+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—When I saylarge, round, sweet, yellow oranges, the wordslarge, round, sweet, andyellowmodify the wordorangesby telling thekind, and limit the application of the word to oranges of that kind.
When I saythis orange, yonder orange, one orange, the wordsthis, yonder, andonedo not tell the kind, but simply point out or number the orange, and limit the application of the word to the orange pointed out or numbered.
Adjectives of the first class describe by giving a quality, and so are called +Descriptive adjectives+.
Adjectives of the second class define by pointing out or numbering, and so are called +Definitive adjectives+.
Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to modify them by appropriate descriptive and definitive adjectives.
+ADescriptive Adjectiveis one that modifies by expressing quality+.
+ADefinitive Adjectiveis one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity+.
Place the following adjectives in two columns, one headeddescriptive, and the otherdefinitive, then build simple sentences in which they shall be employed asmodifiers. Find out the meaning of each word before you use it.
Round, frolicsome, first, industrious, jolly, idle, skillful, each, the, faithful, an, kind, one, tall, ancient, modern, dancing, mischievous, stationary, nimble, several, slanting, parallel, oval, every.
Build simple sentences in which the followingdescriptiveadjectives shall be employed asattribute complements. Let some of these attributes becompound.
Restless, impulsive, dense, rare, gritty, sluggish, dingy, selfish,clear, cold, sparkling, slender, graceful, hungry, friendless.
Build simple sentences in which the followingdescriptiveadjectives shall be employed.
Some of these adjectives have theformofparticiples, and some arederivedfromproper nouns.
+CAPITAL LETTER—RULE.—An Adjective derived from a proper noun must begin with a capital letter+.
Shining, moving, swaying, bubbling, American, German, French, Swiss,Irish, Chinese.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—The man caughtmakes no complete assertion, and is not a sentence. If I add the object complementfish, I complete the assertion and form a sentence—The man caught fish. The action expressed bycaughtpasses over from the man to the fish.Transitivemeanspassing over, and so all those verbs that express an action that passes over from a doer to something which receives, are called +Transitive verbs+.
Fish swim. The verbswimdoes not require an object to complete the sentence. No action passes from a doer to a receiver. These verbs which express action that does not pass over to a receiver, and all those which do not express action at all, but simplybeingorstate of being, are called +Intransitive verbs+.
Let the teacher write transitive and intransitive verbs on the board, and require the pupils to distinguish them.
When I say, Icrushthe worm, I express an action that is going on now, or in present time. Icrushedthe worm, expresses an action that took place in past time. Astensemeanstime, we call the formcrushthepresent tenseof the verb, andcrushedthepast tense. In the sentence, The wormcrushedunder my foot died,crushed, expressing the action as assumed, is, as you have already learned, a participle; and, as the action is completed, we call it apast participle. Now notice thatedwas added tocrush, the verb in the present tense, to form the verb in the past tense, and to form the past participle. Most verbs form their past tense and their past participle by addinged, and so we call such +Regular verbs+.
Iseethe man; Isawthe man; The manseenby me ran away. Icatchfish in the brook; Icaughtfish in the brook; The fishcaughtin the brook tasted good. Here the verbsseeandcatchdo not form their past tense and past participle by addingedto the present, and so we call themIrregular verbs.
Let the teacher write on the board verbs of both classes, and require the pupils to distinguish them.
+ATransitive Verbis one that requires an object+. [Footnote: Theobjectof a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, may be theobject complement, or it may be the subject; as, Brutus stabbedCaesar,Caesarwas stabbed by Brutus.]
+AnIntransitive Verbis one that does not require an object+.
+ARegular Verbis one that forms its past tense and past participle by addingedto the present+. [Footnote: If the present ends ine, theeis dropped whenedis added; as, lov_e_, lov_ed_; believ_e_, believ_ed_.]
+AnIrregular Verbis one that does not form its past tense and past participle by addingedto the present+.
Place the following verbs in two columns, one headedtransitiveand the other,intransitive. Place the same verbs in two other columns, one headedregularand the other,irregular. Build these verbs into sentences by supplying a subject to each intransitive verb, and a subject and an object to each transitive verb.
Vanish, gallop, bite, promote, contain, produce, provide, veto, secure, scramble, rattle, draw.
