Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of the verbwalk.Pres., walk; Past, walked; Past Par., walked.
Singular.Plural. 1. I /Pres/, 1. We /Pres/, 2. You /Pres/, 2. You /Pres/, Thou /Pres/est, 3. He /Pres/s; 3. They /Pres/.
1. I /Past/, 1. We /Past/, 2. You /Past/, 2. You /Past/, Thou /Past/st, 3. He /Past/; 3. They /Past/.
1. Ishall/Pres/, 1. Wewill/Pres/, 2. Youwill/Pres/, 2. Youwill/Pres/, Thouwil-t/Pres/, 3. Hewill/Pres/; 3. Theywill/Pres/.
1. Ihave/Past Par./, 1. Wehave/Past Par./, 2. Youhave/Past Par./, 2. Youhave/Past Par./, Thouha-st/Past Par./, 3. Heha-s/Past Par./; 3. Theyhave/Past Par./.
1. Ihad/Past Par./, 1. Wehad/Past Par./, 2. Youhad/Past Par./, 2. Youhad/Past Par./, Thouhad-st/Past Par./, 3. Hehad/Past Par./; 3. Theyhad/Past Par./.
1. Ishall have/Past Par./, 1. Wewill havePast Par., 2. Youwill have/Past Par./, 2. Youwill havePast Par., Thouwil-t have/Past Par./, 3. Hewill have/Past Par./; 3. Theywill havePast Par..
1. Imay/Pres./, 1. Wemay/Pres./, 2. Youmay/Pres./, 2. Youmay/Pres./, Thoumay-st/Pres./, 3. Hemay/Pres./; 3. Theymay/Pres./.
1. Imight/Pres./, 1. Wemight/Pres./, 2. Youmight/Pres./, 2. Youmight/Pres./, Thoumight-st/Pres./, 3. Hemight/Pres./; 3. Theymight/Pres./.
1. Imay have/Past Par./, 1. Wemay have/Past Par./, 2. Youmay have/Past Par./, 2. Youmay have/Past Par./, Thoumay-st have/Past Par./, 3. Hemay have/Past Par./; 3. Theymay have/Past Par./.
1. Imight have/Past Par./, 1. Wemight have/Past Par./, 2. Youmight have/Past Par./, 2. Youmight have/Past Par./, Thoumight-st have/Past Par./, 3. Hemight have/Past Par./; 3. Theymight have/Past Par./.
Singular.Plural. 1. If I /Pres./, 1. If we /Pres./, 2. If you /Pres./, 2. If you /Pres./, If thou /Pres./, 3. If he /Pres./; 3. If they /Pres./.
2. /Pres./ (youorthou); 2. /Pres./ (you).
To /Pres./.
Tohave/Past Par./.
PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. /Pres./ing. /Past Par./Having /Past Par./
+To the Teacher+.—Let the pupils fill out these forms with other verbs. In the indicative, present, third, singular,esis sometimes added instead ofs; and in the second person, old style,stis sometimes added instead ofest.
In studying this Lesson, pay no attention to the line at the right of each verb.
Singular.Plural. 1. I am ——, 1. We are ——, 2. You are ——or2. You are ——, Thou art ——, 3. He is ——; 3. They are ——.
1. I was ——, 1. We were ——, 2. You were ——,or2. You were ——, Thou wast ——, 3. He was ——; 3. They were ——.
1. I shall be ——, 1. We shall be ——, 2. You will be ——,or2. You will be ——, Thou wilt be ——, 3. He will be ——; 3. They will be ——.
1. I have been ——, 1. We have been ——, 2. You have been ——or2. You have been ——, Thou hast been ——, 3. He has been ——; 3. They have been ——.
1. I had been ——, 1. We had been ——, 2. You had been ——or2. You had been ——, Thou hadst been ——, 3. He had been ——; 3. They had been ——.
1. I shall have been ——, 1. We shall have been ——, 2. You will have been ——or2. You will have been ——, Thou wilt have been ——, 3. He will has been ——; 3. They will have been ——.
Singular.Plural. 1. I may be ——, 1. We may be ——, 2. You may be ——or2. You may be ——, Thou mayst be ——, 3. He may be ——; 3. They may be ——.
1. I might be ——, 1. We might be ——, 2. You might be ——or2. You might be ——, Thou mightst be ——, 3. He might be ——; 3. They might be ——.
1. I may have been ——, 1. We may have been ——, 2. You may have been ——or2. You may have been ——, Thou mayst have been ——, 3. He may have been ——; 3. They may have been ——.
1. I might have been ——, 1. We might have been ——, 2. You might have been ——or2. You might have been ——, Thou mightst have been ——, 3. He might have been ——; 3. They might have been ——.
Singular.Plural. 1. If I be ——, 1. If we be ——, 2. If you be ——or2. If you be ——, If thou be ——, 3. If he be ——; 3. If they be ——.
1. If I were ——, 1. If we were ——, 2. If you were ——or2. If you were ——, If thou wert ——, 3. If he were ——; 3. If they were ——.
2. Be (youorthem) ——; 2. Be (you)———.
PRESENT TENSE.To be ——.
To have been ——.
PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT.Being ——. Been. Having been ——.
+To the Teacher+.—After the pupils have become thoroughly familiar with the verbbeas a principal verb, teach them to use it as an auxiliary in making the +Progressive Form+ and the +Passive Form+.
Theprogressive formmay be made by filling all the blanks with thepresent participleof some verb.
Thepassive formmay be made by filling all the blanks with thepast participleof atransitiveverb.
Notice that, after the past participle, no blank is left.
