle with grated cheese. Add another layer of macaroni and another of cheese. Repeat until the dish is full. Pour a thin sauce over this, almost filling the dish. Cover with buttered crumbs and bake in hot oven until crumbs are brown. Some prefer to omit the crumbs and have a thick layer of the cheese on top which becomes crisp and brown. Boiled macaroni and spaghetti may be served with tomato sauce and a little grated cheese. This is called “Italian style.”
1. For what reasons are the cereal products so valuable?
2. Compare the composition of the different grains.
3. What changes are effected in the proper cookery of cereals?
4. What are the important points in practice?
5. What are the advantages of a good “ready to serve” breakfast cereal?
6. Ascertain the cost of a box of puffed cereal and an uncooked cereal of the same size. Weigh the contents of the two.
7. Estimate the cost of each one served to a family of six.
8. What is the cost of a 100-Calorie portion?
9. What is the advantage of serving dry toast with a cereal?
EGGS, MILK, AND CHEESE
Eggs are a specially interesting food because they contain all the elements necessary to the development of the young chick within the shell. The structure of the egg is familiar, with its division into the yolk and white, and it is interesting to note the details of this structure.
Break a fresh egg carefully into a saucer. The shell is porous, allowing water to evaporate from the egg and air to enter. To this porosity is due the fact that other substances may enter the egg, giving it an unnatural flavor and even hastening its deterioration. Within the shell is a fine membrane which protects the white. The yolk is also divided from the white by a more delicate membrane which enables one to separate the yolk from the white of a fresh egg. A careful examination reveals at each end of the yolk a continuation of this membrane in the form of small cords which are fastened at each end of the shell, holding the yolk evenly suspended in the center of the shell. Rough handling or jolting breaks this membrane, and the yolk drops to one side.
Lift the white carefully with a fork, and notice its elasticity. This cohesive property makes it possible to beat air into the white until the whole mass become porous. The yolk is creamy rather than light when beaten, and a bit of the yolk mixed with the white prevents the latter from becoming light and dry.
Composition of the egg.—Figure 40 gives the composition of the yolk and white taken together, and of the yolk and white separated. The protein content is high, and the fat content as well, the yolk containing a higher percentage of these two foodstuffs than the white. The mineral matter is of high value, iron and phosphorus being found in ideal forms in the yolk. In using the egg as food we are availing ourselves of one of nature’s richest storehouses. A single egg of average size yields about 75 calories, of which 60 come from the yolk and 15 from the white. Averylarge egg, weighing two and two thirds ounces, will yield 100 calories.
Fig. 40.—Composition of eggs and cheese.
Fresh eggs and cold storage eggs.—The fresh-laid egg is always desired for its delicious flavor, and this flavor changes but little in a week or two if the egg is kept cool. It is desirable to preserve eggs, however, for future use at the season when they are most abundant and cheap. Many methods have been tried, such as laying them away in sawdust, sinking them in water-glass solution, or coating the shell with paraffin or some other substance to prevent evaporation and the entrance of air. The introduction of cold storage on a large scale promises a solution of the problem. If eggs are fresh when placed in storage, it is possible to keep them just above the freezing temperature for months without appreciable deterioration.
Eggs too long in storage may be detected by the musty odor and flavor, the running of the yolk into the white, and the thin quality of the white which prevents beating stiff. Some states have already passed stringent laws in regard to the sale of cold storage eggs.
The cost of eggs and how to buy.—The demand for fresh eggs is great, and so many eggs are exported, that the price is high, even in the summer. Twenty-five cents a dozen is a reasonable price, but this is below the average at the presentdate. The thirty-five or forty-cent daily allowance for food will permit the moderate use of eggs at thirty-five cents a dozen, but not a liberal use in cakes and desserts. They should be used at such a price and with that allowance as the main dish for breakfast or luncheon at times, and not in sweet dishes calling for three or four eggs. If a recipe for soft custard calls for three eggs to a pint of milk, leave out one egg or even two, and use one or two tablespoonfuls of cornstarch instead. Select eggs with a hard shell, and yolk of rich yellow. If the shell is soft and the yolk pale, these deficiencies should be reported, as they can be corrected by the poultryman. The difference in color of the shells, whether white or brown, is not of great consequence. If you can buy eggs by the crate direct from the poultryman, this is a saving, provided the eggs can be used before they deteriorate. A small crate holds fifteen dozen; the usual size thirty dozen. Some express companies have a special rate for eggs, and parcel post should aid in this method of buying.