Arrange the following verbs as before, and then build them into sentences by supplying a subject and a noun attribute to each intransitive verb, and a subject and an object to each transitive verb.
Degrade, gather, know, was, became, is.
A verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Use the following verbs both ways.
+Model+.—The wrensingssweetly.
The wrensingsa pretty little song.
Bend, ring, break, dash, move.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—When I say, He will comesoon, orpresently, oroften, orearly, I am using, to modifywill come, words which express thetimeof coming. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Time+.
He will comeup, orhither, orhere, orback. Here I use, to modifywill come, words which expressplace. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Place+.
When I say, The weather issocold, orverycold, orintenselycold, the wordsso, very, andintenselymodify the adjectivecoldby expressing thedegreeof coldness. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Degree+.
When I say, He spokefreely, wisely, andwell, the wordsfreely, wisely, andwelltell how orin what mannerhe spoke. All such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Manner+.
Let the teacher place adverbs on the board, and require the pupil to classify them.
+Adverbs of Timeare those that generally answer the question+,When?
_+Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the question+, Where?
+Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the question+, To what extent?
+Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the question+, In what way?_
Place the following adverbs in the four classes we have made—if the classification be perfect, there will be five words in each column—then build each adverb into a simple sentence.
Partly, only, too, wisely, now, here, when, very, well, where, nobly, already, seldom, more, ably, away, always, not, there, out.
Some adverbs, as you have already learned, modify two verbs, and thus connect the two clauses in which these verbs occur. Such adverbs are called+Conjunctive Adverbs+.
The followingdependentclauses are introduced byconjunctive adverbs.Build them into complex sentences by supplyingindependent clauses.
———whenthe ice is smooth; ———whilewe sleep; ———beforewinter comes; ———wherethe reindeer lives; ———whereveryou go.
CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. [Footnote: For classified lists, see pp. 190,191.]
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump. Here the three nouns are of the same rank in the sentence. All are subjects ofcan jump. War has ceased, and peace has come. In this compound sentence, there are two clauses of the same rank. The wordandconnects the subjects ofcan jump, in the first sentence: and the two clauses, in the second. All words that connect words, phrases, or clauses of thesame rankare called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+.
If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. I will go, because you need me. Hereifjoins the clause,you have tears, as a modifier, expressing condition, to the independent clause,prepare to shed them now;andbecauseconnectsyou need me, as a modifier, expressing reason or cause, to the independent clause,I will go. These and all such conjunctions as connect dependent clauses to clauses of ahigher rankare called +Subordinate Conjunctions+.
Let the teacher illustrate the meaning and use of the wordssubordinateandco-ordinate.
+Co-ordinate Conjunctionsare such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank+.
+Subordinate Conjunctionsare such as connect clauses of different rank+.
Build four short sentences for each of the threeco-ordinate conjunctionsthat follow. In the first, let the conjunction be used to connect principal parts of a sentence; in the second, to connect word modifiers; in the third, to connect phrase modifiers; and in the fourth, to connect independent clauses.
And, or, but.
Write four short complex sentences containing the foursubordinate conjunctionsthat follow. Let the first be used to introduce a noun clause, and the other three to connect adverb clauses to independent clauses.
That, for, if, because.
What new subject begins with page 95? Name and define the different classes of nouns. Illustrate by examples the difference between common nouns and proper nouns. Name and define the different classes of pronouns. Can the pronounIbe used to stand for the one spoken to?—the one spoken of? Does the relative pronoun distinguish by itsformthe speaker, the one spoken to, and the one spoken of? Illustrate. Can any other class of pronouns be used to connect clauses?
For what do interrogative pronouns stand? Illustrate. Where may the antecedent of an interrogative pronoun generally be found?Ans.—The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun may generally lie found in the answer to the question.
Name and define the different classes of adjectives. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their meaning. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their form. Give an example of each class.
Name and define the different classes of adverbs. Give examples of each kind. Name and define the different classes of conjunctions. Illustrate by examples.
Are prepositions and interjections subdivided? (See "Schemes" for the conjunction, the preposition, and the interjection, p. 188.)
+To the Teacher+.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement— Selection from Dr. John Brown.
We suggest that other selections from literature be made and these exercises continued.