In the progressive form, this participle is wanting; and, in the passive form, it is the same as in the simple.
+To the Teacher+.—For additional matter, see pp. 163-167.
+Remember+ that the verb must agree with its subject in number and person.
Give the person and number of each of the following verbs, and write sentences in which each form shall be used correctly.
Common forms.—Does, has=ha(ve)s, is, am, are, was, were.
Old forms.—Seest, sawest, hast=ha(ve)st, wilt, mayst, mightst, art, wast.
When a verb has two or more subjects connected byand, it must agree with them in the plural.A similar rule applies to the agreement of the pronoun.
+Model+.—Poverty and obscurityoppresseshim who thinks thatit is oppressive.
Wrong: the verboppressesshould be changed tooppressto agree with its two subjects, connected byand. The pronounitshould be changed totheyto agree with its two antecedents, and the verbisshould be changed toareto agree withthey.
Industry, energy, and good sense is essential to success.Time and tide waits for no man.The tall sunflower and the little violet is turning its face to the sun.The mule and the horse was harnessed together.Every green leaf and every blade of grass seem grateful.
+Model+.—The preceding sentence is wrong. The verbseemis plural, and it should be singular; for, when several singular subjects are preceded byeach, every_, orno, they are taken separately.
Each day and each hour bring their portion of duty.Every book and every paper were found in their place.
When a verb has two or more singular subjects connected byorornor, it must agree with them in the singular.A similar rule applies to the agreement of the pronoun.
One or the other have made a mistake in their statement.Neither the aster nor the dahlia are cultivated for their fragrance.Either the president or his secretary were responsible.Neither Ann, Jane, nor Sarah are at home.
To foretell, or to express future time simply, the auxiliaryshallis used in the first person, andwillin the second and third; but when a speaker determines or promises, he useswillin the first person andshallin the second and third.
I will freeze, if I do not move about.You shall feel better soon, I think.She shall be fifteen years old to-morrow.I shall find it for you, if you shall bring the book to me.You will have it, if I can get it for you.He will have it, if he shall take the trouble to ask for it.He will not do it, if I can prevent him.I will drown, nobody shall help me.I will be obliged to you, if you shall attend to it.We will have gone by to-morrow morning.You shall disappoint your father, if you do not return.I do not think I will like the change.Next Tuesday shall be your birthday.You shall be late, if you do not hurry.
+Model+.—Those thingshavenotcame to-day.
Wrong, because the pastcameis here used for the past participlecome. The present perfect tense is formed by prefixinghaveto thepast participle.
I done all my work before breakfast.I come in a little late yesterday.He has went to my desk without permission.That stupid fellow set down on my new hat.
Setis generally transitive, andsitis intransitive.Layis transitive, andlieis intransitive.
He sat the chair in the corner.Sit that plate on the table, and let it set.I have set in this position a long time.That child will not lay still or set still a minute.I laid down under the tree, and enjoyed the scenery.Lie that stick on the table, and let it lay.Those boys were drove out of the fort three times.I have rode through the park.I done what I could.He has not spoke to-day.The leaves have fell from the trees.This sentence is wrote badly.He throwed his pen down, and said that the point was broke.He teached me grammar.I seen him when he done it.My hat was took off my head, and throwed out of the window.The bird has flew into that tall tree.I was chose leader.I have began to do better. I begun this morning.My breakfast was ate in a hurry.Your dress sets well.That foolish old hen is setting on a wooden egg.He has tore it up and throwed it away.William has took my knife, and I am afraid he has stole it.This should be well shook.I begun to sing, before I knowed what I was doing.We drunk from a pure spring.I thought you had forsook us.His pencil is nearly wore up.He come, and tell me all he knowed about it.
+To the Teacher+.—See "Scheme," p. 187.
How many modifications have verbs? Ans.—Five; viz., voice, mode, tense, number, and person. Define voice. How many voices are there? Define each. Illustrate. What is mode? How many modes are there? Define each. What is an infinitive? What is a participle? How many different kinds of participles are there? Define each. Illustrate. What is tense? How many tenses are there? Define each. Illustrate. What are the number and the person of a verb? Illustrate. What is conjugation? What is synopsis? What are auxiliaries? Name the auxiliaries. What are the principal parts of a verb? Why are they so called? How does a verb agree with its subject? When a verb has two or more subjects, how does it agree? Illustrate the uses ofshallandwill.
+To the Teacher+.—Select some of the preceding exercises, and require the pupils to write the parsing of all the verbs. See Lessons 34, 35, 48, 49, and 56.
+Model for Written Parsing—Verbs+.—The Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands.
Verbs.Kind.Voice.Mode.Tense.Num.Per.
*selling Pr. Par., Ir., Tr. Ac. —- —- —- —- Mod. ofYankee. wanders Reg., Int. —- Ind. Pres. Sing. 3d. Pred. of " *seek Inf, Ir., Tt, Ac. —- " —- —- Prin. word in phrase Mod. ofwanders.
[Footnote *: Participles and Infinitives have nopersonornumber.]
Participles sometimes partake of the nature of the noun, while they retain the nature of the verb.
Build each of the following phrases into a sentence, and explain the nature of the participle.
+Model+.— ——in building a snow fort. They were engagedin building a snow fort. The participlebuilding, like a noun, follows the prepositionin, as the principal word in the phrase; and, like a verb, it takes the object complementfort.
—— by foretelling storms. —— by helping others. —— on approaching the house. ——- in catching fish.
Use the following phrases as subjects.
Walking in the garden ——. His writing that letter ——. Breaking apromise ——.