Relative digestibility of soft and hard-cooked eggs.—The fact must be recalled that to digest is to dissolve, and that the digestion of food means a dissolving by the digestive juices, aided by water. When we speak of the digestibility of food we may mean the ease and comfort of digestion, or the length of time taken by the process, or the completeness of the process. If we take the third of these meanings, hard-cooked egg is as digestible as the soft-cooked or the raw egg, because it is completely dissolved in digestion in the course of time. If the second meaning of digestion is taken, the hard-cooked egg may be slightly less digestible, for a slightly longer time is consumed in the process. The latest researches, however, show that the digestive process is longer with any food than was formerly supposed, and the difference in this case is not especially important. Indeed, we must acceptthe conclusions of the scientist and frankly admit that the differences of temperature in cooking of egg do not have any great effect upon its digestibility.
Why then the popular idea that a hard-boiled egg is “absolutely indigestible”? A hard-boiled egg, or more than one, eaten rapidly, without mastication, at a picnic, and with much sweet food at an unusual hour, may interfere with the “ease and comfort in digestion” resulting from such a meal. But if the whites of the hard-boiled eggs are chopped fine, the yolk mashed, and the two served upon toast, thus insuring mastication, a dish is produced that is of average digestibility and that may be used for breakfast or luncheon without hesitation.
If a tender, jellylike consistency is wanted, cook the egg below the boiling point of water. If, however, a firmer egg is preferred, use the old-time method, and cook the egg three or four minutes in boiling water. It is the easier and quicker method.
Moreover, do not hesitate to use an egg “boiled” half an hour, provided it is chopped fine or sliced.
1. Eggs used raw.—An egg, swallowed whole, followed by a cracker, is a “quick lunch” that is not harmful, and it is sometimes convenient to be able to take an egg in this way. A sprinkling of salt upon it makes it more agreeable.2. Beaten eggs.—Beat the yolk and white separately. Add to the yolk a teaspoonful of sugar, a shake of salt, some flavoring, and3⁄4of a cup of milk. Beat the white gently into this mixture and serve in a glass. The flavoring may be a quarter of a teaspoonful of vanilla, or a tablespoonful of orange juice. This is sometimes served to an invalid who can take milk, and is an agreeable luncheon for any one. If milk does not agree with one, a larger amount of fruit juice may be used with the addition of some water, possibly carbonated. The whitealone is given in cases of severe illness, mixed with a small amount of water, and fruit juice if the physician permits the latter. This is sometimes the only food that can be retained by an invalid.Principles of egg cookery.—Protein in the form of an egg-albumin is the foodstuff to consider in the cooking of eggs. Heat produces in the egg a change in color and in texture or firmness, the firmness or hardness depending upon the degree of heat and the length of time given to the cooking. Coagulation is the term used for this change in the egg-albumin.1. The white of egg begins to coagulate and to show an opaque white at about 180° F.2. A temperature somewhat below the boiling point of water for about ten minutes will give the white a jellylike, tender consistency, and slightly cook the yolk. Continued for an hour, the white becomes solid and adheres to the shell.3. The boiling point of water gives a firmer consistency than a temperature below this point. The white is free from the shell.4. A high temperature, that of a hot pan, will produce a leathery consistency if long continued.A. An experiment with the egg.Apparatus and materials.—A ring stand, wire net, Bunsen burner, glass beaker, test tube, chemical thermometer, white of egg.Method.—Put the beaker two thirds full of water on the wire net over the flame. Put enough white of egg into the test tube to cover the bulb of the thermometer when this is put into the tube. Clamp the test tube so that it rests in the water in the beaker. The surface of the water should stand above the top of the white of egg. Clamp the thermometer so that it is held in the white of egg in the test tube. The white should be stirred with a fork before it is put into the test tube, and only a small quantity used.Note:1. The temperature when the first visible change occurs.2. The temperature when the whole mass becomes of a jellylike consistency.3. The temperature when the water reaches the boiling point. Remove; note the consistency.3. Jellied or coddled eggs.—See that the shells are whole and clean. If the eggs are just taken from the refrigerator, lay them inwarm water a few minutes. Make ready a double boiler, the lower part half full of boiling water. Put the required number of eggs into the inner boiler, cover with water that has just stopped boiling, put on the boiler cover, and stand the boiler where the water below will no longer boil. The eggs will be done in from six to eight minutes.Having performed the preceding experiment, you should be able to invent another way of accomplishing this result.4. Boiled eggs.Put one egg at a time from a tablespoon into boiling water. Allow the water to boil for three or four minutes, depending upon the preference of those served. Remove the eggs, and serve at once.Thehard-boiled eggshould remain in the boiling water half an hour.Bearing in mind the fact that hard-boiled eggs must be chopped or sliced, cannot you invent a way of using them in a luncheon dish?5. Poached eggs.