You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may sometimes be changed by simply changing itsform. The English language has lost many of its inflections, or forms, so that frequently changes in the meaning and use of words are not marked by changes in form. Thesechangesin theform, meaning, anduseof the parts of speech, we call their +Modifications+.
The boy shouts. The boys shout. I have changed the form of the subjectboyby adding ansto it. The meaning has changed.Boydenotesonelad;boys,two or morelads. This change in the form and meaning of nouns is called +Number+. The wordboy, denoting one thing, is in the +Singular Number;+ andboys, denoting more than one thing, is in the +Plural Number+.
Let the teacher write other nouns on the board, and require the pupils to form the plural of them.
+Modifications of the Parts of Speechare changes in their form, meaning, and use+.
+Numberis that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one+.
+TheSingular Numberdenotes one thing+.
+ThePlural Numberdenotes more than one thing+.
+RULE.—Thepluralof nouns is regularly formed by addingsto the singular+.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Tree, bird, insect, cricket, grasshopper, wing, stick, stone, flower, meadow, pasture, grove, worm, bug, cow, eagle, hawk, wren, plough, shovel.
When a singular noun ends in the sound ofs, x, z, sh, orch, it is not easy to add the sound ofs, soesis added to make another syllable.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Guess, box, topaz, lash, birch, compass, fox, waltz, sash, bench, gas,tax, adz, brush, arch.
Many nouns ending inopreceded by a consonant form the plural by addingeswithout increasing the number of syllables.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Hero, cargo, negro, potato, echo, volcano, mosquito, motto.
Common nouns ending inypreceded by a consonant form the plural by changingyintoiand addingeswithout increasing the number of syllables.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Lady, balcony, family, city, country, daisy, fairy, cherry, study, sky.
Some nouns ending infandfeform the plural by changingforfeintoveswithout increasing the number of syllables.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Sheaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, half, elf, shelf, self, wolf, life, knife, wife.
From the following list of nouns, select, and write in separate columns: 1st. Those that have no plural; 2d. Those that have no singular; 3d. Those that are alike in both numbers.
Pride, wages, trousers, cider, suds, victuals, milk, riches, flax, courage, sheep, deer, flour, idleness, tidings, thanks, ashes, scissors, swine, heathen.
The following nouns have very irregular plurals. Learn to spell the plurals.
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.Man, men. Foot, feet.Woman, women. Ox, oxen.Child, children. Tooth, teeth.Mouse, mice. Goose, geese.
Learn the following plurals and compare them with the groups in the preceding Lesson.
Moneys, flies, chimneys, valleys, stories, berries, lilies, turkeys, monkeys, cuckoos, pianos, vetoes, solos, folios, gulfs, chiefs, leaves, roofs, scarfs, inches.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—The lion was caged. The lioness was caged. In the first sentence, something was said about amalelion; and in the second, something was said about afemalelion. Modifications of the noun to denote the sex of the object, we call +Gender+. Knowing the sex of the object, you know the gender of its name. The wordlion, denoting a male animal, is in the +Masculine Gender;+ andlioness, denoting a female lion, is in the +Feminine Gender+.
The names of thingswithoutsex are in the +Neuter Gender+.
Such words ascousin, child, friend, neighbor, may beeither masculine or feminine.
Genderis that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex.
TheMasculine Genderdenotes the male sex.
TheFeminine Genderdenotes the female sex.
TheNeuter Genderdenotes want of sex+.
The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways:—
1st. By a difference in the ending of the nouns.
2d. By different words in the compound names.
3d. By words wholly or radically different.
Arrange the following pairs in separate columns with reference to these ways.
Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; Francis, Frances; Jesse, Jessie; bachelor, maid; beau, belle; monk, nun; gander, goose; administrator, administratrix; baron, baroness; count, countess; czar, czarina; don, donna; boy, girl; drake, duck; lord, lady; nephew, niece; landlord, landlady; gentleman, gentlewoman; peacock, peahen; duke, duchess; hero, heroine; host, hostess; Jew, Jewess; man-servant, maid-servant; sir, madam; wizard, witch; marquis, marchioness; widow, widower; heir, heiress; Paul, Pauline; Augustus, Augusta.
