LECTURE XIV.

"Hope springs eternal in the human breast;Man neveris, but alwaysto beblest."Pope.

"Hope springs eternal in the human breast;Man neveris, but alwaysto beblest."

Pope.

"Whowas, and whois, and whoisto come."—Bible.It is not that a man thinks himself already in possession of a sufficiency, but hopesto bequalified, etc.

Iam to goin an hour. Heis to goto-morrow. Iamreadyto hearyou recite your lesson. Hehas been waitinga long timeto seeif some new principles will not be introduced. He is preparedto appearbefore you whenever you shall direct. Weareresolvedto employneuter verbs, potential and subjunctive moods, im-perfect, plu-perfect, and second future tenses, no longer. False grammarsareonly fit-ted to belaid aside. We are in duty boundto regardandadopttruth, andrejecterror; and wearedeterminedto doit in grammar, and every thing else.

We are not surprised that people cannot comprehend grammar, as usually taught, for it is exceedingly difficult to make error appear like truth, or false teaching like sound sentiment. But I will not stop to moralize. The hints I have given must suffice.

Much more might be said upon the character and use of verbs; but as these lectures are not designed fora systemof grammarto be taught, but to expose the errors of existing systems, and prepare the way for a more rational and consistent exposition of language, I shall leave this department of our subject, presuming you will be able to comprehend our views, and appreciate their importance. We have been somewhat critical in a part of our remarks, and more brief than we should have been, had we not found that we were claiming too much of the time of the Institute, which is designed as a means of improvement on general subjects. Enough has been said, I am sure, to convince you, if you were not convinced before, why the study of grammar is so intricate and tedious, that it is to be accounted for from the fact that the theories by which it is taught are false in principle, and can not be adopted in practice; and that something ought to be done to make the study of language easy, interesting, and practical. Such a work is here attempted; but it remains with the public to say whether these plain philosophical principles shall be sustained, matured, perfected, and adopted in schools, or the old roundabout course of useless and ineffectual teaching be still preserved.

A temporary expedient. — Words not understood. — All words must have a meaning. — Their formation. — Changes of meaning and form. — Should be observed. —Adverbs. — Ending inly. — Examples. — Ago. — Astray. — Awake. — Asleep. — Then, when. — There, where, here. — While, till. — Whether, together. — Ever, never, whenever, etc. — Oft. — Hence. — Perhaps. — Not. — Or. — Nor. — Than. — As. — So. —Distinctions false. — Rule 18. — If. — But. — Tho. — Yet.

We have concluded our remarks on the necessary divisions of words. Thingsnamed,definedanddescribed, and theiractions,relations, andtendencies, have been considered under the classes of Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. To these classes all words belong when properly explained; a fact we desire you to bear constantly in mind in all your attempts to understand and employ language. But there are many words in our language as well as most others, which are so altered and disguised that their meaning is not easily comprehended. Of course they are difficult of explanation. These words we have classed under the head ofContractions, a term better calculated than any other we have seen adopted to express their character. We do not however lay any stress on the appropriateness of this appellation, but adopt it as a temporary expedient, till these words shall be better understood. They will then be ranked in their proper places among the classes already noticed.

Under this head may be considered the words usually known as "adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections." That the etymology and meaning of these words have not been generally understood will be conceded, I presume, on all hands. In our opinion, that is the only reason why they have been considered under these different heads, for in numberless cases there is nothing in their import to correspond with such distinctions. Why "an adverb expresses somequalityor circumstance respecting a verb, adjective, or other adverb;" why "a conjunction is chiefly used to connect sentences, so as out oftwoto make onlyonesentence;" or why "prepositions serve to connect words with one another, and show the relation between them," has never been explained. They have beenpassed overwith little difficulty by teachers, having been furnished with lists of words in each "part of speech," which they require their pupils to commit to memory, and "for ever after hold their peace" concerning them. But that these words have been defined or explained in a way to be understood will not be pretended. In justification of such ignorance, it is contended that such explanation is not essential to their proper and elegant use. If such is the fact, we may easily account for the incorrect use of language, and exonerate children from the labor of studying etymology.

