Principles of cookery.—Clean, sweet milk is an ideal food, which requires no cooking. Heating milk to 212° F. changes its properties in some way, so that it is not considered an ideal food for babies’ regular diet. If it must be used, for reasons of safety, some uncooked food, such as orange juice, should also be given. This is the reason for pasteurizing milk instead of boiling it.Heating milk in an open vessel causes some of the protein to harden into a thin “skin” on the top. This can be prevented by stirring the milk until it is cool.1. To pasteurize milk.This cannot be done accurately without a thermometer. The milk bottle should be placed upon a rack in a kettle of water, with a clean thermometer inserted through the cover of the bottle. Heat the water slowly, and watch the thermometer. When it reaches 155° F., see that the water becomes no hotter. Set the kettle on a rack onthe stove top, or use a simmering burner with rack and asbestos mat. It is difficult to keep the temperature even, but it should remain at 140-155° F. half an hour. At the end of half an hour, the bottle should be removed, and cooled as rapidly as possible in running cold water.2. Rennet custard.1 quart milk, two tablespoonfuls of sugar, a shake of salt, flavoring, 1 rennet tablet. The flavoring may be: 1 teaspoonful vanilla,ora few tablespoonfuls of orange juice,orthe vanilla, plus three or four tablespoonfuls of cocoa to suit the taste.To prepare.—This is a process without cooking. Rennet tablets are made from the stomach of the calf, and contain the digestive enzyme, rennin, which results in the solidifying of the curd of the milk. Rennet custard has passed the first stage of milk digestion.Put all the flavoring substances into the milk, and warm it slightly, not more than 100° F. The cocoa when used should be “dissolved” in a small amount of hot water. Dissolve the rennet in a tablespoonful of cold water, and stir this very thoroughly into the milk. Pour the milk into the cups in which the custard will be served, and set the cups in a warm but not hot place. A good method is to place them in a pan of warm water (100° F.). The milk becomes firm in a half hour or an hour, and as soon as it is set, should be put in the ice box, otherwise the process continues and the custard becomes watery as the curd shrinks and forces out the whey. Serve very cold with fruit on the top, or whipped cream with the cocoa flavoring; or put grated nutmeg or powdered cinnamon on the top. This is a simple and delicious dessert, and one of the most wholesome. For children it should be flavored with fruit juice or vanilla rather than with cocoa.3. Uses of sour milk.Do not throw away any sour milk that is clean and not stale. Milk that has soured enough to set, is a delicious dessert, with cream and sugar. The acid is very pleasant, being the same as that of buttermilk. Sour milk is better for griddlecakes and muffins than sweet milk. (See Chapter XI.) Another excellent use for sour milk is to make it into cottage cheese. (See below.)
Principles of cookery.—Clean, sweet milk is an ideal food, which requires no cooking. Heating milk to 212° F. changes its properties in some way, so that it is not considered an ideal food for babies’ regular diet. If it must be used, for reasons of safety, some uncooked food, such as orange juice, should also be given. This is the reason for pasteurizing milk instead of boiling it.
Heating milk in an open vessel causes some of the protein to harden into a thin “skin” on the top. This can be prevented by stirring the milk until it is cool.
1. To pasteurize milk.
This cannot be done accurately without a thermometer. The milk bottle should be placed upon a rack in a kettle of water, with a clean thermometer inserted through the cover of the bottle. Heat the water slowly, and watch the thermometer. When it reaches 155° F., see that the water becomes no hotter. Set the kettle on a rack onthe stove top, or use a simmering burner with rack and asbestos mat. It is difficult to keep the temperature even, but it should remain at 140-155° F. half an hour. At the end of half an hour, the bottle should be removed, and cooled as rapidly as possible in running cold water.
2. Rennet custard.
1 quart milk, two tablespoonfuls of sugar, a shake of salt, flavoring, 1 rennet tablet. The flavoring may be: 1 teaspoonful vanilla,ora few tablespoonfuls of orange juice,orthe vanilla, plus three or four tablespoonfuls of cocoa to suit the taste.
To prepare.—This is a process without cooking. Rennet tablets are made from the stomach of the calf, and contain the digestive enzyme, rennin, which results in the solidifying of the curd of the milk. Rennet custard has passed the first stage of milk digestion.
Put all the flavoring substances into the milk, and warm it slightly, not more than 100° F. The cocoa when used should be “dissolved” in a small amount of hot water. Dissolve the rennet in a tablespoonful of cold water, and stir this very thoroughly into the milk. Pour the milk into the cups in which the custard will be served, and set the cups in a warm but not hot place. A good method is to place them in a pan of warm water (100° F.). The milk becomes firm in a half hour or an hour, and as soon as it is set, should be put in the ice box, otherwise the process continues and the custard becomes watery as the curd shrinks and forces out the whey. Serve very cold with fruit on the top, or whipped cream with the cocoa flavoring; or put grated nutmeg or powdered cinnamon on the top. This is a simple and delicious dessert, and one of the most wholesome. For children it should be flavored with fruit juice or vanilla rather than with cocoa.
3. Uses of sour milk.
Do not throw away any sour milk that is clean and not stale. Milk that has soured enough to set, is a delicious dessert, with cream and sugar. The acid is very pleasant, being the same as that of buttermilk. Sour milk is better for griddlecakes and muffins than sweet milk. (See Chapter XI.) Another excellent use for sour milk is to make it into cottage cheese. (See below.)
Matzoonand other similar preparations are essentially soured milks, prepared under controlled conditions. These preparations are the common form of milk in certain parts of the Orient, where milk is never used sweet.
Kumyssis milk slightly soured and fermented with one species of yeast. This is a Russian method. These preparations are excellent for invalids and exhausted people, for they can sometimes be assimilated because of the fine curds when sweet milk cannot.
Condensed milkis a practical method of preserving milk. The milk is evaporated under pressure at a high temperature in apparatus constructed for the purpose. Cane sugar or glucose is sometimes added. A new patent process condenses the milk at low temperature, preserving it for a short period, as compared with the condensed milk in tins, but it keeps well for several days, and bears transportation. Condensed milk may be used in cooking, when clean fresh milk is not available. The unsweetened kinds are most useful, but, like pasteurized milk, must be treated with care after the cans are opened.
Cheese.—Cheese is made from the curd of milk, and contains the most nutritive parts of the milk in highly concentrated form. In the process of manufacture, the milk is first curdled by rennet, and the whey strained out. The curds after preliminary treatment, varying according to the style of cheese to be made, are finally pressed together very slowly in a cheese press, which is screwed down more tightly as the cheese becomes dryer. The cheeses are then covered with cheesecloth and “ripened” slowly, the ripening process giving characteristic consistency and flavor. This ripening is due to the action of bacteria and molds. (See page97.) Foreign varieties of cheese, made originally in some one locality, have marked colors, quality, and flavors, as Brie,Camembert, Roquefort, and the Swiss cheeses. Parmesan is an Italian cheese, excellent with macaroni and spaghetti.
American cheesesvary in color, in strength of flavor, in creaminess, and in degree of hardness. Much the greater part is, however, of the general type known as “American cheddar” or “standard factory” cheese.
Club cheeseis an American cheese of good quality, put up in small jars. It is a soft cheese, excellent to serve with crackers, but is too expensive for common use.
Cottage cheeseis a home product made from sour milk, and used at once.
Composition and nutritive value.—Cheese is high in protein, and usually in fat. (See Fig. 40.) Note the small amount of water, which makes cheese a very concentrated food. The protein content makes it a meat substitute, for those with whom cheese does not disagree. Being a dense as well as concentrated form of food, itshould be eaten in small quantities, and in combination with other food materials in such a way that it will become finely divided, or it will not be easily digested. The ash content is high, the most valuable of the ash constituents of the milk being retained in the cheese.
The cost of cheese.—The foreign cheeses are expensive, but American cheeses may be classed among the moderate priced foods and they compare favorably with other protein foods.
Cheese costs more than beans, and less than most cuts of meat. A good American cheese costs about twenty-five cents per pound. Taking account of composition as well as cost per pound, we find that a given amount of money buys about twice as much food value when spent for cheese as it would if spent for beef. See Fig. 45.
Fig. 45.—100-Calorie portions of cheese.A. Fowler, Photographer.