What new way of varying the meaning of words is introduced in Lesson 78? Illustrate. What are modifications of the parts of speech? What is number? How many numbers are there? Name and define each. Give the rule for forming the plural of nouns. Illustrate the variations of this rule. What is gender? How many genders are there? Name and define each. In how many ways are the genders distinguished? Illustrate.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—Numberandgender, as you have already learned, are modifications affecting themeaningof nouns and pronouns. Number is almost always indicated by the ending; gender, sometimes. There are two other modifications which refer not to changes in themeaningof nouns and pronouns, but to their differentusesandrelations. In the English language, these changes are not often indicated by a change ofform.
I Paulhave written.Paul, thouart beside thyself.HebroughtPaulbefore Agrippa. In these three sentences the wordPaulhasthree different uses. In the first, it is used as the name of thespeaker; in the second, as the name ofone spoken to; in the third, as the name ofone spoken of. You will notice that theformof the noun was not changed. This change in the use of nouns and pronouns is called +Person+. The wordIin the first sentence, the wordthouin the second, and the wordhein the third have each a different use.I,thou, andheare personal pronouns, and, as you have learned, distinguishpersonby theirform.I, denoting the speaker, is in the +First Person+;thou, denoting the one spoken to, is in the +Second Person+; andhe, denoting the one spoken of, is in the +Third Person+.
Personal pronounsandverbsare the only words that distinguish person by their form.
The bear killed the man.The man killed the bear.The bear's grease was made into hair oil. In the first sentence, the bear is represented asperformingan action; in the second, asreceivingan action; in the third, aspossessingsomething. So the wordbearin these sentences has three different uses. These uses of nouns are called +Cases+. The use of a noun as subject is called the +Nominative Case+; its use as object is called the +Objective Case+; and its use to denote possession is called the +Possessive Case+.
Thepossessiveis the only case of nouns that is indicated by a change inform.
A noun or pronoun used as anattributecomplement is in thenominative case. A noun or pronoun following a preposition as the principal word of a phrase is in theobjective case.Iandhearenominativeforms.Meandhimareobjectiveforms.
The following sentences are therefore incorrect: It isme; It ishim;Megave the pen tohe.
Personis that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of.
TheFirst Persondenotes the one speaking.
TheSecond Persondenotes the one spoken to.
TheThird Persondenotes the one spoken of.
Caseis that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office in the sentence.
TheNominative Case of a noun or pronoundenotes its office as subject or as attribute complement.
ThePossessive Case of a noun or pronoundenotes its office as possessive modifier.
TheObjective Case of a noun or pronoundenotes its office as object complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase+.
Tell thepersonandcaseof each of the following nouns and pronouns.
+Remember+ that a noun or pronoun used as anexplanatory modifieris in the same case as the word which it explains, and that a noun or pronoun usedindependentlyis in thenominative case.
We Americans do things in a hurry.You Englishmen take more time to think.The Germans do their work with the most patience and deliberation.We boys desire a holiday.Come on, my men; I will lead you.I, your teacher, desire your success.You, my pupils, are attentive.I called on Tom, the tinker.Friends, countrymen, and lovers, hear me for my cause.
Write simple sentences in which each of the following nouns shall be used in thethree personsand in thethree cases.
Andrew Jackson, Alexander, Yankees.
Write a sentence containing a noun in thenominativecase, used as anattribute;one in thenominative, used as anexplanatory modifier; one in thenominative, used independently.
Write a sentence containing a noun in theobjective case, used tocomplete two predicate verbs; one used tocompleteaparticiple; one used tocompleteaninfinitive; one usedwith a prepositionto make a phrase; one used as anexplanatory modifier.
+To the Teacher+.—See pp. 183, 184.
+DEFINITION.—Declensionis the arrangement of the cases of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers+.
Declension of Nouns.
Singular.Plural.Nom. lady, ladies,Pos. lady's, ladies',Obj. lady; ladies.
Singular.Plural.Nom.child, children,Pos.child's, children's,Obj.child; children.
Declension of Pronouns.
Singular.Plural.Nom.I, we,Pos.myormine, ourorours,Obj.me; us.
SECOND PERSON—common form.
Singular.Plural.Nom.you, you,Pos.youroryours, youroryours,Obj.you; you.
SECOND PERSON—old form.
Singular.Plural.Nom.thou, ye or you,Pos.thyorthine, youroryours,Obj.thee; you.
THIRD PERSON—masculine.