Use each of the following phrases in a complex sentence. Let some of the dependent clauses be used as adjectives, and some, as adverbs.
—— in sledges. —— up the Hudson. —— down the Rhine. —— through the Alps. —— with snow and ice. —— into New York Bay. —— on the prairie. —— at Saratoga.
Build a short sentence containing all the parts of speech.
Expand the following simple sentence into twelve sentences.
Astronomy teaches the size, form, nature, and motions of the sun, moon,and stars.
Contract the following awkward compound sentence into a neat simple sentence,
Hannibal passed through Gaul, and then he crossed the Alps, and then camedown into Italy, and then he defeated several Roman generals.
Change the following complex sentences to compound sentences.
When he asked me the question, I answered him courteously.Morse, the man who invented the telegraph, was a public benefactor.When spring comes, the birds will return.
Contract the following complex sentences into simple sentences by changing the verb in the dependent clause to a participle. Notice all the other changes.
A ship which was gliding along the horizon attracted our attention.I saw a man who was plowing a field.When the shower had passed, we went on our way.I heard that he wrote that article.That he was a foreigner was well known.I am not sure that he did it.Every pupil who has an interest in this work will prepare for it.
Change the following compound sentences to complex sentences.
+Model+.—Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. When morning dawns, the clouds disperse.
Avoid swearing; it is a wicked habit.Pearls are valuable, and they are found in oyster shells.Dickens wrote David Copperfield, and he died in 1870.Some animals are vertebrates, and they have a backbone.
Expand each of the following sentences as much as you can.
Indians dance. The clock struck. The world moves.
I have got that book at home.
+Model+.—Wrong, becausehave, alone, asserts possession.Got, used in the sense ofobtained, is correct; as,I have just got the book.
Have you got time to help me?There is many mistakes in my composition.
+Model+.—Wrong, becauseisshould agree with its plural subjectmistakes. The adverbthereis often used to introduce a sentence, that the subject may follow the predicate. This often makes the sentence sound smooth, and gives variety.
There goes my mother and sister.Here comes the soldiers.There was many friends to greet him.It ain't there.
+Model+.—Ain'tis a vulgar contraction. Correction—Itis notthere.
I have made up my mind that it ain't no use.'Tain't so bad as you think.Two years' interest were due.Every one of his acts were criticised.I, Henry, and you have been chosen.
+Model+.—Wrong, for politeness requires that you should mention the one spoken to, first; the one spoken of, next; and yourself, last.
He invited you and I and Mary.Me and Jane are going to the fair.I only want a little piece.He is a handsome, tall man.Did you sleep good?How much trouble one has, don't they?He inquired for some tinted ladies' note-paper.You needn't ask me nothing about it, for I haven't got no time to answer.Him that is diligent will succeed.He found the place sooner than me.Who was that? It was me and him.If I was her, I would say less.Bring me them tongs.Us boys have a base-ball club.Whom did you say that it was?Who did you speak to just now?Who did you mean, when you said that?Where was you when I called?There's twenty of us going.Circumstances alters cases.Tell them to set still.He laid down by the fire.She has lain her book aside.It takes him everlastingly.That was an elegant old rock.
1. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 2. Strike! till the last armed foe expires! 3. You wrong me, Brutus. 4. Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? 5. Why stand we here idle? 6. Give me liberty, or give me death! 7. Thy mercy, O Lord, is in the heavens, and thy faithfulness reacheth unto the clouds. 8. The clouds poured out water, the skies sent out a sound, the voice of thy thunder was in the heaven. 9. The heavens declare his righteousness, and all the people see his glory. 10. The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated landscape, the boundless ocean, and the starry firmament are beautiful and magnificent objects. 11. When you grind your corn, give not the flour to the devil and the bran to God. 12. That which the fool does in the end, the wise man does at the beginning. 13. Xerxes commanded the largest army that was ever brought into the field. 14. Without oxygen, fires would cease to burn, and all animals would immediately die. 15. Liquids, when acted upon by gravity, press downward, upward, and sideways. 16. Matter exists in three states—the solid state, the liquid state, and the gaseous state. 17. The blending of the seven prismatic colors produces white light. 18. Soap-bubbles, when they are exposed to light, exhibit colored rings. 19. He who yields to temptation debases himself with a debasement from which he can never arise. 20. Young eyes that last year smiled in ours Now point the rifle's barrel; And hands then stained with fruits and flowers Bear redder stains of quarrel.
+Capital Letters+.—The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) a line of poetry, (3) a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a capital letter (5) proper names and words derived from them, (6) names of things personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in capital letters (8) the wordsIandO, and (9) numbers in the Roman notation. [Footnote: Small letters are preferred where numerous references to chapters, etc., are made.]
+Examples+.—1. The judicious are always a minority.
2. Honor and shame from no condition rise; Act well your part, there all the honor lies. 3. The question is, "Can law make people honest?" 4. Paintings are useful for these reasons: 1. They please; 2. They instruct. 5. The heroic Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir Bay. 6. Next, Anger rushed, his eyes on fire. 7. The Atlantic ocean beat Mrs. Partington. 8. The use ofOandohI am now to explain. 9. Napoleon II. never came to the throne.
+Period+.—Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative sentence, (2) an abbreviation, and (3) a number written in the Roman notation.
For examples see 1, 7, and 9 in the sentences above.
+Interrogation Point+.—Every direct interrogative sentence or clause should be followed by an interrogation point.
+Example+.—King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets?
+Exclamation Point+.—All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point.