But these words have meaning, and sustain a most important rank in the expression of ideas. They are, generally, abbreviated, compounded, and so disguised that their origin and formation are not generally known. Horne Tooke calls them "thewheelsof language, thewingsof Mercury." He says "tho we might be dragged along without them, it would be with much difficulty, very heavily and tediously." But when he undertakes to show that theywereconstructedfor this object, he mistakes their true character; for they were not invented for that purpose, but were originally employed as nouns or verbs, from which they have been corrupted by use. And he seems to admit this fact when he says,[19]"abbreviationandcorruptionare always busiest with the words which are most frequently in use. Letters, like soldiers, being very apt to desert and drop off in a long march, and especially if their passage happens to lie near the confines of an enemy's country."

In the original construction of language a set of literary men did not get together and manufacture a lot of words, finished thro out and exactly adapted to the expression of thought. Had that been the case, language would doubtless have appeared in a much more regular, stiff, and formal dress, and been deprived of many of its beautiful and lofty figures, its richest and boldest expressions. Necessity is the mother of invention. It was not until people hadideasto communicate, that they sought a medium for the transmission of thought from one to another; and then such sounds and signs were adopted as would best answer their purpose. But language was not then framed like a cotton mill, every part completed before it was set in operation. Single expressions,sign-ificant of things, orideasofthingsandactions, were first employed, in the most simple, plain, and easy manner.[20]As the human mind advanced inknowledge, by observing the character, relations, and differences of things, words were changed, altered, compounded, and contracted, so as to keep pace with such advancement; just as many simple parts of a machine, operating on perfect and distinct principles, may be combined together and form a most complicated, curious, and powerful engine, of astonishing power, and great utility. In the adaptation of steam to locomotives, the principles on which stationary engines operated were somewhat modified. Some wheels, shafts, bands, screws, etc., were omitted, others of a different kind were added, till the whole appeared in a new character, and the engine, before fixed to a spot, was seen traversing the road with immense rapidity. The principles of the former engine, so far from being unessential, were indispensable to the construction of the new one, and should be clearly understood by him who would build orusethe latter. So, in the formation of language, simplefirstprinciples must be observed and traced thro all their ramifications, by those who would obtain a clear and thoro knowledge of it, or "read and write it with propriety."

In mathematics, the four simple rules, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, form the basis on which that interesting science depends. The modifications of these rules, according to their various capabilities, will give a complete knowledge of all that can be known of numbers, relations, and proportions, an acme to which all may aspire, tho none have yet attained it. The principles of languageare equally simple, and, if correctly explained, may be as well understood. But the difficulty under which we labor in this department of science, is the paucity ofmeansto trace back to theiroriginalform and meaning many words and phrases in common use among us. Language has been employed as the vehicle of thought, for six thousand years, and in that long space has undergone many and strange modifications. At the dispersion from Babel, and the "confusion of tongues" occasioned thereby, people were thrown upon their own resources, and left to pick up by piecemeal such shreds as should afterwards be wove into a system, and adopted by their respective nations. Wars, pestilence, and famine, as well as commerce, enterprize, literature, and religion, brought the different nations into intercourse with each other; and changes were thus produced in the languages of such people. Whoever will take the trouble to compare the idioms of speech adopted by those nations whose affairs, civil, political, and religious, are most intimately allied, will be convinced of the correctness of the sentiment now advanced.

In the lapse of ages, words would not only change their form, but in a measure their meaning, so as to correspond with the ideas of those who use them. Some would become obsolete, and others be adopted in their stead. Many words are found in the Bible which are not in common use; and the manner of spelling, as well as some entire words, have been changed in that book, since it was translated and first published in 1610. With these examples you are familiar, and I shall be spared the necessity of quoting them. I have already made some extracts from old writers, and may have occasion to do so again before I close this lecture.