No.KindWeight of Portion,ounces1.Swiss0.82.Cream0.93.American0.84.Roquefort1.05.Parmesan1.96.Cottage3.2
Care of cheese in the pantry.—Cheese should be kept dry and covered, that its odor may not be noticeable. Soft cheese should be kept in the ice box. The receptacle for cheese should be thoroughly sterilized before each new purchase is put away.
1. Uncooked cheese.—Serve a cream cheese with a salad of lettuce, and the imported cheeses with crackers and fruit for dessert. American cheese may be thinly sliced and used in sandwiches. A small piece of cheese with apple pie or pudding is an old-fashioned combination that is always agreeable, but sometimes difficult of digestion.2. Cottage cheese.—Use sour milk that has set. Other ingredients: salt to taste, cayenne pepper or paprika, if liked. Quality and flavor are improved by the addition of a tablespoonful of butter or two tablespoonfuls of cream to a pint of the curd, but these are not necessary.Warm the milk slowly, until the whey begins to separate from the curd. If this process is continued too long, and themilk becomes hot, the curd will be tough. Place a piece of cheesecloth over a bowl, pour in the curds and whey, and lift the cloth carefully, allowing the whey to run through. Squeeze out the remaining whey. Add the seasoning and other ingredients to the curd, shape in balls, and chill before serving. It is delicious served with lettuce and dressing as a salad, or with gingerbread for dessert at luncheon or supper.Principles of cooking cheese.—The fat in the cheese is melted by heat. The protein is toughened by a high temperature, therefore a low temperature process should be used.3. Cheese cooked with other food materials.—A creamy cheese should be selected for cooking. Cheese may be grated and sprinkled on the top of potato on the half shell, or any other mashed potato; or it may be sliced and placed with each layer in escalloped potato. Its use is common with macaroni; and a dish of macaroni with milk and cheese is a good meat substitute, and may be used as the main dish of a luncheon or simple dinner. Those to whom cheese is agreeable will find many places for its use. Its flavor harmonizes with celery and with tomato. The Italians serve grated Parmesan cheese with soup, and with spaghetti that has a tomato sauce.4. Cheese crackers.—Select crackers of a firm quality that will not crumble or flake easily, and of a small size. Spread very thinly with soft butter, put the crackers in a pan, and sprinkle grated cheese upon each one. Set the pan in a moderate oven until the cheese is melted. A sprinkling of paprika may be used. Serve with lettuce, celery, or other green salad.
1. Uncooked cheese.—Serve a cream cheese with a salad of lettuce, and the imported cheeses with crackers and fruit for dessert. American cheese may be thinly sliced and used in sandwiches. A small piece of cheese with apple pie or pudding is an old-fashioned combination that is always agreeable, but sometimes difficult of digestion.
2. Cottage cheese.—Use sour milk that has set. Other ingredients: salt to taste, cayenne pepper or paprika, if liked. Quality and flavor are improved by the addition of a tablespoonful of butter or two tablespoonfuls of cream to a pint of the curd, but these are not necessary.
Warm the milk slowly, until the whey begins to separate from the curd. If this process is continued too long, and themilk becomes hot, the curd will be tough. Place a piece of cheesecloth over a bowl, pour in the curds and whey, and lift the cloth carefully, allowing the whey to run through. Squeeze out the remaining whey. Add the seasoning and other ingredients to the curd, shape in balls, and chill before serving. It is delicious served with lettuce and dressing as a salad, or with gingerbread for dessert at luncheon or supper.
Principles of cooking cheese.—The fat in the cheese is melted by heat. The protein is toughened by a high temperature, therefore a low temperature process should be used.
3. Cheese cooked with other food materials.—A creamy cheese should be selected for cooking. Cheese may be grated and sprinkled on the top of potato on the half shell, or any other mashed potato; or it may be sliced and placed with each layer in escalloped potato. Its use is common with macaroni; and a dish of macaroni with milk and cheese is a good meat substitute, and may be used as the main dish of a luncheon or simple dinner. Those to whom cheese is agreeable will find many places for its use. Its flavor harmonizes with celery and with tomato. The Italians serve grated Parmesan cheese with soup, and with spaghetti that has a tomato sauce.
4. Cheese crackers.—Select crackers of a firm quality that will not crumble or flake easily, and of a small size. Spread very thinly with soft butter, put the crackers in a pan, and sprinkle grated cheese upon each one. Set the pan in a moderate oven until the cheese is melted. A sprinkling of paprika may be used. Serve with lettuce, celery, or other green salad.
1. Compare the composition of eggs, milk, and cheese.
2. How may an egg which has been kept too long in cold storage be detected?
3. What is the effect of the boiling temperature of water upon an egg?
4. Compare a hard- and a soft-cooked egg for digestibility.
5. What are the dangers from unclean milk?
6. How may the milk supply be safeguarded?
7. Why is cheese a meat substitute?
8. What caution should we exercise in using it?
9. What precaution must we take in cooking cheese?
THE FATS AND THE SUGARS
Fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but have much more carbon than the other kinds of foodstuffs. Notice in Fig. 46 that olive oil and lard are pure fats; the other fat foods containing water, protein, and ash. Fat is available in various forms, with differing flavors and a wide range of prices. To many people it is unpalatable in some of its cheapest forms; yet its use is important, and some kind should be included in the diet. Fluid and emulsified fats are the most easily digested, hence olive oil, cream, and egg yolk are highly desirable. Bacon and butter belong nearly in the same class. A vigorous man at hard labor can digest fat of any kind without difficulty, and needs it because it gives so much fuel in proportion to its bulk.
Fat tends to retard gastric digestion, and delicate persons must be careful about taking with it other foods which are hard to digest, or taking it in the form of fried foods, pastries, rich cakes, and sauces. Persons with delicate appetite, who lose weight because they do not get enough fuel, may be benefited by taking a little more fat in the diet, especially if they do not digest starch and sugar readily, but a very large amount (over 6 or 7 ounces a day) will not be perfectly digested.
Fat as a food.—Beef fat, as it occurs with lean, is a digestible fat. If thoroughly browned in the cooking process, it is most palatable, and the taste for it should be cultivated. In gravy, it may be used with potato, instead of butter. Fat tried out from suet, maybe used in place of butter as an ingredient in some puddings, and even in batter mixtures. It may also be used with vegetables when the price of butter is prohibitive. See Fig. 47.
Fig. 46.—Composition of fat foods.
Fig. 47.—100-Calorie portions of fat foods.A. Fowler, Photographer.
No.KindWeight of PortionOUNCES1.Cream (extra rich, 40% fat)0.92.Olive oil0.43.Butter0.54.Oleomargarine0.55.Suet0.56.Bacon0.6
Baconis a digestible and agreeable form of fat, but it is not so cheap as beef fat, though cheaper than butter.
Fat porkis lower in price than bacon, and can be assimilated by vigorous people, especially those living out of doors.
Creamis one of the most delicious fatty food materials, and is digestible, but ranks with butter and bacon as to cost. While it is not a cheap food, it is not such an extravagance when moderately used as some people suppose, who have not worked out the problem. Usually the most economical source of cream is to take it from the top of the bottle of milk. The remaining partially skimmed milk may be used at table or in cooking or for making cottage cheese.
Butteris a digestible fat, ranking at present among the more expensive food materials.
Watchfulness is necessary with both cream and milk that cleanliness and quality may be insured.
Butter substitutes.—These are made from beef fat and other edible fats and oils, and are much less expensive than butter. They may be used in cooking with good result. The usual trade names are butterine, or oleomargarine, or some word similar to these. Oleomargarine has the same food value as butter at lower cost, but lacks fine flavor.
Olive or sweet oil.—The fat content of olive oil is one hundred per cent, its fuel value being equal to that of lard. See Fig. 46. It is made in Italy, France, Spain, and California, the oils from the different countries differing somewhat in flavor. The cheaper grades are sometimes adulterated with corn oil or cottonseed oil, which have the same food value but should, of course, be sold under their own names and not at olive oil prices. An American firm is now manufacturing olive oil in Spain; this and the California olive oil are of high grade. Italian oil by the gallon is of good quality, and usually somewhat less expensive than the French. It is a costly food material, but valuable in the dietary. Never buy it in small bottles, as this adds greatly to the cost. The most economical method is to purchase by the gallon in a tin can. If kept cool, it will not deteriorate except very slowly. Always wipe off the mouth of the bottle or can before pouring out the oil.