+Example+.—Oh! bloodiest picture in the book of time! +Comma+.—Set off by the comma (1) a phrase out of its natural order or not closely connected with the word it modifies; (2) an explanatory modifier that does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it; (3) a participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless restrictive; (4) the adjective clause, when not restrictive; (5) the adverb clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies; (6) a word or phrase independent or nearly so; (7) a direct quotation introduced into a sentence, unlessformallyintroduced; (8) a noun clause used as an attribute complement; and (9) a term connected to another by or and having the same meaning. Separate by the comma (10) connected words and phrases, unless all the conjunctions are expressed; (11) independent clauses, when short and closely connected; and (12) the parts of a compound predicate and of other phrases, when long or differently modified.
+Examples+.—l. In the distance, icebergs look like masses of burnished metal. 2. Alexandria, the capital of Lower Egypt, is an ill-looking city. 3. Labor, diving deep into the earth, brings up long-hidden stores of coal. 4. The sun, which is the center of our system, is millions of miles from us. 5. When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 6. Gentlemen, this, then, is your verdict. 7. God said, "Let there be light." 8. Nelson's signal was, "England expects every man to do his duty." 9. Rubbers, or overshoes, are worn to keep the feet dry. 10. The sable, the seal, and the otter furnish us rich furs. 11. His dark eye flashed, his proud breast heaved, his cheek's hue came and went. 12. Flights of birds darken the air, and tempt the traveler with the promise of abundant provisions.
+Semicolon+.—Independent clauses (1) when slightly connected, or (2) when themselves divided by the comma, must be separated by the semicolon. Use the semicolon (3) between serial phrases or clauses having a common dependence on something that precedes or follows; and (4) beforeas, viz., to wit., namely, i. e., andthat is, when they introduce examples or illustrations.
+Examples+.—1. The furnace blazes; the anvil rings; the busy wheels whirl round. 2. As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. 3. He drew a picture of the sufferings of our Saviour; his trial before Pilate; his ascent of Calvary; his crucifixion and death. 4. Gibbon writes, "I have been sorely afflicted with gout in the hand; to wit, laziness."
+Colon+.—Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sentence when these parts are themselves divided by the semicolon; and (2) before a quotation or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced.
+Examples+.—l. Canning's features were handsome; his eye, though deeply ensconced under his eyebrows, was full of sparkle and gayety: the features of Brougham were harsh in the extreme. 2. To Lentullus and Gellius bear this message: "Their graves are measured."
+Dash+.—Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or figures, and (2) of such words asas,namely, orthat is, introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use the dash (3) where the sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension, or another takes its place; and (4) before a word or phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used (5) instead of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow other marks, adding to their force.
+Examples+.—1. In M———w, v. 3-11, you may find the "beatitudes." 2. There are two things certain in this world—taxes and death. 3. I said—I know not what. 4. I never would lay down my arms—never— NEVER—+NEVER+. 5. Fulton started a steamboat——he called it the Clermont—on the Hudson in 1807. 6. My dear Sir,—I write this letter for information.
+Marks of Parenthesis+.—Marks of parenthesis may be used to enclose what has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence.
+Example+.—The noun (Lat.nomen, a name) is the first part of speech.
+Apostrophe+.—Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omission of letters, (2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to distinguish the possessive from other cases.
+Examples+.—1. Bo't of John Jones 10 lbs. of butter. 2. What word is there one-half of which isp's? 3. He washed the disciples' feet.
+Hyphen+.—Use the hyphen (-) (1) between the parts of compound words that have not become consolidated, and (2) between syllables when a word is divided.
+Examples+.—1. Work-baskets are convenient. 2. Dividebasketthus:bas-ket.
+Quotation Marks+—Use quotation marks to enclose a copied word or passage. If the quotation contains a quotation, the latter is enclosed within single marks.
+Example+—-The sermon closed with this sentence: "God said, 'Let there be light.'"
+Brackets+.—Use brackets [ ] to enclose what, in quoting another's words, you insert by way of explanation or correction.
+Example+.—The Psalmist says, "I prevented [anticipated] the dawning of the morning."
+To the Teacher+.—It is very profitable to exercise pupils in combining simple statements into complex and compound sentences, and in resolving complex and compound sentences into simple statements. In combining statements, it is an excellent practice for the pupil to contract, expand, transpose, and to substitute different words. They thus learn to express the same thought in a variety of ways. Any reading-book or history will furnish good material for such practice. A few examples are given below.
+Direction+.—Combine in as many ways as possible each of the following groups of sentences:—
+Example+.—This man is to be pitied. He has no friends.
1. This man has no friends, and he is to be pitied. 2. This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends. 3. Because this man has no friends, he is to be pitied. 4. This man, who has no friends, is to be pitied. 5. This man, having no friends, is to be pitied. 6. This man, without friends, is to be pitied. 7. This friendless man deserves our pity.
1. The ostrich is unable to fly. It has not wings in proportion to itsbody.2. Egypt is a fertile country. It is annually inundated by the Nile.3. The nerves are little threads, or fibers. They extend, from the brain.They spread over the whole body.4. John Gutenberg published a book. It was the first book known to havebeen printed on a printing-press. He was aided by the patronage of JohnPaust. He published it in 1455. He published it in the city of Mentz.5. The human body is a machine. A watch is delicately constructed. Thismachine is more delicately constructed. A steam-engine is complicated.This machine is more complicated. A steam-engine is wonderful. Thismachine is more wonderful.
You see that short statements closely related in meaning may be improved by being combined. But young writers frequently use too manyandsand other connectives, and make their sentences too long.