The words which we class under the head of Contractions, are so altered and disguised in their appearance, that their etymology and connexion are not generally understood. It may appear like pedantry in me to attempt an investigation into their origin and meaning. But to avoid that charge, I will frankly acknowledge the truth, and own my inability to do justice to this subject, by offering a full explanation of all the words which belong to this class. I will be candid, if I am not successful. But I think most of the words long considered difficult, may be easily explained; enough to convince you of the feasibility of the ground we have assumed, and furnish a sample by which to pursue the subject in all our future inquiries into the etymology of words.

But even if I fail in this matter, I shall have one comfort left, that I am not alone in the transgression; for no philologist, with few exceptions, has done any thing like justice to this subject. Our common grammars have not even attempted an inquiry into themeaningof these words, but have treated them as tho they had none. Classes, like pens or reservoirs, are made for them, into which they are thrown, and allowed to rest, only to be named, without being disturbed. Sometimes, however, they are found in one enclosure, sometimes in another, more by mistake, I apprehend, than by intention; for "prepositions" under certain circumstances are parsed as "adverbs," and "adverbs" as "adjectives," and "conjunctions" as either "adverbs" or "prepositions;" and not unfrequently the whole go off together, like the tail of the dragon, drawing other respectable words along with them, under the sweeping cognomen of "adverbial phrases," or "conjunctive expressions;" as, Can you write your lesson?Not yet quite well enough."But and ifthat evil servant,"[21]etc. Mr. Murray says, "the same word is occasionally usedboth asa conjunctionand asan adverb, and sometimesasa preposition.

Let these words be correctly defined, their meaning be ferreted out from the rubbish in which they have been enclosed; or have their dismembered parts restored to them, they will then appear in their true character, and their connexion with other words will be found regular and easy. Until such work is accomplished, they may as well be called contractions, for such theymostlyare, as adverbs or any thing else; for that appellation we regard as more appropriate than any other.

In the attempts we are about to make, we shall endeavor to be guided by sound philosophic principles and the light of patient investigation; and whatever advances we may make shall be in strict accordance with the true and practical use of these words.

Let us begin withAdverbs.

I have not time to go into a thoro investigation of the mistakes into which grammarians have fallen in their attempts to explain this "part of speech." Mr. Murray says they "seem originally to have beencontrivedto express compendiously inone word, what mustotherwisehave required two or more; as, "he actedwisely." They could have been "contrived" for no such purpose, for we have already seen that they are made up of various words combined together, which are used to express relation, to define or describe other things. Take the very example Mr. M. has given.Wiselyis made up of two words;wiseandlike. "He acted wisely," wise-like. What did heact?Wisely, we aretaught, expresses the "manneror quality" of the verbact. Butact, in this case, is a neuter or intransitive verb, andwiselyexpresses themanner of actionwhere there is none! But he must haveacted somethingwhich waswiselike something else. What did he act? If he produced noactions, how can it be known that heactedwisely or unwisely?Actionoractsis the direct object of toact. Hence the sentence fully stated would stand thus: "He actedactsoractionslike wise actions or acts." But stated at length, it appears aukward and clumsy, like old fashioned vehicles. We have modified, improved, cut down, and made eliptical, all of our expressions, as we have previously observed, to suit the fashions and customs of the age in which we live; the same as tailors cut our garments to correspond with the latest fashions.

"The bird singssweetly." The bird singssongs,notes, ortunes,like sweet notes,tunes,orsongs. The comparison here made, is not in reference to the agent or action, but theobjectof the action; and this explains the whole theory of thoseadverbs, which are said to "qualify manner" of action. We have already seen that noaction, as such, can exist, or be conceived to exist, separate(-ed) from thethingoragentwhichacts; and such action can only be determined by thechangedor altered condition of something which is theobjectof such action. How then, can any word, in truth, or in thought, be known toqualifythe action, as distinct from the object or agent? And if it does not infact, how can we explain words to children, or to our own minds, so as to understand what is not true?