Singular.Plural.Nom.he, they,Pos.his, theirortheirs,Obj.him; them.
THIRD PERSON—feminine.
Singular.Plural.Nom.she, they,Pos.herorhers, theirortheirs,Obj.her; them.
THIRD PERSON——neuter.
Singular.Plural.Nom.it, they,Pos.its, theirortheirs,Obj.it; them.
Mine, ours, yours, thine, hers, andtheirsare used when the name of the thing possessed is omitted; as, This rose isyours= This rose isyour rose.
By joining the wordselfto the possessive formsmy, thy, your, and to the objective formshim, her, it, the +Compound Personal Pronouns+ are formed. They have no possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and the objective.
Their plurals areourselves,yourselves, andthemselves. Form thecompound personal pronouns, and write their declension.
Sing. and Plu.Nom.who,Pos.whose,Obj.whom.
Sing. and Plu.Nom.which,Pos.whose,Obj.which.
Of whichis often used instead of the possessive form of the latter pronoun.
Sing. and Plu.Nom.that,Pos.——,Obj.that.
Sing. and Plu.Nom.what,Pos.——,Obj.what.
Everandsoeverare added towho, which, andwhatto form the +Compound Relative Pronouns+. They are used when the antecedent is omitted. For declension, see above.
+RULE.—Thepossessive caseof nouns is formed in the singular by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and the letters('s); in the plural, by adding (') only. If the plural does not end ins, the apostrophe and thesare both added+.
Write thepossessive singularand thepossessive pluralof the following nouns, and place an appropriate noun after each.
Robin, friend, fly, hero, woman, bee, mouse, cuckoo, fox, ox, man, thief,fairy, mosquito, wolf, shepherd, farmer, child, neighbor, cow.
Possession may be expressed also by the prepositionofand theobjective; as, themosquito'sbill = the billofthemosquito.
The possessive sign ('s) is confinedchieflyto the names of persons and animals.
We do not say thechair'slegs, but the legsofthechair. Regard must be had also to thesound.
IMPROVE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence.
The sky's color; the cloud's brilliancy; the rose's leaves; my uncle's partner's house; George's father's friend's farm; the mane of the horse of my brother; my brother's horse's mane.
When there are several possessive nouns, all belonging to one word, the possessive sign is added to the last only. If they modify different words, the sign is added to each.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence.
+Model+.—Webster and Worcester's dictionary may be bought at Ticknor's and Field's book-store.
The possessive sign should be added toWebster, for the worddictionaryis understood immediately after. Webster and Worcester do not together possess the same dictionary. The sign should not be added toTicknor, for the two men, Tieknor and Field, possess the same store.
Adam's and Eve's garden; Jacob's and Esau's father; Shakespeare and Milton's works; Maud, Kate, and Clara's gloves; Maud's, Kate's, and Clara's teacher was ——.
When one possessive noun is explanatory of another, the possessive sign is added to the last only.
I called at Tom's the tinker's.They listened to Peter's the Hermit's eloquence.This was the Apostle's Paul's advice.
Our's, your's, hi's, their's, her's, it's, hisn, yourn, hern.
+Remember+ thatI, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, andwhoare +nominative+ forms, and must not be used in the objective case.
+Remember+ thatme, us, thee, him, her, them, andwhomare +objective+ forms, and must not be used in the nominative case.
+To the Teacher+.—Theeightnominative forms and thesevenobjective forms given above are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the English language. Let the pupils become familiar with them.
Him and me are good friends.The two persons were her and me.Us girls had a jolly time.It is them, surely.Who will catch this? Me.Them that despise me shall be lightly esteemed.Who is there? Me.It was not us, it was him.Who did you see?Who did you ask for?
+Remember+ that pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number, gender, and person.
Every boy must read their own sentences.I gave the horse oats, but he would not eat it.Every one must read it for themselves.I took up the little boy, and set it on my knee.
+Remember+ that the relativewhorepresents persons;which, animals and things;that, persons, animals, and things; andwhat, things.
I have a dog who runs to meet me.The boy which I met was quite lame.Those which live in glass houses must not throw stones.
+To the Teacher+.—For "Schemes," see p. 186.