Long sentences should be broken up into short ones when the relations of the parts are not clear.
As clauses may be joined to form sentences, so sentences may be united to makeparagraphs.
A +paragraph+ is a sentence or a group of related sentences developing one point or one division of a general subject.
The first word of a paragraph should begin a new line, and should be written a little farther to the right than the first words of other lines.
+Direction+.—Combine the following statements into sentences and paragraphs, and make of them a complete composition:—
Water is a liquid. It is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. It covers about three-fourths of the surface of the earth. It takes the form of ice. It takes the form of snow. It takes the form of vapor. The air is constantly taking up water from rivers, lakes, oceans, and from damp ground. Cool air contains moisture. Heated air contains more moisture. Heated air becomes lighter. It rises. It becomes cool. The moisture is condensed into fine particles. Clouds are formed. They float across the sky. The little particles unite and form rain-drops. They sprinkle the dry fields. At night the grass and flowers become cool. The air is not so cool. The warm air touches the grass and flowers. It is chilled. It loses a part of its moisture. Drops of dew are formed. Water has many uses. Men and animals drink it. Trees and plants drink it. They drink it by means of their leaves and roots. Water is a great purifier. It cleanses our bodies. It washes our clothes. It washes the dust from the leaves and the flowers. Water is a great worker. It floats vessels. It turns the wheels of mills. It is converted into steam. It is harnessed to mighty engines. It does the work of thousands of men and horses.
+To the Teacher+.—Condensed statements of facts, taken from some book not in the hands of your pupils, may be read to them, and they may be required to expand and combine these and group them into paragraphs.
In writing a letter there are six things to consider—theHeading, theIntroduction, theBody of the Letter, theConclusion, theFolding, and theSuperscription.
+Parts+.—The Heading consists of the name of the +Place+ at which the letter is written, and the +Date+. If you write from a city, give the door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of the state. If you are at a hotel or a school, or any other well-known institution, its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street. If you write from a village or other country place, give your post-office address, the name of the county, and that of the state.
The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.
+How Written+.—Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top of the page—on the first ruled line of commercial note—and a little to the left of the middle of the page. If the Heading is very short, it may stand on one line. If it occupies more than one line, the second line should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third farther to the right than the second.
The Date stands upon a line by itself if the Heading occupies two or more lines.
The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in figures, the rest in words. Each important word begins with a capital letter, each item is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with a period.
Direction.—Study what has been said, and write the following headings according to these models:—-
1. Hull, Mass., Nov. 1, 1860.2. 1466 Colorado Ave.,Rochester, N. Y.,Apr. 3, 1870.3. Newburyport, Mass.,June 30, 1826.4. Starkville, Herkimer Co., N. Y.,Dec. 19, 1871.
1. n y rondout 11 1849 oct. 2. staten island port richmond 1877 25 january. 3. brooklyn march 1871 mansion house 29. 4. executive chamber vt february montpelier 1869 27. 5. washington franklin como nov 16 1874. 6. fifth ave may new york 460 9 1863. 7. washington d c march 1847 520 pennsylvania ave 16.
+Parts+.—The Introduction consists of the+Address+—the Name, the Title, and the Place of Business or the Residence of the one addressed—and the+Salutation+. Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the Address. PrefixMr.(plural,Messrs.) to a man's name;Masterto a boy's name;Missto the name of a girl or an unmarried lady;Mrs.to the name of a married lady. PrefixDr. to the name of a physician, or writeM.D.after his name. PrefixRev. (orThe Rev.) to the name of a clergyman; if he is a Doctor of Divinity, prefixRev. Dr., or writeRev. before his name andD.D.after it; if you do not know his Christian name, prefixRev. Mr.orRev. Dr.to his surname, but neverRev. alone.Esq.is added to the name of a lawyer, and to the names of other prominent men. Avoid such combinations as the following:Mr. John Smith, Esq., Dr. John Smith, M.D., Mr. John Smith, M.D., etc.
Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer's degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed asSir, Rev. Sir, General, Madam, Miss Brown, etc.; acquaintances asDear Sir, Dear Madam, etc.; friends asMy dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Mr. Brown, etc.; and near relatives and other dear friends asMy dear Wife, My dear Boy, Dearest Ellen, etc.
+How Written+.—The Address may follow the Heading, beginning on the next line, or the next but one, and standing on the left side of the page; or it may stand in corresponding position after the Body of the Letter and the Conclusion. If the letter is written to a very intimate friend, the Address may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter; but in other letters, especially those on ordinary business, it should be placed at the top and as directed above. There should always be a narrow margin on the left-hand side of the page, and the Address should always begin on the marginal line. If the Address occupies more than one line, the initial words of these lines should slope to the right, as in the Heading.
Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it, when the Address occupies three lines; on the marginal line or farther to the right than the second line of the Address begins, when this occupies two lines; a little to the right of the marginal lime, when the Address occupies one line; on the marginal line, when the Address stands below.
Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital letter. All the items of it should be set off by the comma, and, as it is an abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every important word in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and the whole should be followed by a comma.
+Direction+.—Study what has been said, and write the following introductions according to these models:—
1. Dear Father,I write, etc.
2. The Rev. M. H. Buckham, D.D.,President of U. V. M.,Burlington, Vt.My dear Sir,
3. Messrs. Clark & Brown,Quogue, N. Y.Gentlemen,
4. Messrs. Tiffany & Co.,2 Milk St., Boston.Dear Sirs,
1. david h cochran lld president of polytechnic institute brooklyn my dear sir. 2. dr John h hobart burge 64 livingston st brooklyn n y sir. 3. prof geo n boardman Chicago ill dear teacher. 4. to the president executive mansion Washington d c mr president. 5. rev t k beecher elmira n y sir. 6. messrs gilbert & sons gentlemen mass boston. 7. mr george r curtis minn rochester my friend dear. 8. to the honorable wm m evarts secretary of state Washington d c sir.