Hence all words of this character are adjectives, describing one thing by its relation or likeness to another, and as such, admit of comparison; as, a likely man, averylikelyman, a likelier, and thelikeliestman. "He is themost likelypedlar I ever knew." "He ismore liableto be deceived." "Alivelylittle fellow." "He is worthless." He is worth less,less worthyof respect and confidence. "He writes very correctly." He writes his letters and wordslike very correctletters. But I need not enlarge. You have only to bear in mind the fact, thatlyis a contraction oflike, which is often retained in many words; as godlike, christianlike, etc., and search for a definition accordingly; and you will find no trouble in disposing of a large portion of this adverb family.

It is a curious fact, and should be maturely considered by all who still adhere to the neuter verb theory, that adverbsqualify neuteras well as active verbs, and express thequalityormanner of action, where there is none! Adverbs express "manner of action" in a neuter verb! When a person starts wrong it is very difficult to go right. The safest course is to return back and start again.

Adverbs have been divided into classes, varying fromeleventoseventy-two, to suit the fancies of those who have only observed the nice shades of form which these words have assumed. But a bonnet is a bonnet, let its shape, form, or fashion, be what it may. You may put on as many trimmings, flowers, bows, and ribbons, as you please; it is a bonnet still; and when we speak of it we will call it abonnet, and talk about itsappendages. But when it is constructed into something else, then we will give it a new name.

Adjectives, we have said, arederivedfrom either nouns or verbs, and we now contend that the words formerly regarded as adverbs are either adjectives, nouns, or verbs.In defence of this sentiment we will adduce a few words in this place for examples.

Ago."Three yearsago, we dwelt in the country." This word is a past participle from the verbago, meaning the same asgoneoragone, and was so used a few centuriesago—agone, orgone by.

"For euer the latter ende of ioye is wo,God wotte, worldly ioye is sooneago."Chaucer.

"For euer the latter ende of ioye is wo,God wotte, worldly ioye is sooneago."

Chaucer.

"For if it erst was well, tho was it betA thousand folde, this nedeth it not requireAgowas euery sorowe and euery fere."Troylus, boke 3, p. 2.

"For if it erst was well, tho was it betA thousand folde, this nedeth it not requireAgowas euery sorowe and euery fere."

Troylus, boke 3, p. 2.

"Of such examples as I findeUpon this point of tymeagoneI thinke for to tellen one."Gower, lib. 5, p. 1.

"Of such examples as I findeUpon this point of tymeagoneI thinke for to tellen one."

Gower, lib. 5, p. 1.

"Which is no more than has been doneBy knights for ladies, longagone."Hudibras.

"Which is no more than has been doneBy knights for ladies, longagone."

Hudibras.

"Twenty yearsagone."Tillotson's sermon.

"Twenty yearsagone."

Tillotson's sermon.

"Are allthe go."Knickerbocker.

"Are allthe go."

Knickerbocker.

Astray."They went astray."Astrayed, wandered or were scattered, and of course soon becameestrangedfrom each other. Farmers all know what it is for cattle tostrayfrom home; and many parents have felt the keen pangs of sorrow when their sonsstrayedfrom the paths of virtue. In that condition they areastray-ed.

"This prest was drank and gothastrayede."

"Achab to the bottle went.When Benedad for all his sheldeHim slough, so that upon the feldeHis people goth abouteastraie."Gower.

"Achab to the bottle went.When Benedad for all his sheldeHim slough, so that upon the feldeHis people goth abouteastraie."

Gower.

Awake."He isawake." "Samsonawakedout of his sleep." "That I mayawakehim out of sleep." "It ishigh time toawake." "As a man that iswakenedout of sleep." The Irish holda wake—they do not sleep the night after the loss of friends.

Asleep.

"When that pyte, which longeon sleepdoth taryHath set the fyne of al my heuynesse."Chaucer, La belle dame, p. 1. c. 1.

"When that pyte, which longeon sleepdoth taryHath set the fyne of al my heuynesse."