How many modifications have nouns and pronouns? Name and define each. How many persons are there? Define each. How many cases are there? Define each. How do you determine the case of an explanatory noun or pronoun? What is declension? How are the formsmine, yours, etc., now used? What is the rule for forming the possessive case? What words are used only in the nominative case? What words are used only in the objective case? [Footnote:Heris used in the possessive case also.] How do you determine the number, gender, and person of pronouns?
+To the Teacher+.—For general "Scheme" for parsing, see p. 189.
Select and parse all the nouns and pronouns in Lesson 53.
+Model for Written Parsing+.—Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I.
Elizabeth'sCLASSIFICATION.Nouns.Kind. Prop.MODIFICATIONS.Person. 3dNumber. Sing.Gender. Fem.Case. Pos.SYNTAX. Pos. Mod. offavorite.
favoriteCLASSIFICATION.Nouns.Kind. Com.MODIFICATIONS.Person. 3dNumber. Sing.Gender. Mas.Case. Nom.SYNTAX. Sub. ofwas beheaded.
RaleighCLASSIFICATION.Nouns.Kind. Prop.MODIFICATIONS.Person. 3dNumber. Sing.Gender. Mas.Case. Nom.SYNTAX. Exp. Mod. offavorite.
James I.CLASSIFICATION.Nouns.Kind. Prop.MODIFICATIONS.Person. 3dNumber. Sing.Gender. Mas.Case. Obj.SYNTAX. Prin. word afterby.
+To the Teacher+.—Select other exercises, and continue this work as long as it may be profitable. See Lessons 56, 57, 61, 64, and 65.
+Adjectives have one modification;+ viz.,Comparison.
+Comparisonis a modification of the adjective to express the relative degree of the quality in the things compared+.
+ThePositive degreeexpresses the simple quality+.
+TheComparative degreeexpresses a greater or a less degree of the quality+.
+TheSuperlative degreeexpresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality+.
+RULE.—Adjectives are regularly compared by addingerto the positive to form the comparative, andestto the positive to form the superlative+.
Adjectives of one syllable aregenerallycompared regularly; adjectives of two or more syllables are often compared by prefixingmoreandmost.
When there are two correct forms, choose the one that can be more easily pronounced.
Compare the following adjectives. For the spelling, consult your dictionaries.
Model.—Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Lovely, lovelier, loveliest;orlovely, more lovely, most lovely.
Tame, warm, beautiful, brilliant, amiable, high, mad, greedy, pretty, hot.
Some adjectives are comparedirregularly. Learn the following forms.
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.Good, better, best.Bad, |Evil, + worse, worst.Ill, |Little, less, least.Much, |Many, | more, most.
+Remember+ that, when two things or groups of things are compared, thecomparativedegree is commonly used; when more than two, thesuperlativeis employed.
+Caution+.—Adjectives should not bedoublycompared.
Of all the boys, George is the more industrious.Peter was older than the twelve apostles.Which is the longer of the rivers of America?This was the most unkindest cut of all.He chose a more humbler part.My hat is more handsomer than yours.The younger of those three boys is the smarter.Which is the more northerly, Maine, Oregon, or Minnesota?
+Caution+.—Do not use adjectives and adverbs extravagantly.
The weather is horrid.That dress is perfectly awful.Your coat sits frightfully.We had an awfully good time.This is a tremendously hard lesson.Harry is a mighty nice boy.
+Remember+ that adjectives whose meaning does not admit of different degrees cannot be compared; as,every,universal.
Use in the three different degrees such of the following adjectives as admit of comparison.
All, serene, excellent, immortal, first, two, total, infinite, three-legged, bright.
+Adverbs+ are compared in the same manner as adjectives. The following are compared regularly. Compare them.
Fast, often, soon, late, early.
In the preceding and in the following list, find words that may be used as adjectives.
The following are compared irregularly. Learn them.
Pos. Comp. Sup.—————- ————— ———— Badly, Ill, worse, worst. Well, better, best. Little, less, least. Much, more, most. Far, farther, farthest.
Adverbs ending inlyare generally compared by prefixingmoreandmost. Compare the following.
Firmly, gracefully, actively, easily.
+To the Teacher+.—Let the pupils select and parse all the adjectives and adverbs in Lesson 27. For forms, see p. 189. Select other exercises, and continue the work as long as it is profitable. See "Schemes" for review, p. 188.