Fat as a cooking medium.—Fat is necessary for the sauté, and for deep fat frying. For deep fat frying several preparations are made from cottonseed oil that are agreeable to use and of moderate price.
Lardhas been the most commonly used, but many people object to the flavor.Beef drippingsshould be saved and kept cool in covered jelly glasses. These drippings are useful for browning vegetables, meatballs, and in pan-broiling if a small amount of additional fat is necessary.
When deep fat frying is used, great pains must be taken to see that the fat is sufficiently hot in order that the food material may not soak fat, and the cooked food must be kept hot when the fat is draining off on absorptive paper. The best fats for this purpose are the vegetable oils. The refined cottonseed oils now on the market are excellent. For details of use see page120. Keep a box of sand to pour into it, if the kettle of fat takes fire. Never pour water into blazing fat.
Principles of cooking.Fat melts at a low temperature.At about 350° F. it begins to smoke.At a higher temperature, a chemical change takes place, and the fat finally “burns,” as the hydrogen and oxygen pass off.It is emulsified by mixing with a substance like egg.1. To whip cream.—Chill the cream, and set it in a bowl of ice water, or chipped ice. If the cream is warm, the beating will churn the cream to butter.(1) For a fine, close-whipped cream use a Dover egg beater.(2) For a lighter whipped cream, use a wire beater.2. To mold butter.—A pair of wooden butter pats is necessary for this. Dip these first into hot water, then into cold. Cut off a square piece of butter, enough for one person, make it flat or round with two knives, and then roll it into shape between the butter pats. Chill, and serve in a dish on ice;or give one to each person on a butter plate, just at the last moment before serving the meal. Never serve soft butter.3. To cook bacon.—Bacon has alternate layers of fat and lean, but it is the fat that has chief consideration in the cooking process. The aim is to brown and crisp the fat without burning it and without causing a volume of smoke in the kitchen. Make ready a frying pan, and have at hand a jar for holding fat standing on a plate. Cut the bacon in thin slices with a sharp knife. Heat the pan, and put in the bacon. The fat will begin to “try out” at the melting point. Pour this melted fat into the jar. Turn the pieces of bacon with a fork. If the smoke is rising in volumes the pan is too hot. The novice should not try this experiment for the first time by herself. The fat may even burst into flame if the pan is too hot. When the bacon is sufficiently cooked to become crisp on cooling, it is ready to serve, by itself, with toast, or with eggs.
Principles of cooking.
Fat melts at a low temperature.
At about 350° F. it begins to smoke.
At a higher temperature, a chemical change takes place, and the fat finally “burns,” as the hydrogen and oxygen pass off.
It is emulsified by mixing with a substance like egg.
1. To whip cream.—Chill the cream, and set it in a bowl of ice water, or chipped ice. If the cream is warm, the beating will churn the cream to butter.
(1) For a fine, close-whipped cream use a Dover egg beater.
(2) For a lighter whipped cream, use a wire beater.
2. To mold butter.—A pair of wooden butter pats is necessary for this. Dip these first into hot water, then into cold. Cut off a square piece of butter, enough for one person, make it flat or round with two knives, and then roll it into shape between the butter pats. Chill, and serve in a dish on ice;or give one to each person on a butter plate, just at the last moment before serving the meal. Never serve soft butter.
3. To cook bacon.—Bacon has alternate layers of fat and lean, but it is the fat that has chief consideration in the cooking process. The aim is to brown and crisp the fat without burning it and without causing a volume of smoke in the kitchen. Make ready a frying pan, and have at hand a jar for holding fat standing on a plate. Cut the bacon in thin slices with a sharp knife. Heat the pan, and put in the bacon. The fat will begin to “try out” at the melting point. Pour this melted fat into the jar. Turn the pieces of bacon with a fork. If the smoke is rising in volumes the pan is too hot. The novice should not try this experiment for the first time by herself. The fat may even burst into flame if the pan is too hot. When the bacon is sufficiently cooked to become crisp on cooling, it is ready to serve, by itself, with toast, or with eggs.
The making of sauces and gravies.—Many sauces and gravies are made from a fat, mixed with a starchy substance, the two mingled with a liquid. The fat gives flavor and nutriment, the starch is used for thickening, the liquid also gives flavor. You are now familiar with the cooking of fat and starch, and can readily understand that the combination of all these ingredients is not an easy matter. The fat will float upon the top of the liquid unless the right amount of starch or flour is used, and the flour will have a tendency to lump. There are several good methods in use. The method given for your experiment is one of the simplest, because it uses only a few utensils, and gives uniformly good results. It requires no more watchfulness than the other methods.
These sauces and gravies are not foods for little children and invalids.
4. Foundation recipe for sauces.Proportions.(1) Thin sauce (for milk toast)1 tablespoonful of fat, 1 of flour,1⁄2pint liquid.or(2) Medium sauce (for vegetables).2 tablespoonfuls of fat, 2 of flour,1⁄2pint liquid.or(3) Thicker sauce, also for vegetables, meats, fish, and macaroni.3 tablespoonfuls of fat, 3 of flour,1⁄2pint liquid.Salt is used to taste.Method.—Melt the fat in a saucepan. Pour in the flour, all at once, and stir the flour and fat together, until the mass thickens slightly. Pour in all the liquid at once, cold. Set the saucepan where the heat is moderate.Stir steadily with a wooden spoon until the mixture thickens.5. A white sauceis made with butter, and milk the liquid. Stop the cooking just short of the boiling point.6. A tomato sauceis made with butter or beef fat, strained tomato juice the liquid. Cook a piece of onion, a sprig of parsley, or a small portion of dried herbs, and a clove with the tomato before straining, if these flavors are liked.7. A brown sauceormeat gravymay be made in the same way, using beef fat, and (as the liquid) water that has been poured into the pan in which the meat is cooked. When you are familiar with cooking there is an easier way for thickened meat gravies, as follows:Pour off some of the fat from the meat pan. Set the pan upon the stove and stir in the flour,—about two tablespoonfuls for the ordinary roasting pan. When the flour is thoroughly mixed in, add about a pint of water, cold or warm, and stir again. Pour this mixture through a strainer. With practice you can make an excellent gravy in this way. It requires judgment to proportion the flour and liquid to the material in the pan.
4. Foundation recipe for sauces.
Proportions.
(1) Thin sauce (for milk toast)1 tablespoonful of fat, 1 of flour,1⁄2pint liquid.or(2) Medium sauce (for vegetables).2 tablespoonfuls of fat, 2 of flour,1⁄2pint liquid.or(3) Thicker sauce, also for vegetables, meats, fish, and macaroni.3 tablespoonfuls of fat, 3 of flour,1⁄2pint liquid.Salt is used to taste.
Method.—Melt the fat in a saucepan. Pour in the flour, all at once, and stir the flour and fat together, until the mass thickens slightly. Pour in all the liquid at once, cold. Set the saucepan where the heat is moderate.
Stir steadily with a wooden spoon until the mixture thickens.
5. A white sauceis made with butter, and milk the liquid. Stop the cooking just short of the boiling point.
6. A tomato sauceis made with butter or beef fat, strained tomato juice the liquid. Cook a piece of onion, a sprig of parsley, or a small portion of dried herbs, and a clove with the tomato before straining, if these flavors are liked.
7. A brown sauceormeat gravymay be made in the same way, using beef fat, and (as the liquid) water that has been poured into the pan in which the meat is cooked. When you are familiar with cooking there is an easier way for thickened meat gravies, as follows:
Pour off some of the fat from the meat pan. Set the pan upon the stove and stir in the flour,—about two tablespoonfuls for the ordinary roasting pan. When the flour is thoroughly mixed in, add about a pint of water, cold or warm, and stir again. Pour this mixture through a strainer. With practice you can make an excellent gravy in this way. It requires judgment to proportion the flour and liquid to the material in the pan.
The Sugars
Sugars are of common occurrence in the vegetable world in the fruits and juices of many plants. Pure grape juice may contain as high as 25 per cent of glucose though usually it is not so concentrated. Glucose is also found in considerable amount in sweet corn and onions. It is not so sweet ascane sugar (sucrose). Fructose is one of the sweetest of sugars, and helps to give honey its great sweetness.