Chaucer, La belle dame, p. 1. c. 1.

"Ful soundon sleepdid caucht thare rest be kind."Douglas, b. 9, p. 283.

"Ful soundon sleepdid caucht thare rest be kind."

Douglas, b. 9, p. 283.

"In these provynces the fayth of Chryste was all quenchyd andin sleepe."—Fabian.

A numerous portion of these contractions are nouns, which, from their frequent recurrence, are used without their usual connexion with small words. The letterais compounded with many of these words, which may have been joined to them by habit, or as a preposition, meaningon,to,at,in, as it is used in the french and some other languages. You often hear expressions like these, "he isa-going; he isa-writing; he begana-new," etc. The old adverbs which take this letter, you can easily analyze; as, "The house isa-fire"—on fire; "He fella-sleep"—he fellonsleep. "When deep sleep falleth on men."—Job."Hestepta-side"—on one side. "He camea-board"—on board. "They put ita-foot"—on foot. "He wenta-way"—a way, followed somecourse, to a distance. "Blue bonnets are all thegonowa-days," etc.

The following extracts will give you an idea of the etymology of these words:

"Turnus seyes the Troianis in grete yre,And al thare schyppis and navy setin fire."Douglas, b. 9, p. 274.

"Turnus seyes the Troianis in grete yre,And al thare schyppis and navy setin fire."

Douglas, b. 9, p. 274.

"Now hand in hand the dynt lichtis withaneswak,Now bendis he up his bourdon withanemynt,On side(a-side) he bradis for to eschew the dynt."Idem.

"Now hand in hand the dynt lichtis withaneswak,Now bendis he up his bourdon withanemynt,On side(a-side) he bradis for to eschew the dynt."

Idem.

"That easter fire and flame abouteBoth at mouth and at naseSo that thei setten allon blaze," (ablaze.)Gower.

"That easter fire and flame abouteBoth at mouth and at naseSo that thei setten allon blaze," (ablaze.)

Gower.

"And tyl a wicked deth him takeHim hadleuerasondre(a-sunder) shakeAnd let al his lymmesasondreryueThane leaue his richesse in his lyue."Chaucer.

"And tyl a wicked deth him takeHim hadleuerasondre(a-sunder) shakeAnd let al his lymmesasondreryueThane leaue his richesse in his lyue."

Chaucer.

Examples of this kind might be multiplied to an indefinite length. But the above will suffice to give you an idea of the former use of these words, and also, by comparison with the present, of the changes which have taken place in the method of spelling within a few centuries.

A large portion of adverbs relate totimeandplace, because many of our ideas, and much of our language, are employed in reference to them; as,then,when,where,there,here,hence,whence,thence,while,till,whether, etc. These are compound words considerably disguised in their meaning and formation. Let us briefly notice some of them.

Per annumis a latin phrase,for the year, ayear; andthe annumisthe year,roundorperiodof time, from which it was corrupted gradually into its present shape.Thanne, tha anne,thane,thenne,then,than, are different forms of the same word.

"We see nowe bi a mirror in darcnesse: thanne forsathe, face to face. Nowe I know of partye;thanneforsathe schal know as I am knowen."—1. Cor. 13: 12.Translation in 1350.

I have a translation of the same passage in 1586, which stands thus: "For nowe we see through a glasse darkley: buttheneface to face: now I know in part: butthenshalI know even as I am knowen." Here several words are spelled differently in the same verse.

Then,the anne, that time.When,wha anne, "wha-icht-anne," which, or whatanne, period of time.

Areameans an open space, a plat of ground, a spot or place. Arena is from the same etymon, altered in application.There,the area, theplaceorspot. "If we gothere," to that place.Where, which, or what ("wha-icht area") place.Here,his(latin word forthis,)area, this place. These words refer toplace,state, orcondition.

Whileis another spelling forwheel. "To while away our time," is topass, spend, orwheelit away.Whileapplies to theperiod, or space of time, in which somethingwheels,whirls,turnsround, or transpires; as, "You had better remain herewhile(during the time) he examines whether it is prudent for you to go."