+The Beginning+.—Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the Salutation, and on thesameline, if the Introduction consists of four lines—in which case the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a dash;—otherwise, on the linebelow.
+Style+.—Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of writing. Spell correctly; write legibly, neatly, and with care.
Letters of friendshipshould be colloquial, natural, and familiar. Whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends.
Business lettersshould be brief, and the sentences should be short, concise, and to the point.
Informal notesthe third person is generally used instead of the first and the second; there is no Introduction, no Conclusion, no Signature, only the name of the Place and the Date at the bottom, on the left side of the page.
+Parts+.—The Conclusion consists of the+Complimentary Close+and the+Signature+. The forms of the Complimentary Close are many, and are determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In letters offriendshipyou may useYour sincere friend; Yours affectionately ; Your loving son or daughter, etc. In business letters, you may useYours; Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully; Very respectfully yours, etc. In official letters useI have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient servant; Very respectfully, your most obedient servant.
The Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. In addressing a stranger write your Christian name in full. A lady addressing a stranger should prefix her title—MissorMrs.—to her own name, enclosing it within marks of parenthesis, if she prefers.
+How Written+.—The Conclusion should begin near the middle of the first line below the Body of the Letter, and should slope to the right like the Heading and the Address. Begin each line of it with a capital letter, and punctuate as in other writing, following the whole with a period. The Signature should be very plain.
The Folding is a simple matter when, as now, the envelope used is adapted in length to the width of the sheet. Take the letter as it lies before you, with its first page uppermost, turn up the bottom of it about one-third the length of the sheet, bring the top down over this, taking care that the sides are even, and press the parts together.
Taking the envelope with its back toward you, insert the letter, putting in first the edge last folded. The form of the envelope may require the letter to be folded in the middle. Other conditions may require other ways of folding.
+Parts+.—The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the Title, and the full Directions of the one addressed.
+How Written+.—The Superscription should begin near the middle of the envelope and near the left edge— the envelope lying with its closed side toward you—and should occupy three or four lines. These lines should slope to the right as in the Heading and the Address, the spaces between the lines should be the same, and the last line should end near the lower right-hand corner. On the first line the Name and the Title should stand. If the one addressed is in a city, the door-number and name of the street should be on the second line, the name of the city on the third, and the name of the state on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of the post-office should be on the second line, the name of the county on the third—(or by itself near the lower left-hand corner), and the name of the state on the fourth. The titles following the name should be separated from it and from each other by the comma, and every line should end with a comma, except the last, which should be followed by a period. The lines should be straight, and every part of the Superscription should be legible. Place the stamp at the upper right-hand corner.
[Cursive:Newburgh, N. Y.Jan. 7. 1888
Messrs. Hyde & Co., 250 Broadway. N. Y.
Gentlemen,
Please send me by Adams Express the articles mentioned in the enclosed list.
Be careful in the selection of the goods, as I desire them for a special class of customers.
When they are forwarded, please inform me by letter and enclose the invoice.
Yours truly,
Thomas Dodds.]
[Cursive: 250 Broadway, N. Y. Jan 9, 1888.
Mr. Thomas Dodds,Newburgh, N. Y.
Dear Sir,
We have to-day sent you by Adams Express the goods ordered in your letter of the 7th inst. Enclosed you will find the invoice.
We hope that everything will reach you in good condition and will prove satisfactory in quality and in price.
Very truly yours,
Peter Hyde & Co.]
Thomas Dodds,
Bought of Peter Hyde & Co.
3 boxes Sperm Candles. 140 lbs., @33c. $46.207 do. Adamantine Extra Candles, 182 lbs., "26c. 47.32120 lbs. Crushed Sugar, "12-1/2c. 15.0060 do. Coffee do., "11-1/4c. 6.75——-$115.27
[Cursive: 176 Clinton St. Brooklyn, N. Y. Dec. 12, 1887
Messrs. Fisk & Hatch, 5 Nassau St., N. Y.
Gentlemen,
Learning by advertisement that a clerkship in your house is vacant, I beg leave to offer myself as a candidate for the place. I am sixteen years old, and am strong and in excellent health. I have just graduated with honor from the seventh grade of the Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, and I enclose testimonials of my character and standing from the President of that Institution.
If you desire a personal interview, I shall be glad to present myself at such time and place as you may name.
Very respectfully yours,
Charles Hastings.]
NOTES OF INVITATION AND ACCEPTANCE (in the third person).
Mr. and Mrs. Brooks request the pleasure of Mr. Churchill's company at a social gathering, next Tuesday evening, at8o'clock. 32W. 31_st Street, Oct_. 5.
Mr. Churchill has much pleasure in accepting Mr. and Mrs. Brooks's kind invitation to a social gathering next Tuesday evening. 160Fifth Ave., Oct. 5.
[Cursive:Concord, N. H.Jan. 10, 1888.
George Chapman, Esq.,Portland, Conn.
My dear Friend,
It gives me great pleasure to introduce to you my friend, Mr. Alpheus Crane. Any attention you may be able to show him I shall esteem as a personal favor.
Sincerely yours,
Peter Cooper.]
[Cursive: 21 Dean St., Toledo, Ohio. Dec. 16, 1887.