Lactoseor milk sugar is found chiefly in milk. It is the least sweet of all the sugars. If there were as much cane sugar in milk, we should soon grow tired of it because it would be too sweet. It is sometimes added to milk to make its fuel value higher, especially in case the milk has been diluted, as in the diet of babies and invalids.
Maltoseor malt sugar is formed from starch in germinating seeds.
Sucroseor cane sugar is most commonly manufactured from sugar cane and sugar beets. To a much smaller extent it is made commercially from the sugar maple, sorghum cane, and sugar palm, and it is found in considerable amount in some common fruits and vegetables.
Its manufacture forms a great industry, and its consumption is enormous, some ten million tons coming into commerce annually, and this does not represent the total consumption.
Figure 48 shows the composition of several common sugars. Notice that the granulated sugar is a pure foodstuff, being 100 per cent carbohydrate, while all the others contain traces of protein, ash, and water. Sugar is a fuel food, exclusively, like olive oil and other pure fats.
Fig. 48.—Composition of sugars.
Sugar is a valuable food material, but should not be used in excess; the tendency in the United States is rather toward an excessive use of sugar. It is liable to cause an acid fermentation in digestion, when taken in large amounts, and is sure to irritate the stomach. It should be well diluted by other foods. The amount that may be eaten daily varies for most people from two ounces for young children to four ounces for adults, but many people cannot eat these amounts without more or less irritation of the stomach. It is a common practice to oversweeten cakes and desserts, the sweetnessof the sugar often disguising other agreeable flavors. The liking for sweets should be well under control, for the eating of too much sugar is a habit easy to form, and one which crowds out other valuable foods.
Cane Sugaris sold both brown and white, and is manufactured in powdered, granulated, and solid form, the latter usually cut in cubes or dominoes.
The canes are first crushed, the juices passing from the machine being of a rather dark greenish color. This juice is first clarified and filtered, and then boiled down in order to crystallize the sugar, the liquid sirup forming molasses. In the older methods the sirup was boiled in open pans, and the crystals filtered from the molasses by a slow process. In the modern process the sirup is boiled at a low temperature in vacuum pans, and the sugar is separated from the molasses by a centrifugal machine, built on the same principle as a cream separator. The principles of beet sugar manufacture are essentially the same, with some differences in detail.
Themolassesmanufactured in the older method is richer in cane sugar and is a better table molasses than the new process molasses, the latter being used chiefly for the manufacture of alcohol. Molasses is either dark or light, the darker having a stronger flavor especially suited to gingerbread and Indian meal pudding. Molasses comes in the bulk, and may be slightly acid; or in cans, in which case no acid fermentation should have taken place. Where canned molasses is used in a batter, it is sometimes necessary to use baking powder instead of soda. “New Orleans” is a light-colored molasses, “Porto Rico” dark.
Brown sugar has not passed through the refining processes necessary to the whitening of the sugar. It is softer than the granulated white, has a decided brownish color and a rich flavor.
Inbuying sugarit is economy to purchase granulated in large quantities, a fraction of a cent per pound being saved in this way. The cut sugar comes in convenient boxes, which keep the product clean. Powdered sugar may be bought in small quantities, three or five pounds, since it is not used so much in cooking as the granulated.
Candy, homemade and purchased.—Candy, if not eaten between meals, is an allowable form of sugar. The best time for eating it is at the end of a meal, one or two pieces. Even in this case, however, it would be better for the body if the craving for sweet were satisfied by fruit rather than candy.
Candy made at home costs less than high grade commercial candy, even counting in the labor. It is superior to cheap grade candy, which may even contain poisonous coloring matter. It is a pleasure to make it at times, and it is always a pleasing gift at the holiday season.
Principles of cooking.A sirup is formed by cooking sugar with water.The sirup thickens if process is prolonged and water evaporates.Cane sugar is changed to glucose and fructose by boiling with an acid.Heated without additional water, the sugar is partially decomposed, giving off water and becoming brown in color. This is “caramel,” used for coloring, and flavoring.The final stage of heating leaves pure carbon.8. Peanut brittle.Ingredients.Sugar2cupsSalt1⁄4teaspoonfulPeanuts1quartMethod.—Shell the peanuts and chop them in small pieces. Put the sugar in a saucepan and place over a moderate fire. Stir from the bottom until the sugar is entirely melted and of arich brown color. The sugar will lump badly at first, but these lumps will entirely melt in time. Turn the chopped peanuts and salt into the sirup and stir together and immediately turn out on a buttered pan. When cold, break into pieces.9. Fudge.Ingredients.Sugar2cupsCream of tartar1⁄8teaspoonfulChocolate2squaresMilk or water1cupVanilla1teaspoonfulMethod.—Mix the first four ingredients and place over a hot fire. Stir steadily until the mixture begins to boil. Stir occasionally after this until, when half a teaspoonful is dropped into cold water, it may be rolled to a soft ball with the fingers. Set the saucepan in a cool place and leave until it becomes just lukewarm. Add the vanilla and stir the mixture until it becomes thick and seems very slightly granular. Pour it into a buttered tin and as soon as possible cut into squares. The exact point at which to remove the fudge from the fire and again at which to cease stirring and pour into the pan is a matter which only practice can teach.10. Penocha.Ingredients.Brown sugar2cupsButter2tablespoonfulsMilk, cream, or water1cupCream of tartar1⁄8teaspoon or lessVanilla1teaspoonMethod.—As with recipe 9. The very dark brown sugar contains some acid and therefore less cream of tartar may be used. Chopped nuts may be added with the vanilla to both fudge and penocha.11. Fondant for French creams.Ingredients.Sugar2cupsCream of tartar1⁄8teaspoonfulBoiling water2⁄3cupMethod.—Mix the sugar and cream of tartar. Add the boiling water and place over a moderate fire, stirring slowly and steadily until the sugar is dissolved. Do not stir after the mixture begins to boil, but let it boil slowly until the sirup will form a soft ball in cold water. Turn out on a platter without scraping the saucepan. The success of the fondant depends upon the complete changing of the cane sugar into fructose and glucose, the crystals of the latter being much finer than those of cane sugar. Stirring the mixture while it boils or before it has cooled sufficiently will result in the formation of cane sugar crystals, and the fondant will be harsh and rough.When the fondant is barely lukewarm begin to stir it with long steady strokes and continue this until the mixture becomes creamy and thick and begins to break away from the sides of the dish and the spoon. Then gather it all together into a round mass and knead like bread until it becomes pliable. It may then be wrapped in oiled paper or put into a covered bowl or fruit jar and kept until wanted.Fondant is the foundation for all bonbons and may be made up into a great variety of shapes and with many flavors. It may be mixed with chopped candied fruits or nuts or coated with chocolate.
Principles of cooking.
A sirup is formed by cooking sugar with water.
The sirup thickens if process is prolonged and water evaporates.
Cane sugar is changed to glucose and fructose by boiling with an acid.
Heated without additional water, the sugar is partially decomposed, giving off water and becoming brown in color. This is “caramel,” used for coloring, and flavoring.
The final stage of heating leaves pure carbon.
8. Peanut brittle.
Ingredients.
Sugar2cupsSalt1⁄4teaspoonfulPeanuts1quart
Method.—Shell the peanuts and chop them in small pieces. Put the sugar in a saucepan and place over a moderate fire. Stir from the bottom until the sugar is entirely melted and of arich brown color. The sugar will lump badly at first, but these lumps will entirely melt in time. Turn the chopped peanuts and salt into the sirup and stir together and immediately turn out on a buttered pan. When cold, break into pieces.
9. Fudge.
Ingredients.
Sugar2cupsCream of tartar1⁄8teaspoonfulChocolate2squaresMilk or water1cupVanilla1teaspoonful
Method.—Mix the first four ingredients and place over a hot fire. Stir steadily until the mixture begins to boil. Stir occasionally after this until, when half a teaspoonful is dropped into cold water, it may be rolled to a soft ball with the fingers. Set the saucepan in a cool place and leave until it becomes just lukewarm. Add the vanilla and stir the mixture until it becomes thick and seems very slightly granular. Pour it into a buttered tin and as soon as possible cut into squares. The exact point at which to remove the fudge from the fire and again at which to cease stirring and pour into the pan is a matter which only practice can teach.