How is a noun parsed? What modification have adjectives? What is comparison? How many degrees of comparison are there? Define each. How are adjectives regularly compared? Distinguish the uses of the comparative and the superlative degree. Give the directions for using adjectives and adverbs (Lesson 88). Illustrate. What adjectives cannot be compared? How are adverbs compared?
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—I picked the rose. I will tell the same thing in another way.The rose was picked by me. The first verbpickedshows that the subjectIrepresents the actor, and the second form of the verb,was picked, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. This change in the form of the verb is called +Voice+. The first form is called the +Active Voice+; and the second, the +Passive Voice+.
Thepassiveform is very convenient when we wish to assert an action without naming any actor.Money is coinedis better thansomebody coins money.
+Voiceis that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject names theactoror thething acted upon+.
+TheActive Voiceshows that the subject names the actor+.
+ThePassive Voiceshows that the subject names the thing acted upon+.
In each of the following sentences, change thevoiceof the verb without changing the meaning of the sentence. Note the other changes that occur in the sentence.
The industrious bees gather honey from the flowers.The storm drove the vessel against the rock.Our words should be carefully chosen.Death separates the dearest friends.His vices have weakened his mind and destroyed his health.True valor protects the feeble and humbles the oppressor.The Duke of Wellington, who commanded the English armies in thePeninsula, never lost a battle.Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt.Dr. Livingstone explored a large part of Africa.The English were conquered by the Normans.
Name all the transitive verbs in Lessons 20 and 22, and give, theirvoice.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—When I say,James walks, I assert the walking as afact. When I say,James may walk, I do not assert the action as a fact, but as apossibleaction. When I say,If James walk out, he will improve, I assert the action, not as an actual fact, but as aconditionof James's, improving. When I say to James,Walk out, I do not assert that James actually does the act, I assert the action as acommand.
The action expressed by the verbwalkhas been asserted infourdifferentways, or +modes+. The first way is called the +Indicative Mode+; the second, the +Potential Mode+; the third, the +Subjunctive Mode+; the fourth, the +Imperative Mode+.
Let the teacher give other examples and require the pupils to repeat this instruction.
For the two forms of the verb called the +Infinitive+ and the +Participle+, see "Hints," Lessons 48 and 49.
I walk. I walked. I shall walk. In each of these three sentences, the manner of asserting the action is the same.I walkexpresses the action aspresent.I walkedexpresses the action aspast, andI shall walkexpresses the action asfuture. As +Tense+ meanstime, the first form is called the +Present Tense+; the second, the +Past Tense+; and the third, the +Future Tense+.
We have three other forms of the verb, expressing the action ascompletedin thepresent, thepast, or thefuture.
I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall have walked out by to-morrow. The form,have walked, expressing the action ascompletedin the present, is called the +Present Perfect Tense+. The form,had walked, expressing the action ascompletedin the past, is called the +Past Perfect Tense+. The form,shall have walked, expressing an action to becompletedin the future, is called the +Future Perfect Tense+.
Let the teacher give other verbs, and require the pupils to name and explain the different tenses.
I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk.
In the second sentence, the verbwalkwas changed by addingest; and in the third, it was changed by addings. These changes are for the sake of agreement with the person of the subject. The verb ending inestagrees with the subjectthouin the second person, and the verb ending insagrees withhein the third person. In the fourth sentence, the subject is in the third person; but it is plural, and so the verb drops thesto agree with they in the plural.
Verbs are said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. The person and numberformswill be found in Lessons 93, 94.
+Modeis that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being+.
+TheIndicative Modeasserts the action or being as a fact+.
+ThePotential Modeasserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of acting or being+.
+TheSubjunctive Modeasserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition, or wish+.
+TheImperative Modeasserts the action or being as a command or an entreaty+.
+TheInfinitiveis a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of anything+.
+TheParticipleis a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+.
+ThePresent Participledenotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the predicate+.
+ThePast Participledenotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated by the predicate+.
+ThePast Perfect Participledenotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate+.
+Tenseis that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being+.
+ThePresent Tenseexpresses action or being as present+.
+ThePast Tenseexpresses action or being as past+.
+TheFuture Tenseexpresses action or being as yet to come+.
+ThePresent Perfect Tenseexpresses action or being as completed at the present time+.
+ThePast Perfect Tenseexpresses action or being as completed at some past time+.