My dear Mother,
I cannot tell you how I long to be at home again and in my old place. In my dreams and in my waking hours, I am often back at the old homestead; my thoughts play truant while I pore over my books, and even while I listen to my teacher in the class-room. I would give so much to know what you are all doing—so much to feel that now and then I am in your thoughts, and that you do indeed miss me at home.
Everything here is as pleasant as it need be or can be, I suppose. I am sure I shall enjoy it all by and by, when I get over this fit of homesickness. My studies are not too hard, and my teachers are kind and faithful.
Do write me a long letter as soon as you get this and tell me everything.
Much love to each of the dear ones at home.
Your affectionate son,
Henry James.
[Footnote: In familiar (and official) letters, the Address may stand, you will remember, at the bottom.] Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Ohio.]
[Illustration of Envelope: Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Summit Co.Ohio.]
+To the Teacher+.—Have your pupils write complete letters and notes of all kinds. You can name the persons to whom these are to be addressed. Attend minutely to al1 the points. Letters of introduction should have the wordIntroducing(followed by the name of the one introduced) at the lower left-hand corner of the envelope. This letter should not be sealed. The receiver may seal it before handing it to the one addressed.
Continue this work of letter-writing until the pupils have mastered all the details, and are able easily and quickly to write any ordinary letter.
I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case.
II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the same case (Nom. or Obj.) as the word to which it relates.
III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive case.
IV. A noun or pronoun used as object or objective complement, or as the principal word of a prepositional phrase, is in the objective case.
V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained.
VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.
With two or more antecedents connected byand, the pronoun is plural.
With two or more singular antecedents connected byorornor, the pronoun is singular.
VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number.
With two or more subjects connected byand, the verb is plural.
With two or more singular subjects connected byorornor, the verb is singular.
VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an adjective or a noun.
IX. An infinitive is generally introduced byto, and with it forms a phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.
XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified.
XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.
XIV. Interjections are used independently.
+Remark+.—The following are some of the marks used in correcting proof-sheets for the printer:—
[Symbol: dele] De-le = Strike out.
[^] Ca-ret = Something to be inserted.
[/] This calls attention to points or letters placed in the margin as corrections.
[Symbol: dotted circle] This calls attention to the period.
[tr.] Transpose.
[Symbol: para] Begin a new paragraph with the word preceded by [.
[No Symbol: para] No new paragraph.
[Symbol: v' ] This calls attention to the apostrophe.
+To the Teacher+.—We suggest that the pupils learn to use these marks in correcting compositions. The following exercises are given as illustrations:—
[Illustration: Corrected letter]
Before Lesson 8 is assigned, the pupils may be required to note, in Lessons 6 and 7, the subjects that addsto denote more than one, and then to mark the changes that occur in the predicates when thesis dropped from these subjects. In Lesson 8, the predicates may be changed by adding or droppings, and other subjects may be found to correspond. In Lesson 9,smay be dropped from the plural subjects, and other predicates may be found to agree.
At this stage of the work we should give no formal rules, and should avoid such technical terms asnumber, person, tense, etc. The pupils may be led to discover rules for themselves, and to state them informally. Exercises and questions may be so directed that the pupils may draw some such conclusion as the following:—
When a simple form of the verb is used to tell what one thing does,soresis added (unless the subject isIoryou).
Let the pupils see that thes-form of the verb is used only in telling what one thingdoes, not what itdid; as, "The boyruns," "The boyran"; and that its subject always stands for the one spoken of; as, "He runs," "I run."
Before Lesson 12 is assigned, attention may be called to the use ofis, was, andhas, in Lesson 11 and elsewhere. For the predicates introduced by these words let the pupils find subjects which name more than one, that they may note the change ofistoare,wastowere, andhastohave. The formsdoesanddomay also be introduced, and these exercises continued till the pupils are led to discover some such rule as the following:—
Is, was, has, anddoesare used with subjects denoting but one.Are, were, have, anddoare used with subjects denoting more than one.
We suggest that the form of a question and the use of the question mark be introduced after Lesson 12, and that the pupils be allowed to change the sentences in Lessons 11 and 12 by placing the subject after the first auxiliary. A straight line may be drawn under each subject, and a waving line under each predicate, thus:—
~Was~ /Napoleon/ ~banished?~
The sentences given for analysis will furnish material for making interrogative sentences, and for justifying the agreement of verbs.
In connection with Lesson 19 attention may be called to the agreement of verbs withIandyou. Exercises may be given from which the pupils will draw the following conclusions:—
Ican be used witham, was, have, anddo.Youmay mean one or more than one, but the verb always agrees as ifyoumeant more than one.
Exercises may be given requiring the pupils to use such expressions as "Youwere," "Theywere," "Wewere," "Hedoesn't," etc., and to repeat them aloud till the ear is accustomed to the right form.
When predicate verbs immediately follow their subjects, there is little danger of errors in agreement, except thatwasis often used incorrectly forwere, anddon'tfordoesn't. The chief object of introducing these exercises here is to train the pupils' observation so that they will readily and naturally note the agreement of the subject and predicate when these terms are transposed, or are separated by other words. To determine the correct form of the verb in such cases, let the pupils see how it sounds when placed immediately after its subject. We suggest exercises like the following:—
1 is are 2 was were 3 has have 4 does do 5 comes come 6 goes go 7 thinks think 8 writes write
1. With what kind of letter ~(4)~eachof these names ~begin~? 2. Under this rule ~(1) found~ importantexceptions. 3. Thefarm, with all the cattle and horses, ~(2) sold~. 4. With what mark ~(4)~ imperativesentences~end~? 5. Everyeffortof the friends of these measures (3) failed. 6. There (5) tryingtimesin every man's life. 7.Oneof them (6) to Vassar College. 8. Notonein ten (7) about this. 9.Neitherof you (8) correctly. 10. After this (5) the calisthenicexercises. 11. Acargoof Delaware peaches (3) arrived. 12. There (6) the cars. 13. There (6) atrainof cars.