10. Penocha.
Ingredients.
Brown sugar2cupsButter2tablespoonfulsMilk, cream, or water1cupCream of tartar1⁄8teaspoon or lessVanilla1teaspoon
Method.—As with recipe 9. The very dark brown sugar contains some acid and therefore less cream of tartar may be used. Chopped nuts may be added with the vanilla to both fudge and penocha.
11. Fondant for French creams.
Ingredients.
Sugar2cupsCream of tartar1⁄8teaspoonfulBoiling water2⁄3cup
Method.—Mix the sugar and cream of tartar. Add the boiling water and place over a moderate fire, stirring slowly and steadily until the sugar is dissolved. Do not stir after the mixture begins to boil, but let it boil slowly until the sirup will form a soft ball in cold water. Turn out on a platter without scraping the saucepan. The success of the fondant depends upon the complete changing of the cane sugar into fructose and glucose, the crystals of the latter being much finer than those of cane sugar. Stirring the mixture while it boils or before it has cooled sufficiently will result in the formation of cane sugar crystals, and the fondant will be harsh and rough.
When the fondant is barely lukewarm begin to stir it with long steady strokes and continue this until the mixture becomes creamy and thick and begins to break away from the sides of the dish and the spoon. Then gather it all together into a round mass and knead like bread until it becomes pliable. It may then be wrapped in oiled paper or put into a covered bowl or fruit jar and kept until wanted.
Fondant is the foundation for all bonbons and may be made up into a great variety of shapes and with many flavors. It may be mixed with chopped candied fruits or nuts or coated with chocolate.
Laboratory management.—The holiday time is the natural season for the candy-making lesson. It is not worth while to spend much time on this topic, at the sacrifice of others.
1. What is meant by a fuel food?
2. Why should fat be taken daily?
3. Compare the cost of different kinds of fat.
4. Why is beef fat less expensive than butter?
5. How is fat mixed with other ingredients in a sauce?
6. What is the chief point to consider in the cookery of fat?
7. What is the difference between cane sugar and honey?
8. Compare the cost of a pound of homemade candy with that of good quality bought at a shop.
9. How is fat changed in digestion?
10. How is sugar changed in digestion?
MUFFINS, BISCUIT, CAKE, AND PASTRY
Wheat flour is the important material in this group, but muffins and biscuit may be varied by the use of corn meal, rye, and Graham flour, and cooked cereals may also be utilized. The ingredients are flour, salt, a liquid, sometimes a fat, eggs, and sugar. The flavorings are spices, essences, fruit juice, dried fruits, nuts, chocolate. The mixture must be smooth, but it is also necessary to make it porous or “light.” This is accomplished by means of leavening agents, “to leaven” meaning “to make light.”
Leavening agents.—The batter, or dough, is leavened by introducing into it air or a gas that expands when heated in the oven, thus making the whole more porous and larger in bulk.
Air.—This is introduced into the batter by beating, or by beating air into the white of egg and stirring the beaten white into the batter.Steam.—The water in the batter turns to steam in the oven, and as it expands it assists in the leavening of the mass. See Popovers.Carbon dioxide gas.—This is introduced in three ways.(1) By using an acid with a carbonate.(2) By yeast fermentation.(3) By machinery.Yeast fermentation is studied in the chapter on bread making (Chapter XII), and the mechanical method is a commercial process exclusively. Only the first method will be treated in this chapter.When an acid and any alkaline carbonate are dissolved together,a chemical action takes place, a gas is given off (carbon dioxide) and another substance is formed that is neutral, being neither acid nor alkaline, and known as a “salt.” In selecting the two substances we must bear in mind this neutral substance that remains in the batter and insure its harmlessness.Thelactic acidof sour milk is probably the earliest used, being a domestic product. The lactic acid is neutralized by bicarbonate of sodium, the latter being also called “baking soda.” The resulting salt is harmless.Acid molasseswith soda is another old-fashioned method. Here the acid is developed by the fermentation of the molasses.Cream of tartar(acid potassium tartrate), obtained from crystals deposited in wine vats, came into use later, neutralized by bicarbonate of soda, two parts of cream of tartar to one of soda.Baking powder.—The first baking powders were made of cream of tartar and bicarbonate of soda, mixed with a starch, to prevent the slight chemical action which would cause the powder to lose strength; and these two substances are now used in the best baking powders. The resulting salt is the Rochelle salt of medicine.Anacid phosphateis sometimes used with soda, and this gives a harmless neutral substance.Cheaper acids have sometimes been used, especiallyalum. It is best not to use an alum powder. Select a standard kind, avoiding those that offer prizes for a certain number of boxes purchased. Even if these latter do not contain alum, there is probably an excess of starch or flour.The advantage of baking powder is in the accuracy of the proportions of the two substances by weight. Even though the measuring of the cream of tartar and soda separately is accurate, the proportions may not be correct. There is no great advantage in homemade baking powder. It costs almost as much as the manufactured, and is not as perfect a product.
Air.—This is introduced into the batter by beating, or by beating air into the white of egg and stirring the beaten white into the batter.
Steam.—The water in the batter turns to steam in the oven, and as it expands it assists in the leavening of the mass. See Popovers.
Carbon dioxide gas.—This is introduced in three ways.
Yeast fermentation is studied in the chapter on bread making (Chapter XII), and the mechanical method is a commercial process exclusively. Only the first method will be treated in this chapter.
When an acid and any alkaline carbonate are dissolved together,a chemical action takes place, a gas is given off (carbon dioxide) and another substance is formed that is neutral, being neither acid nor alkaline, and known as a “salt.” In selecting the two substances we must bear in mind this neutral substance that remains in the batter and insure its harmlessness.
Thelactic acidof sour milk is probably the earliest used, being a domestic product. The lactic acid is neutralized by bicarbonate of sodium, the latter being also called “baking soda.” The resulting salt is harmless.
Acid molasseswith soda is another old-fashioned method. Here the acid is developed by the fermentation of the molasses.
Cream of tartar(acid potassium tartrate), obtained from crystals deposited in wine vats, came into use later, neutralized by bicarbonate of soda, two parts of cream of tartar to one of soda.
Baking powder.—The first baking powders were made of cream of tartar and bicarbonate of soda, mixed with a starch, to prevent the slight chemical action which would cause the powder to lose strength; and these two substances are now used in the best baking powders. The resulting salt is the Rochelle salt of medicine.
Anacid phosphateis sometimes used with soda, and this gives a harmless neutral substance.
Cheaper acids have sometimes been used, especiallyalum. It is best not to use an alum powder. Select a standard kind, avoiding those that offer prizes for a certain number of boxes purchased. Even if these latter do not contain alum, there is probably an excess of starch or flour.
The advantage of baking powder is in the accuracy of the proportions of the two substances by weight. Even though the measuring of the cream of tartar and soda separately is accurate, the proportions may not be correct. There is no great advantage in homemade baking powder. It costs almost as much as the manufactured, and is not as perfect a product.
The proportions of the main ingredients.—Attempts are made to define the degrees of stiffness of batters and doughs, but these distinctions are not very accurate. A “pour batter” is liquid enough to pour, and a “dough batter” soft enough to drop from a spoon; a “soft dough” is next in grade, and “dough” is the stiffest of all.
To understand proportioning the ingredients, the nature of the ingredients when heated must be taken into account. Butter and other fats melt when heated, and behave like a liquid in the mixture. Therefore, when there is a very large amount of butter, no other wetting is necessary, as in pound cake. We may make a scale, with a thin popover mixture at one extreme, with no butter in it, and the stiff pound cake at the other, with butter the only liquid (except the flavoring). Between these two are the mixtures of medium stiffness, with both butter and liquid. This general rule may be given: As the quantity of butter is increased, the batter must increase in stiffness, and there must be either less liquid or more flour.
A beaten egg looks like a liquid and behaves so during the mixing, but in the oven it stiffens. For this reason we can make a sponge cake with many eggs and no liquid in the mixing, and use no other leavening agent than the air beaten into the egg.