—Make ready a frying pan by setting muffin rings in it, and filling it about half full of gently simmering water, with a teaspoonful of salt dissolved in it. Break the eggs one at a time into a saucer, and slip each egg carefully into a muffin ring. See that the pan stands where the water is just below the boiling point, for rapidly bubbling water breaks the eggs. When the white begins to set, pour the hot water gently over the tops of the eggs from a spoon. Cook until the white is firm. Slip a griddle cake turner under the egg, lift it gently, and place it upon a piece of buttered toast which you have ready on a hot plate, or platter, and remove the ring.An easier method resembling the poached egg is to break the egg raw into a small buttered cup or “patty,” standing the cups in a pan of water just below the boiling point, the pan being on the top of the stove or in the oven. Each egg should have a sprinkling of salt, and may have a bit of butter, and a shake of pepper. Cover the pan. This process is longer than the other, and the eggs must be watched to see when the process is complete.6. Scrambled eggs.As the name denotes, this is a process needing a quick motion. Allow an egg to each person. Have readya frying pan heated, a broad bladed knife, and a tablespoonful of butter, or butter substitute, ready to melt in the pan.(1) Melt the butter, break the eggs into the pan, without beating them, and begin to scrape them from the bottom of the pan with the knife, as fast as you can move your hand. This is an old-time method, and gives a mixture of white and yellow color. Stop the process when the eggs are softer than you wish them for serving, as they will stiffen after they are removed from the fire. Sprinkle in salt, before you give the last scramble, and serve at once.(2) Beat the eggs, adding a tablespoonful of water for each egg, and a shake of salt for each, and proceed as in (1).7. The omelet.The novice should see an omelet made, as there is a “knack” in the motion not to be conveyed by words. The omelet is a French dish, and is made to perfection by the French cook. A perfect omelet is rolled or folded over, and is creamy within and a golden brown without. “Omelet pans” are made for the purpose, but a small frying pan may be used. The pan should be perfectly smooth. Do not attempt to make an omelet with more than two eggs until you become expert. This is one method, and others are used by different French cooks. The first stage makes the whole mass creamy, the second browns one surface.(1) Have the panwarmenough to melt two teaspoonfuls of butter, but not hot. Beat two eggs with a fork until they are creamy but not foamy, and add two teaspoonfuls of water, with two shakes of salt.Put the mixture into the pan, standing the pan where it has a medium heat. If over gas, the flame should be low, and covered with asbestos. Proceed as with the scrambled egg, with great rapidity, and when the mass is creamy, lift the pan, tip it slightly, and push the whole mass toward the handle end of the pan. Put two teaspoonfuls more of butter in the pan, and set it where the heat is intense. Smooth the mass of egg over the whole surface of the pan that the omelet may become brown underneath. Shake the pan gently back and forth, lift the omelet at the edge with a knife to see if the browning is accomplished, take the pan from the fire, fold or roll the omelet from the handle end of the pan to the front, and turn it out upon a hot plate.A method easier for the novice is to accomplish the first stage in a bowl set into a teakettle, beating into the mass as it thickens a teaspoonful of butter, or a tablespoonful of cream. When the mixture is evenly creamy, turn it into the hot buttered pan and proceed as with (1).(2)Light omelet.—This is not a true omelet, but in reality a soufflé cooked in a frying pan. It is somewhat insipid in flavor and is not easier to makewellthan the French omelet. As commonly served it is apt to be underdone or tough.With the light omelet, the eggs and whites are separated and the whites beaten until light and dry. Beat the yolks until creamy, adding water and salt as in (1). Pour this mixture over the white, and cut and fold the mass. See page63. Pour this into a buttered baking dish and set in amoderateoven. The oven should not be more than 300° F. Serve in the pan.When gas is used, the soufflé may be set in the oven with the flame low, and browned for a moment under the flame turned high.Both of these omelets may be varied by the addition of chopped parsley or chopped ham, or grated cheese.Laboratory management.When the price of eggs is high, some of the experiments can be demonstrated by the teacher. Eggs should be used when the price is at its lowest, even if this interferes with the logical sequence of lessons.