After these blanks have been filled with the verbs above, as indicated by the numbers, the sentences may be repeated aloud till the correct form is familiar.
Let the pupils see that in (2), Lesson 36,were identifiedis asserted of two things, and that in (3)was anticipatedis asserted of one of two things, but not of both. Let them give other examples of connected subjects with verbs singular in form, and with verbs plural in form. The meaning ofsingularandpluralmay be explained, and the pupils may form some such rule as the following:—
With two or more subjects connected byandthe verb agrees in the plural.
With two or more singular subjects connected byorornorthe verb agrees in the singular.
The pupils may examine such sentences as—
1. Each word and gesturewassuited to the thought; 2. Every bud, leaf, and blade of grassrejoicesafter the warm rain; 3. No dew, no rain, no cloudcomesto the relief of the parched earth;—
and note thateach,every, andnoshow that the things named in the different subjects are taken separately, and that the verbs are therefore singular.
Such sentences as—
"In the death of Franklin, a philosopher and statesmanwaslost to theworld"—
may be given to show that subjects connected byandmay name the same thing, and so take a verb in the singular.
Such examples as the following may be given and justified:—
1. Beauty and utilityarecombined in nature. 2. Either beauty or utilityappearsin every natural object. 3. Hereisneither beauty nor utility. 4. Time and tidewaitfor no man. 5. Wisdom and prudencedwellwith the lowly man. 6.Doeseither landlord or tenant profit by this bill? 7. Neither landlords nor tenantsprofitby this bill. 8. Every fly, bee, beetle, and butterflyisprovided with six feet. 9. That desperate robber and murdererwasfinally secured. 10. That desperate robber and that murdererwerefinally secured. 11. The builder and owner of the yachthassailed from Liverpool. 12. The builder and the owner of the yachthavesailed from Liverpool. 13. A lame and blind manwasprovided with food and lodging. 14. A lame and a blind manwereprovided with food and lodging.
Particular attention may be called to examples 9-14, that the pupils may note the effect of repeatingthat,the, anda.
Pupils should early learn that rules in grammar should not be followed rigidly and blindly, as they generally have variations and exceptions. Caution, however, should be used in presenting exceptions, lest the pupils become confused. They may be presented in reviews after the rules and general principles are well understood. They need not be formally stated, but may be introduced in the way of observation lessons that appeal to the judgment rather than to the memory. In this way such constructions as the following may be introduced:—
1. Neither he nor _I am _going. (Better—He is not going, nor am I.) 2. Neither John nor hissisters werethere. 3.Action, and not words,isneeded. 4.Bread and milk isgood food. 5. Thecommittee areunable to agree ontheirreport. 6. Thecommittee hasmadeitsreport.
Other examples may be given till the pupils are led to discover that in examples like (1) and (2) the verb agrees with its nearest subject, and that the plural subject is usually placed next to the verb; that in (3) the verb agrees with the affirmative subject, another verb being understood with the negative subject; that in (4) "bread and milk" represents one article of food; and that in (5) the individuals of the committee are thought of, while in (6) the committee as a whole is thought of. In (5) and (6) the agreement of the pronoun may also be noted. Pronouns may be introduced into many of the preceding exercises and the pupils led to apply to the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent what has been learned of the agreement of the verb with its subject. Let the pupils determine why the following connected subjects are arranged in the proper order:—
1. You and I are invited. 2. Mary and I are invited. 3. You and Mary are invited. 4. You and Mary and I are invited.
WRITING NAMES—CAPITALS AND ABBREVIATIONS. [Footnote: For list of abbreviations see p. 191.]
Pupils may copy the following list of names, and note all peculiarities in form:—
Texas, state, river, Red River, city, Albany, New Orleans, Kansas City, statesman, Thomas Jefferson, Thos. Jefferson, author, Charles Dickens, Chas. Dickens, writer, George William Curtis, Geo. Wm. Curtis, Geo. W. Curtis, poet, John Greenleaf Whittier, John G. Whittier, J. G. Whittier, gulf, sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, lake, Lake Erie, general, General Robert Edmund Lee, Gen. Robt. E. Lee, doctor, Doctor Valentine Mott, Dr. V. Mott, professor, Prof. Goldwin Smith.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The Song of Hiawatha."John Bunyan wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress."The subject for composition was "A Day in the Woods."
We give the following questions to illustrate our method of conducting an
+Observation Lesson+.—ArecityandAlbanyboth names? What difference can you discover in meaning? What in form? Which of the names just written areclassnames? Which areindividualnames? Mention an individual name made up of two names; one of three names; one of four. How many capitals do you find in each of the names just mentioned? Mention seven words that are written without capitals as class names, and again with capitals as parts of individual names. Mention a word that is shortened, orabbreviated, by omitting all but the first, orinitial, letter. Mention anabbreviationcontaining two letters; one containing three; one containing four. What new use of the period have you discovered in this exercise? What three words in this exercise are used together as the title of a book? What four as the title of a poem? What five as the subject of a school composition? Each of these groups may be regarded as a kind of individual name. Besides the first word, what words begin with capitals in each of these three groups? Notice that these are the principal words.