One old-fashioned rule for sponge cake reads: Take the weight of the eggs in sugar and half their weight in flour, with the juice and rind of a lemon for ten eggs. Such a rule was adapted to the days when eggs were cheap. We should now use fewer eggs in sponge cake, and this means that water and baking powder must replace the eggs omitted.
Methods of mixing.—(1)For popovers, griddlecakes, muffins, and plain cake.Sift together the dry ingredients.Beat the eggs, without separating the yolk and white, and stir the eggs and milk together.Pour the liquid gradually into the flour, first stirring, then beating.Melt the butter or other shortening, and beat it into the batter.(2)Biscuits and shortcakes.Sift together the dry ingredients.Cut in or chop in the butter.Add the wetting slowly.(3)A richer, fine-grained butter cake.Sift together the dry ingredients.Cream the butter, and beat in the sugar.Beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately.Beat the yolks into the creamed butter and sugar.Add the flour and milk alternately; that is, a quarter or third of the flour, then a portion of the milk, and so on. First stir, then beat vigorously.Fold in the beaten whites lightly and do not beat the mixture again.(4)Sponge cake.If baking powder is used, sift with the flour.Beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately.Beat the sugar into the yolks, and add the liquid and flavoring.Add the flour and beaten whites in alternate portions, dividing both into quarters or thirds.
Methods of mixing.—(1)For popovers, griddlecakes, muffins, and plain cake.
Sift together the dry ingredients.
Beat the eggs, without separating the yolk and white, and stir the eggs and milk together.
Pour the liquid gradually into the flour, first stirring, then beating.
Melt the butter or other shortening, and beat it into the batter.
(2)Biscuits and shortcakes.
Sift together the dry ingredients.
Cut in or chop in the butter.
Add the wetting slowly.
(3)A richer, fine-grained butter cake.
Sift together the dry ingredients.
Cream the butter, and beat in the sugar.
Beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately.
Beat the yolks into the creamed butter and sugar.
Add the flour and milk alternately; that is, a quarter or third of the flour, then a portion of the milk, and so on. First stir, then beat vigorously.
Fold in the beaten whites lightly and do not beat the mixture again.
(4)Sponge cake.
If baking powder is used, sift with the flour.
Beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately.
Beat the sugar into the yolks, and add the liquid and flavoring.
Add the flour and beaten whites in alternate portions, dividing both into quarters or thirds.
Baking.—This is a science and an art that requires much practice. Do not be discouraged if you do not succeed at first.
Concerning the utensils for baking, see Chapter II. The cups or pans are prepared by warming and greasing. Use a bit of soft paper or a brush for greasing the pan and ordinarily an inexpensive fat, reserving butter for delicate cake. Flour sprinkled on a pan is sufficient for biscuit and cookies. Line a pan for loaf cake with white paper, and grease the paper.
See that the oven is ready before the mixing begins. We shall not be able to bake accurately until our ovens are equipped with thermometers. In the meantime we must use some simple oven test. The indicators on the doors of some ovens are a guide, although they are not really accurate according to the scale of the thermometer. A glass door is also a convenience.
A loaf should be baked at a lower temperature than a biscuit or muffin. Why?
For loaves, 380° F. Test by the hand, counting fifteen slowly, fifteen seconds. A piece of white paper will become a delicate brown in five minutes.
For biscuits, muffins, andsmall cakes, 425° to 450° F.—Test by the hand, a count of ten. A piece of paper becomes a deeper golden brown in five minutes.
Any mixture containing baking powder may stand some little time before it is put in the oven, provided it is kept cold. The action of the baking powder is not immediate, and is very slight at a low temperature.
The stages of the baking are first, the rising; second, the crusting over; third, the baking of the interior; and last, a shrinkage of the whole.
Many ovens bake unevenly, and pans must be shifted. This should be done with care and not before the third stage of the baking. It is often well to cool off the oven the latter part of the time. An oven that is too hot may be cooled by a pan of water. Paper may be laid over the top of the cake if the browning has been too rapid. These are all makeshifts, and indicate a poor oven, or poor management of the fire. Do not look into the oven for the first ten minutes of baking, and always close the oven door gently.
When we are privileged to have electric ovens, with glass doors, and an accurate thermometer, baking will be an easy and accurate process.
A. Experiments with baking powder.1. Dissolve half a teaspoonful of baking powder in two tablespoonfuls of water and heat in a test tube, or saucepan, over a flame; notice the effervescence when the bubbling is at its height,and hold a lighted match in the mouth of the tube. This is a simple test for carbon dioxide.2. Dissolve 2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar in1⁄2cup water in a glass.Dissolve 1 teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda in1⁄2cup water in a glass.Taste both of these.Test both with litmus paper, noting the change of color. There are several vegetable coloring matters that change color in this way, in the presence of an acid or an alkaline substance.Turn the two solutions together, and test with both blue and pink litmus paper, after the solution has stood for several minutes. What results?Taste this mixed solution to see if you can detect any difference.To prove that there is a substance still left, evaporate the water.3. A pretty form of this experiment is to use, instead of litmus, the water in which red cabbage has previously been boiled and which therefore contains some of the coloring matter of the cabbage. The changes in color are very striking, and prove conclusively that neither the cream of tartar nor the soda remains such.B. Oven experiments.If one oven in the school kitchen can be equipped with a chemical thermometer inserted in the oven, the following experiments are helpful.1. Let each pupil test the oven by feeling, when it has reached 380° F., 400° F., 425° F., 450° F., 475° F.-500° F.2. Place pieces of white paper, one for each pupil, in the oven for five minutes at the various temperatures. These may be pasted in the notebook for future reference.1. Popovers, puffovers, or mahogany cakes.Ingredients for 12.Flour1pintMilk1pintEggs3Salt1⁄2teaspoonfulSome rules give two eggs only.For baking, heavy earthen cups, hot and greased.Method of mixingis No. 1.Special points.—The liquid must be pouredveryslowly into the flour to prevent lumping. A large Dover egg beater is convenient for beating out lumps, if any occur.The leavening of the popover is effected by steam, and it is not necessary therefore to spend time and strength in the long beating sometimes recommended. This has been conclusively proved by experiment. Neither is it necessary to put the batter into the oven immediately, as sometimes directed. It may stand all day or even over night.Pour the batter in the hot cups, having each cup two thirds full. The baking of the popovers is unique, in that they should be put into an intensely hot oven for the first stage of the baking—as hot as 475° F., or even more—then the oven must be cooled. This first stage crusts the top; then the expansive force of the steam pushes up the top; and the muffin “pops” or “puffs” over. The more moderate heat cooks the sides and the bottom, and makes an agreeable crust. The perfect puffover is hollow. Three quarters of an hour is the average time of baking. If at the end of that time the oven door is set ajar, and the popovers allowed to remain longer, they are improved, coming from the oven stiff and crisp with a rich brown color, rather than soft and underdone. In an old family cookbook, one recipe, sixty years old, calls popovers “Mahogany Cakes.”They may be eaten as a muffin, or served with a pudding sauce as a dessert.2. Plain muffins.Ingredients for 12.Flour1pintBaking powder3teaspoonfulsSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulEggs2or 1Milk11⁄4cupButter,orbutter substitute1tablespoonfulSugar, if desired1tablespoonfulFor baking, greased muffin pan. Bake about half an hour.Method of mixingis No. 1.This recipe may be varied in many ways.(a) Use1⁄2cup cooked cereal in place of an equal quantity of flour. Will you change the amount of wetting?