Tillisto while, to theperiodat which something is expected to follow. "If I will that he tarrytill(to the time) I come what is that to thee?"

The idea oftimeandplaceare often blended together. It is not uncommon to hear lads and professed scholars, in some parts of our country say "downtillthe bottom, overtillthe woods." etc. Altho we do not regard such expressions correct, yet they serve to explain the meaning of the word. The only mistake is in applying it toplaceinstead oftime.

Whetheriswhich either. "Shewwhetherof thesetwothou hast chosen."—Acts 1: 24.It is more frequently applied in modern times to circumstance and eventsthan topersons and things. "I will let you knowwhetherIwillorwill notadopt it," one or the other.

Togethersignifies two or more united.Getheredis the past participle ofgather.

"AsMailie, an' her lambsthegither,Were ae day nibbling on the tether."Burns.

"AsMailie, an' her lambsthegither,Were ae day nibbling on the tether."

Burns.

Evermeanstime,age,period. It originally and essentially signifiedlife.For everis for the age or period.For everandever, to the ages of ages.Ever-lastingisage-lasting. Ever-lasting hills, snows, landmarks, etc.

Never,ne-ever,not ever, at no time, age or period.

When-ever.—At what point or space oftimeorage.

What-ever.—What thing, fact, circumstance, or event.

Where-ever.—To, at, or in what place, period, age, or time.

Whither-so-ever, which-way-so-ever, where-so-ever, never-the-less, etc. need only be analyzed, and their meaning will appear obvious to all.

Oft,often,oft-times, often-times, can be understood by all, because the noun to which they belong isoft-enretained in practice.

Once, twice, at one time, two times.

Hence,thence,whence, fromthis,that, orwhat, place, spot, circumstance, post, or starting place.

Hence-for-ward,hence-forth, in timeto come, after this period.

Here-after, after thisera, or present time.

Hither, to this spot or place.Thither, to that place.Hither-to,hither-ward, etc. the same asto you ward, or to God ward, still retained in our bibles.

Per-haps, it may hap.Perchance,peradventure, by chance, by adventure. The latinpermeansby.

Not, no ought, not any, nothing. It is a compound ofneandoughtoraught.

Oris a contraction from other, andnorfromne-or, no-or, no other.

No-wise, no ways. I will go, or, other-wise, in another way or manner, you must go.

Than,the ane, the one, that one, alluding to a particular object with which a comparison is made; as, This book is largerthanthat bible. Thatonebible, this book is larger. It is always used with the comparative degree, to define particularly the object with which the comparison is made. Talent is better than flattery. Than flattery, often bestowed regardless of merit, talent is better.

Asis an adjective, in extensive use. It means the, this, that, these, the same, etc. It is a defining word of the first kind. You practiceasyou have been taught—the same dutiesorprinciplesunderstood. We use languageaswe have learned it; inthe sameway or manner. It is often associated with other words to particularly specify the way, manner, or degree, in which something is done or compared. I can goas well asyou. Inthe same well, easy, convenient way or manner you can go, I can go inthe sameway. He wasaslearned,aspious,asbenevolent,asbrave,asfaithful,asardent. These are purely adjectives, used to denote the degree of the likeness or similarity between the things compared. Secondary words are often added to this, to aid the distinction or definition; as, (the sameillustrated,) He isjust as willing. I amquite as wellpleased without it.As, like many other adjectives, often occurs without a noun expressed, in which case it was formerly parsed by Murray himselfas(like, or the same) a relative pronoun; as, "And indeed it seldom at any period extends to the tip,as happensin acute diseases."—Dr. Sweetster."The ground I have assumed is tenable,as will appear."—Webster."Bonaparte had a special motive in decorating Paris, for 'Paris is France,as hasoften been observed."—Channing."The words are suchas seem."—Murray's Reader! p. 16, intro.