+TheFuture Perfect Tenseexpresses action or being to be completed at some future time+.
+NumberandPersonof a verb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject+.
+Conjugationis the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb+.
+Synopsisis the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person in all the modes and tenses+.
+Auxiliary Verbsare those that help in the conjugation of other verbs+.
The auxiliaries aredo,be,have,shall,will,may,can, andmust.
+ThePrincipal Partsof a verb are the present indicative or the present infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle+.
These are calledprincipal parts, because all the other forms of the verb are derived from them.
We give, below, theprincipal partsof some of the most importantirregular verbs. Learn them.
Present.Past.Past. Par.Beoram, was, been.Begin, began, begun.Blow, blew, blown.Break, broke, broken.Choose, chose, chosen.Come, came, come.Do, did, done.Draw, drew, drawn.Drink, drank, drunk.Drive, drove, driven.Eat, ate, eaten.Fall, fell, fallen.Fly, flew, flown.Freeze, froze, frozen.Go, went, gone.Get, got, gotorgotten.Give, gave, given.Grow, grew, grown.Have, had, had.Know, knew, known.Lay, laid, laid.Lie, (to rest) lay, lain.Ride, rode, ridden.Ring, rangorrung, rung.Rise, rose, risen.Run, ran, run.See, saw, seen.Set, set, set.Sit, sat, sat.Shake, shook, shaken.Sing, sangorsung, sung.Slay, slew, slain.Speak, spoke, spoken.Steal, stole, stolen.Swim, swamorswum, swum.Take, took, taken.Tear, tore, torn.Throw, threw, thrown.Wear, wore, worn.Write, wrote, written.
The following irregular verbs are called +Defective,+ because some of their parts are wanting.
Present.Past. |Present.Past. ——————————|——————————- Can, could. | Will, would. May, might. | Must, —— Shall, should. | Ought, ——
Pres.Past.Past Par.See, saw, seen.
Singular.Plural. 1. I see, 1. We see, 2. You see,or2. You see, Thou seest, 3. He sees; 3. They see.
1. I saw, 1. We saw, 2. You saw,or2. You saw, Thou sawest, 3. He saw; 3. They saw.
1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 2. You will see,or2. You will see, Thou wilt see, 3. He will see; 3. They will see.
1. I have seen, 1. We have seen, 2. You have seen,or2. You have seen, Thou hast seen 3. He has seen; 3. They have seen.
1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 2. You had seen,or2. You had seen, Thou hadst seen, 3. He had seen; 3. They had seen.
1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 2. You will have seen,or2. You will have seen, Thou wilt have seen, 3. He will have seen; 3. They will have seen.
Singular.Plural. 1. I may see, 1. We may see, 2. You may see,or2. You may see, Thou mayst see, 3. He may see; 3. They may see.
1. I might see, 1. We might see, 2. You might see,orThou mightst see, 2. You might see, 3. He might see; 3. They might see.
1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, 2. You may have seen,or2. You may have seen Thou mayst have seen, 3. He may have seen; 3. They may have seen.
Singular.Plural. 1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 2. You might have seen,or2. You might have seen, Thou mightst have seen, 3. He might have seen; 3. They might have seen.
Singular.Plural. 1. If I see, 1. If we see, 2. If you see,or2. If you see, If thou see, 3. If he see; 3. If they see.
2. See (youorthou); 2. See (you).
To see.
To have seen.
Seeing, Seen, Having seen.
+To the Teacher+.—Let the pupils prefixdoanddidto the simple presentsee, and thus make theemphatic formof the present and the past tense.
Letcanandmustbe used in place ofmay; andcould,would, andshould, in place ofmight.
Require the pupils to tell how each tense is formed, and to note all changes for agreement in number and person.
A majority of modern writers use theindicativeforms instead of thesubjunctive, in all of the tenses, unless it may be thepresent. Thesubjunctiveforms of the verbto beare retained in the present and the past tense. Let the pupils understand that the mode and tense forms do not always correspond with the actual meaning.The ship sails next week. I may go to-morrow. The verbssailsandmay goarepresentin form butfuturein meaning.If it rains by noon, he may not come. The verbrainsisindicativein form butsubjunctivein meaning.
The plural forms,You saw, You were, etc., are used in thesingularalso.