(b) One cup fine white corn meal, or1⁄2cup yellow meal in place of equal quantities of flour. Corn meal absorbs more water than white flour.What change in the wetting?The oven should be the temperature for bread, and the baking at least3⁄4of an hour.(c) One cup Graham or rye meal in place of an equal quantity of flour.3. Baking-powder biscuit.Ingredients.Flour1pintBaking powder3teaspoonfulsSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulButter,orbutter substitute1 or 2tablespoonfulsMilk1scant cupFor shaping, molding board, rolling pin, and biscuit cutter.For baking, an iron sheet or pan sprinkled with flour. Oven about 425° F., a ten-second test, or golden brown paper. Bake twenty minutes to half an hour.Method of mixingis No. 2.To shape.Dust the board with flour, turn out the dough, dredge with flour, pat into a firm mass, and then pat or lightly roll out to1⁄2inch thickness. Cut out with a cutter dipped in flour. (A small glass or the top of a round tin can may be used.)Variations.—Add 1 egg. This makes a delicious biscuit. Sprinkle the top with granulated sugar, and spice. Dried currants washed, and dredged with flour, may be laid on the top.Increase the butter to two or three tablespoonfuls, and decrease the wetting and the mixture becomesshortcake. This is the mixture to use for the true strawberry shortcake. Many other fruits may be used, both uncooked and cooked.4. Sour milk griddlecakes.Ingredients.Flour21⁄2cupsSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulMelted butter2tablespoonfulsSour milk2cupsSoda11⁄4teaspoonfulsEgg1Method.—Mix dry ingredients. Add sour milk, egg well beaten, and melted butter in order given. Beat thoroughly. Drop by spoonfuls on a greased griddle and let cook until the edges are cooked and the cake full of bubbles. Turn with a cake turner or spatula knife and cook on the other side. Serve with butter and sirup or scraped maple sugar.5. Sweet milk griddlecakes.Ingredients.Flour3cupsBaking powder4teaspoonfulsSalt1teaspoonfulSugar1⁄4cupMilk2cupsEgg1Melted butter2tablespoonfulsMethod.—Mix dry ingredients. Beat egg and mix with it the milk. Pour liquid ingredients into the dry ingredients and stir altogether until smooth. Add the melted butter and cook the cakes the same as with sour milk griddlecakes.6. Cookies.—Cookies may be plain, or rich in butter; crisp and thin, or soft and thick. They may be sweetened with sugar, or molasses, and spiced in various ways. It would be an interesting exercise to tabulate all the possible forms of cookies.Ingredients.Butter1cupSugar11⁄2cupsEggs2Milk3tablespoonfulsFlourabout 3 cupsBaking powder1teaspoonfulSalt11⁄2teaspoonfulsThe flavoring may be two teaspoonfuls of vanilla, or lemon essence, one or two tablespoonfuls of ground spice, or caraway seeds.For baking, a floured iron sheet or flat pan. Temperature 425° F., or even more. The baking requires from 15 to 20 minutes, depending on the thickness of the cooky.Fig. 49.—Materials and utensils for fancy cookies.Courtesy of Miss Anna M. Barrows.The method of mixing is No. 3. Notice that this is a stiff dough. The amount of flour depends somewhat upon the expertness of the cooky maker. The flour used in rolling out must be accounted for, as the expert can manage a softer dough than the novice. Mix the baking powder and salt with one cup of the flour.Shaping the cookies.—Figure 49 shows you the apparatus. The dough is turned out upon the floured board, gently rolled out to a quarter of an inch, cut and placed in a floured pan; or cut off a small piece, roll in the flour, until it forms a ball, set the ball in the pan, and pat it down to a round. This may seem to take longer, but it is easier, and there is no board to clean afterward.A plainer cookyis made with1⁄2cup butter, and1⁄2cup water or milk, with somewhat more flour.7. Butter cake.—A foundation recipe. Learn to make one cake well, and vary it by changing the forms and flavors.Ingredients.Butter1⁄3cupSugar1cupEggs2Milk2⁄3cupFlour13⁄4cupBaking powder21⁄2teaspoonfulsSalt1⁄4teaspoonfulThe flavoring may be 1 teaspoonful of vanilla or lemon essence, or1⁄2teaspoonful of almond, or two teaspoonfuls of spices. Raisins,1⁄2cup, citron1⁄4lb., nuts,1⁄2cup. The rind of1⁄2orange is delicious with the vanilla flavor. With the vanilla use 4 tablespoonfuls of cocoa, for a chocolate flavor.To make a plainer cake, omit one egg, use1⁄4cup butter, and3⁄4cup of milk.If you use1⁄2cup butter, making a richer cake, what other changes should be made?Bake in deep or shallow pan, jelly cake tins, or small tin cups.The mixing is Method 3.As layer cake, it may be used with a variety of fillings and icings,—jelly, cream filling, soft icing with nuts, raisins, or dates.A chocolate filling.—One half cup milk, 2 ounces unsweetened chocolate, 1 cup of sugar, yolk of one egg, 1 teaspoonful vanilla extract. Break up the chocolate, melt it in a bowl over hot water or in a double boiler, with the sugar and the milk. When the mixture is smooth add the beaten yolk, cook for one or two minutes, add the vanilla, and remove from the fire.Fig. 50.—A loaf of sponge cake.Courtesy of Dept. of Foods and Cookery, Teachers College.8. Sponge cake.—The old-time sponge cake is given on page173. Sponge cakes should be baked in a very moderate oven, below 380° F., the bread temperature. (See Fig. 50.)9. Hot water sponge cake.Ingredients.Eggs2Sugar1cupHot waterorMilk3⁄8cupFlour1cupBaking powder11⁄2teaspoonfulsSalt1⁄4teaspoonfulLemonor1⁄4teaspoonfulVanilla extract1⁄2teaspoonfulMethod.—Separate eggs and beat yolks and whites thoroughly. Mix and sift the dry ingredients. Add the sugar gradually to beaten yolks alternately with water until well blended. Next add the flavoring and then fold in the stiffly beaten whites together with the dry ingredients until blended. Bake in a buttered shallow pan in a moderate oven for twenty-five minutes or until cake shrinks from the side of the pan.10. Plain gingerbread.Ingredients.Molasses1cupBoiling water1⁄2cupFlour21⁄2cupsSoda1teaspoonfulGinger11⁄2teaspoonfulsSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulButter4tablespoonfulsMethod.—Melt butter in boiling water. Mix dry ingredients. Add the molasses to the water and butter and stir this mixture into the dry ingredients, beating vigorously. Pour into a buttered shallow pan and bake twenty minutes in a moderate oven. If the molasses is taken from a freshly opened can, no acid will be present and the soda should be omitted and 3 teaspoonfuls of baking powder used instead.
A. Experiments with baking powder.
1. Dissolve half a teaspoonful of baking powder in two tablespoonfuls of water and heat in a test tube, or saucepan, over a flame; notice the effervescence when the bubbling is at its height,and hold a lighted match in the mouth of the tube. This is a simple test for carbon dioxide.
2. Dissolve 2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar in1⁄2cup water in a glass.
Dissolve 1 teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda in1⁄2cup water in a glass.
Taste both of these.
Test both with litmus paper, noting the change of color. There are several vegetable coloring matters that change color in this way, in the presence of an acid or an alkaline substance.
Turn the two solutions together, and test with both blue and pink litmus paper, after the solution has stood for several minutes. What results?
Taste this mixed solution to see if you can detect any difference.
To prove that there is a substance still left, evaporate the water.
3. A pretty form of this experiment is to use, instead of litmus, the water in which red cabbage has previously been boiled and which therefore contains some of the coloring matter of the cabbage. The changes in color are very striking, and prove conclusively that neither the cream of tartar nor the soda remains such.
B. Oven experiments.
If one oven in the school kitchen can be equipped with a chemical thermometer inserted in the oven, the following experiments are helpful.
1. Let each pupil test the oven by feeling, when it has reached 380° F., 400° F., 425° F., 450° F., 475° F.-500° F.
2. Place pieces of white paper, one for each pupil, in the oven for five minutes at the various temperatures. These may be pasted in the notebook for future reference.
1. Popovers, puffovers, or mahogany cakes.
Ingredients for 12.
Flour1pintMilk1pintEggs3Salt1⁄2teaspoonful
Some rules give two eggs only.
For baking, heavy earthen cups, hot and greased.
Method of mixingis No. 1.
Special points.—The liquid must be pouredveryslowly into the flour to prevent lumping. A large Dover egg beater is convenient for beating out lumps, if any occur.
The leavening of the popover is effected by steam, and it is not necessary therefore to spend time and strength in the long beating sometimes recommended. This has been conclusively proved by experiment. Neither is it necessary to put the batter into the oven immediately, as sometimes directed. It may stand all day or even over night.