1. Eggs used raw.—An egg, swallowed whole, followed by a cracker, is a “quick lunch” that is not harmful, and it is sometimes convenient to be able to take an egg in this way. A sprinkling of salt upon it makes it more agreeable.
2. Beaten eggs.—Beat the yolk and white separately. Add to the yolk a teaspoonful of sugar, a shake of salt, some flavoring, and3⁄4of a cup of milk. Beat the white gently into this mixture and serve in a glass. The flavoring may be a quarter of a teaspoonful of vanilla, or a tablespoonful of orange juice. This is sometimes served to an invalid who can take milk, and is an agreeable luncheon for any one. If milk does not agree with one, a larger amount of fruit juice may be used with the addition of some water, possibly carbonated. The whitealone is given in cases of severe illness, mixed with a small amount of water, and fruit juice if the physician permits the latter. This is sometimes the only food that can be retained by an invalid.
Principles of egg cookery.—Protein in the form of an egg-albumin is the foodstuff to consider in the cooking of eggs. Heat produces in the egg a change in color and in texture or firmness, the firmness or hardness depending upon the degree of heat and the length of time given to the cooking. Coagulation is the term used for this change in the egg-albumin.
1. The white of egg begins to coagulate and to show an opaque white at about 180° F.
2. A temperature somewhat below the boiling point of water for about ten minutes will give the white a jellylike, tender consistency, and slightly cook the yolk. Continued for an hour, the white becomes solid and adheres to the shell.
3. The boiling point of water gives a firmer consistency than a temperature below this point. The white is free from the shell.
4. A high temperature, that of a hot pan, will produce a leathery consistency if long continued.
A. An experiment with the egg.
Apparatus and materials.—A ring stand, wire net, Bunsen burner, glass beaker, test tube, chemical thermometer, white of egg.
Method.—Put the beaker two thirds full of water on the wire net over the flame. Put enough white of egg into the test tube to cover the bulb of the thermometer when this is put into the tube. Clamp the test tube so that it rests in the water in the beaker. The surface of the water should stand above the top of the white of egg. Clamp the thermometer so that it is held in the white of egg in the test tube. The white should be stirred with a fork before it is put into the test tube, and only a small quantity used.
Note:
1. The temperature when the first visible change occurs.
2. The temperature when the whole mass becomes of a jellylike consistency.
3. The temperature when the water reaches the boiling point. Remove; note the consistency.
3. Jellied or coddled eggs.—See that the shells are whole and clean. If the eggs are just taken from the refrigerator, lay them inwarm water a few minutes. Make ready a double boiler, the lower part half full of boiling water. Put the required number of eggs into the inner boiler, cover with water that has just stopped boiling, put on the boiler cover, and stand the boiler where the water below will no longer boil. The eggs will be done in from six to eight minutes.
Having performed the preceding experiment, you should be able to invent another way of accomplishing this result.
4. Boiled eggs.
Put one egg at a time from a tablespoon into boiling water. Allow the water to boil for three or four minutes, depending upon the preference of those served. Remove the eggs, and serve at once.
Thehard-boiled eggshould remain in the boiling water half an hour.
Bearing in mind the fact that hard-boiled eggs must be chopped or sliced, cannot you invent a way of using them in a luncheon dish?
5. Poached eggs.—Make ready a frying pan by setting muffin rings in it, and filling it about half full of gently simmering water, with a teaspoonful of salt dissolved in it. Break the eggs one at a time into a saucer, and slip each egg carefully into a muffin ring. See that the pan stands where the water is just below the boiling point, for rapidly bubbling water breaks the eggs. When the white begins to set, pour the hot water gently over the tops of the eggs from a spoon. Cook until the white is firm. Slip a griddle cake turner under the egg, lift it gently, and place it upon a piece of buttered toast which you have ready on a hot plate, or platter, and remove the ring.
An easier method resembling the poached egg is to break the egg raw into a small buttered cup or “patty,” standing the cups in a pan of water just below the boiling point, the pan being on the top of the stove or in the oven. Each egg should have a sprinkling of salt, and may have a bit of butter, and a shake of pepper. Cover the pan. This process is longer than the other, and the eggs must be watched to see when the process is complete.