Pour the batter in the hot cups, having each cup two thirds full. The baking of the popovers is unique, in that they should be put into an intensely hot oven for the first stage of the baking—as hot as 475° F., or even more—then the oven must be cooled. This first stage crusts the top; then the expansive force of the steam pushes up the top; and the muffin “pops” or “puffs” over. The more moderate heat cooks the sides and the bottom, and makes an agreeable crust. The perfect puffover is hollow. Three quarters of an hour is the average time of baking. If at the end of that time the oven door is set ajar, and the popovers allowed to remain longer, they are improved, coming from the oven stiff and crisp with a rich brown color, rather than soft and underdone. In an old family cookbook, one recipe, sixty years old, calls popovers “Mahogany Cakes.”
They may be eaten as a muffin, or served with a pudding sauce as a dessert.
2. Plain muffins.
Ingredients for 12.
Flour1pintBaking powder3teaspoonfulsSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulEggs2or 1Milk11⁄4cupButter,orbutter substitute1tablespoonfulSugar, if desired1tablespoonful
For baking, greased muffin pan. Bake about half an hour.
Method of mixingis No. 1.
This recipe may be varied in many ways.
(a) Use1⁄2cup cooked cereal in place of an equal quantity of flour. Will you change the amount of wetting?
(b) One cup fine white corn meal, or1⁄2cup yellow meal in place of equal quantities of flour. Corn meal absorbs more water than white flour.
What change in the wetting?
The oven should be the temperature for bread, and the baking at least3⁄4of an hour.
(c) One cup Graham or rye meal in place of an equal quantity of flour.
3. Baking-powder biscuit.
Ingredients.
Flour1pintBaking powder3teaspoonfulsSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulButter,orbutter substitute1 or 2tablespoonfulsMilk1scant cup
For shaping, molding board, rolling pin, and biscuit cutter.
For baking, an iron sheet or pan sprinkled with flour. Oven about 425° F., a ten-second test, or golden brown paper. Bake twenty minutes to half an hour.
Method of mixingis No. 2.
To shape.Dust the board with flour, turn out the dough, dredge with flour, pat into a firm mass, and then pat or lightly roll out to1⁄2inch thickness. Cut out with a cutter dipped in flour. (A small glass or the top of a round tin can may be used.)
Variations.—Add 1 egg. This makes a delicious biscuit. Sprinkle the top with granulated sugar, and spice. Dried currants washed, and dredged with flour, may be laid on the top.
Increase the butter to two or three tablespoonfuls, and decrease the wetting and the mixture becomesshortcake. This is the mixture to use for the true strawberry shortcake. Many other fruits may be used, both uncooked and cooked.
4. Sour milk griddlecakes.
Ingredients.
Flour21⁄2cupsSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulMelted butter2tablespoonfulsSour milk2cupsSoda11⁄4teaspoonfulsEgg1
Method.—Mix dry ingredients. Add sour milk, egg well beaten, and melted butter in order given. Beat thoroughly. Drop by spoonfuls on a greased griddle and let cook until the edges are cooked and the cake full of bubbles. Turn with a cake turner or spatula knife and cook on the other side. Serve with butter and sirup or scraped maple sugar.
5. Sweet milk griddlecakes.
Ingredients.
Flour3cupsBaking powder4teaspoonfulsSalt1teaspoonfulSugar1⁄4cupMilk2cupsEgg1Melted butter2tablespoonfuls
Method.—Mix dry ingredients. Beat egg and mix with it the milk. Pour liquid ingredients into the dry ingredients and stir altogether until smooth. Add the melted butter and cook the cakes the same as with sour milk griddlecakes.
6. Cookies.—Cookies may be plain, or rich in butter; crisp and thin, or soft and thick. They may be sweetened with sugar, or molasses, and spiced in various ways. It would be an interesting exercise to tabulate all the possible forms of cookies.
Ingredients.
Butter1cupSugar11⁄2cupsEggs2Milk3tablespoonfulsFlourabout 3 cupsBaking powder1teaspoonfulSalt11⁄2teaspoonfuls
The flavoring may be two teaspoonfuls of vanilla, or lemon essence, one or two tablespoonfuls of ground spice, or caraway seeds.
For baking, a floured iron sheet or flat pan. Temperature 425° F., or even more. The baking requires from 15 to 20 minutes, depending on the thickness of the cooky.
Fig. 49.—Materials and utensils for fancy cookies.Courtesy of Miss Anna M. Barrows.
The method of mixing is No. 3. Notice that this is a stiff dough. The amount of flour depends somewhat upon the expertness of the cooky maker. The flour used in rolling out must be accounted for, as the expert can manage a softer dough than the novice. Mix the baking powder and salt with one cup of the flour.
Shaping the cookies.—Figure 49 shows you the apparatus. The dough is turned out upon the floured board, gently rolled out to a quarter of an inch, cut and placed in a floured pan; or cut off a small piece, roll in the flour, until it forms a ball, set the ball in the pan, and pat it down to a round. This may seem to take longer, but it is easier, and there is no board to clean afterward.
A plainer cookyis made with1⁄2cup butter, and1⁄2cup water or milk, with somewhat more flour.
7. Butter cake.—A foundation recipe. Learn to make one cake well, and vary it by changing the forms and flavors.
Ingredients.
Butter1⁄3cupSugar1cupEggs2Milk2⁄3cupFlour13⁄4cupBaking powder21⁄2teaspoonfulsSalt1⁄4teaspoonful
The flavoring may be 1 teaspoonful of vanilla or lemon essence, or1⁄2teaspoonful of almond, or two teaspoonfuls of spices. Raisins,1⁄2cup, citron1⁄4lb., nuts,1⁄2cup. The rind of1⁄2orange is delicious with the vanilla flavor. With the vanilla use 4 tablespoonfuls of cocoa, for a chocolate flavor.
To make a plainer cake, omit one egg, use1⁄4cup butter, and3⁄4cup of milk.
If you use1⁄2cup butter, making a richer cake, what other changes should be made?
Bake in deep or shallow pan, jelly cake tins, or small tin cups.
The mixing is Method 3.
As layer cake, it may be used with a variety of fillings and icings,—jelly, cream filling, soft icing with nuts, raisins, or dates.
A chocolate filling.—One half cup milk, 2 ounces unsweetened chocolate, 1 cup of sugar, yolk of one egg, 1 teaspoonful vanilla extract. Break up the chocolate, melt it in a bowl over hot water or in a double boiler, with the sugar and the milk. When the mixture is smooth add the beaten yolk, cook for one or two minutes, add the vanilla, and remove from the fire.
Fig. 50.—A loaf of sponge cake.Courtesy of Dept. of Foods and Cookery, Teachers College.
8. Sponge cake.—The old-time sponge cake is given on page173. Sponge cakes should be baked in a very moderate oven, below 380° F., the bread temperature. (See Fig. 50.)
9. Hot water sponge cake.
Ingredients.
Eggs2Sugar1cupHot waterorMilk3⁄8cupFlour1cupBaking powder11⁄2teaspoonfulsSalt1⁄4teaspoonfulLemonor1⁄4teaspoonfulVanilla extract1⁄2teaspoonful
Method.—Separate eggs and beat yolks and whites thoroughly. Mix and sift the dry ingredients. Add the sugar gradually to beaten yolks alternately with water until well blended. Next add the flavoring and then fold in the stiffly beaten whites together with the dry ingredients until blended. Bake in a buttered shallow pan in a moderate oven for twenty-five minutes or until cake shrinks from the side of the pan.
10. Plain gingerbread.
Ingredients.
Molasses1cupBoiling water1⁄2cupFlour21⁄2cupsSoda1teaspoonfulGinger11⁄2teaspoonfulsSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulButter4tablespoonfuls
Method.—Melt butter in boiling water. Mix dry ingredients. Add the molasses to the water and butter and stir this mixture into the dry ingredients, beating vigorously. Pour into a buttered shallow pan and bake twenty minutes in a moderate oven. If the molasses is taken from a freshly opened can, no acid will be present and the soda should be omitted and 3 teaspoonfuls of baking powder used instead.
Laboratory management.—Effective work in batters cannot be accomplished with less than1⁄2cup liquid, though a smaller portion is sometimes used. It is well to have some group work, so that the pupils may learn to beat larger quantities. If there is a school lunch room, large quantities may be utilized there.
Pastry.—Pastry is a stiff dough with a large proportion of shortening, and is flaky when baked rather than porous. Pastry and pies should not be used as a staple food, but when well made and properly masticated, pies may be eaten occasionally by people in good health. The crust should be flaky, and thoroughly baked.