6. Scrambled eggs.
As the name denotes, this is a process needing a quick motion. Allow an egg to each person. Have readya frying pan heated, a broad bladed knife, and a tablespoonful of butter, or butter substitute, ready to melt in the pan.
(1) Melt the butter, break the eggs into the pan, without beating them, and begin to scrape them from the bottom of the pan with the knife, as fast as you can move your hand. This is an old-time method, and gives a mixture of white and yellow color. Stop the process when the eggs are softer than you wish them for serving, as they will stiffen after they are removed from the fire. Sprinkle in salt, before you give the last scramble, and serve at once.
(2) Beat the eggs, adding a tablespoonful of water for each egg, and a shake of salt for each, and proceed as in (1).
7. The omelet.
The novice should see an omelet made, as there is a “knack” in the motion not to be conveyed by words. The omelet is a French dish, and is made to perfection by the French cook. A perfect omelet is rolled or folded over, and is creamy within and a golden brown without. “Omelet pans” are made for the purpose, but a small frying pan may be used. The pan should be perfectly smooth. Do not attempt to make an omelet with more than two eggs until you become expert. This is one method, and others are used by different French cooks. The first stage makes the whole mass creamy, the second browns one surface.
(1) Have the panwarmenough to melt two teaspoonfuls of butter, but not hot. Beat two eggs with a fork until they are creamy but not foamy, and add two teaspoonfuls of water, with two shakes of salt.
Put the mixture into the pan, standing the pan where it has a medium heat. If over gas, the flame should be low, and covered with asbestos. Proceed as with the scrambled egg, with great rapidity, and when the mass is creamy, lift the pan, tip it slightly, and push the whole mass toward the handle end of the pan. Put two teaspoonfuls more of butter in the pan, and set it where the heat is intense. Smooth the mass of egg over the whole surface of the pan that the omelet may become brown underneath. Shake the pan gently back and forth, lift the omelet at the edge with a knife to see if the browning is accomplished, take the pan from the fire, fold or roll the omelet from the handle end of the pan to the front, and turn it out upon a hot plate.
A method easier for the novice is to accomplish the first stage in a bowl set into a teakettle, beating into the mass as it thickens a teaspoonful of butter, or a tablespoonful of cream. When the mixture is evenly creamy, turn it into the hot buttered pan and proceed as with (1).
(2)Light omelet.—This is not a true omelet, but in reality a soufflé cooked in a frying pan. It is somewhat insipid in flavor and is not easier to makewellthan the French omelet. As commonly served it is apt to be underdone or tough.
With the light omelet, the eggs and whites are separated and the whites beaten until light and dry. Beat the yolks until creamy, adding water and salt as in (1). Pour this mixture over the white, and cut and fold the mass. See page63. Pour this into a buttered baking dish and set in amoderateoven. The oven should not be more than 300° F. Serve in the pan.
When gas is used, the soufflé may be set in the oven with the flame low, and browned for a moment under the flame turned high.
Both of these omelets may be varied by the addition of chopped parsley or chopped ham, or grated cheese.
Laboratory management.When the price of eggs is high, some of the experiments can be demonstrated by the teacher. Eggs should be used when the price is at its lowest, even if this interferes with the logical sequence of lessons.
MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS
Milk is the natural food of the young mammal, and contains all the foodstuffs in a form easily assimilable. Starch is not present, the carbohydrate being found in the form of lactose, or milk sugar, a sugar differing somewhat from the sugars found in vegetables and fruit (see Chapter X).
Whole milk and the milk products, cream, butter, and cheese, are all important food materials among the nations of the western world; and the manufacture of milk products, such as condensed milk, butter, and cheese, has developedlarge industries. While the Chinese and Japanese are two great peoples who have not utilized milk or any of its products as food for grown people to any extent, yet we are fully justified in counting these foods among the necessities. Nothing can fully take the place of milk in the family dietary.
Figure 41 shows how all the foodstuffs are represented in milk. When milk first comes from the cow the fat is suspended in tiny, invisible particles throughout the water, giving the milk its yellow tint, and the fat rises to the top in the form of cream after a few hours. The protein, sugar, and ash are dissolved in the water. When milk reaches the stomach, the protein separates from the water in the form of curd. This change is brought about by an enzyme (soluble ferment) called rennin, which is present, along with pepsin, in the gastric juice. Curd is also formed by the souring of milk through the action of bacteria, or by adding acid directly to the milk. Milk should never be gulped down, but taken in sips, so that only small portions of curd are formed in the stomach, because these are much easier to digest than large ones. Sometimes milk is soured purposely, as in buttermilk or zoolak or matzoon, that curds may form and be beaten fine before it is drunk. This is very easy to digest, because then no large curds can form. For the same reason, it is often better to take milk with bread or some other food, or to cook it in some dish. Skim milk is a valuable food, for it has everything found in whole milk but the fat. We miss the flavor of the fat in drinking it, hence it is better to use it in pudding or soup or in cooking cereals where we do not care so much about the milk flavor. Study Fig. 41, comparing the percentages of the foodstuffs in whole, skim, and buttermilk, and cream. Notice that the skim milk is higher than the whole milk in protein and sugar, that it has as much ash, and a trace of fat even. It does not tell us, however, thatthe forms of ash in milk are most valuable, and that it is richer in calcium than any other food material. How these foods compare in fuel value is shown in Fig. 42.
Fig. 41.—Composition of milk and cream.
Fig. 42.—100-Calorie portions of milk and cream.A. Fowler, Photographer.
No.KindWeight of Portion,ounces1.Cream (18.5% fat)1.82.Whole milk5.13.Skim milk9.64.Buttermilk9.9
Wholesome and clean milk.—At present, the milk supply is one of our most pressing community problems, showing how closely the country and the city are united. A case of typhoid fever in one farm family, not properly cared for, may be the seed of a serious epidemic in some town. To insure clean milk to the consumer, and a fair return in money to the producer, is a great sanitary and commercial problem, not to be solved in a day.
Milk is a medium in which bacteria flourish, both the harmless and the disease producing. Typhoid fever and other fatal diseases may be carried by milk from unclean barnsand dairies, and tuberculosis is possible from diseased cows. The cows must be in good health, and the stable clean. Figure 43 shows a stable with cement floor and good drainage. The cows must themselves be clean, and should be curried and washed. The milkers should have clean clothes and hands, and all receptacles should be sterilized. The milk must be rapidly cooled (see Fig. 44), bottled in sterilized bottles, kept cool during transportation, and delivered as promptly as possible to the consumer. “Certified” milk is produced and handled under the best conditions, but costs at least 15 cents a quart. Since a quart of milk is equivalent to a pound of steak or to 8 eggs, milk even at 15 to 20 cents a quart is more economical than meat and eggs at ordinary prices. At the usual price of 8 to 10 cents a quart, milk is very economical as compared with other perishable foods.
Fig. 43.—A modern cow house.Courtesy of the Walker-Gordon Laboratory.
Fig. 44.—Milk bottling room.Courtesy of Walker-Gordon Laboratory.
The question of preservation and pasteurization can be treated here but briefly. Preservatives are forbidden by law in most states. Pasteurization is heating at a temperaturesufficiently high to kill any disease germs present, but not high enough to give a cooked taste. This process, while it destroys most of the bacteria, does not kill the spores of all. The chief arguments against pasteurization are (1) that on a commercial scale it is difficult to really accomplish this, and (2) that it is easily used to cover the sale of unclean milk. The argument for it is, that it is impossible to obtain as yet an ideal supply for a large city in hot weather, and that pasteurization, if properly conducted, kills nearly all of the dangerous bacteria and saves the lives of many babies. Clean milk that needs no pasteurization is our ultimate aim, and we must remember that milk pasteurized under unknown conditions needs to be kept cold and treated with even more care than fresh milk, for it “spoils” quite as easily, only we may not know it because it may not taste sour.
In the last few years the question of pasteurization hasbeen studied with very great care. It is found best to heat the milk for 20 to 30 minutes at a temperature of 140° to 155° F. If it is certain that this method has been used, one need not hesitate to trust the milk, for the arguments against pasteurization do not properly apply here.
How to buy.—Investigate by question and inspection, if possible, the available milk supply. Be sure to do this in the country in the summer. Always buy bottled milk. Where the income is small, good quality milk should be used for the little children and invalids, and skim milk purchased for cooking. In many places skim milk is supplied in bottles by reliable firms. The usual price for bottled milk in the city is 8 to 10 cents, and this is of good average quality. Keep milk cold. If there is no ice, use an ice substitute (page74), and in very hot weather pasteurize or scald the milk, cooling afterward as quickly as possible by placing in cold water and stirring the water.