Sohas nearly the same signification as the word last noticed, and is frequently used along with it, to define the other member of the comparison.AsfarasI can understand,sofar I approve.Ashe directed,soI obeyed. It very often occurs as a secondary adjective; as, "In pious and benevolent officessosimple,sominute,sosteady,sohabitual, that they will carry," etc. "He pursued a coursesounvarying."—Channing.

These words are the most important of any small ones in our vocabulary, because (for this cause, be this the cause, this is the cause) they are the most frequently used; and yet there are no wordssolittle understood, orsomuch abused by grammarians,asthese are.

We have barely time to notice the remaining parts of speech. "Conjunctions" are defined to be a "part of speech void of signification, but so formed as to help signification, by making two or more significant sentences to be one significant sentence." Mr. Harris gives about forty "species." Murray admits of only thedis-junctive and copulative, and reduces the whole list of words to twenty-four. But what is meant by adis-junctivecon-junctive word, is left for you to determine. It must be in keeping withindefinitedefiningarticles, andpost-positivepre-positions. He says, "it joins words, but disjoins the sense."[22]And what is awordwith outsense," pray tell us? If "words are the signs of ideas," how, in the name of reason, can you give the sign and separate the sense? You can as well separate the shadow from the substance, or a quality from matter.

We have already noticed Rule 18, which teaches the use of conjunctions. Under that rule, you may examine these examples. "As itwasin the beginning,isnow,andevershall be."—Common Prayer."What Ido,have done,ormayhereafterdo,has been, andwillalwaysbematter of inclination, the gratifying of whichpaysitself: and Ihaveno more merit in employing my time and money in the way Iam knownto do, than another has in other occupations."—Howard.

The following examples must suffice.

If.This word is derived from the saxongifan, and was formerly writtengiff,gyff,gif,geve,give,yiff,yef,yeve. It signifiesgive,grant,allow,suppose,admit, and is always a verb in the imperative mood, having the following sentence or idea for its object. "Ifa pound of sugar cost ten cents, what will ten pounds cost?"Give, grant, allow, suppose, (the fact,)one pound cost, etc. In this case the supposition which stands as a predicate—one pound of sugar cost ten cents, is the object ofif—the thing to be allowed, supposed, or granted, and from which the conclusion as to the cost oftenpounds is to be drawn.

"He will assist us if he has the means." Allow, admit, (the fact,) he has the means, he will assist us.

"Gifluf be vertew, than is it leful thing;Gifit be vice, it is your undoing."Douglasp. 95.

"Gifluf be vertew, than is it leful thing;Gifit be vice, it is your undoing."

Douglasp. 95.

"Ne I ne wol non reherce,yefthat I may."Chaucer.

"Ne I ne wol non reherce,yefthat I may."

Chaucer.

"She was so charitable and so pytousShe wolde wepeyf thatshe sawe a mousCaught in a trappe,ifit were deed or bledde."Prioresse.

"She was so charitable and so pytousShe wolde wepeyf thatshe sawe a mousCaught in a trappe,ifit were deed or bledde."

Prioresse.

"O haste and come to my master dear."

"Ginye be Barbara Allen."Burns.

"Ginye be Barbara Allen."

Burns.

But.This word has two opposite significations. It is derived from two different radicals.But, from the saxonbeandutan,out, meansbe out,leave out,save,except,omit, as, "allbutone are here."Leave out,except,one, all are here.

"Heaven from all creation hides the book of fateAllbut(save,except) the page prescribed our present state."

"When noughtbut(leave out) thetorrentis heard on the hill,And noughtbut(save) the nightingale'ssongin the grove."

"Nothingbut fearrestrains him." In these cases the directobjectsof the verb, the things to be omitted are expressed.

Butis also derived frombotan, which signifiesto add,superadd,joinorunite; as, in the old form of a deed, "it isbuttedand bounded as follows." Two animalsbutttheir heads together. Thebuttof a log is that end which wasjoinedto the stump. Abutt,butmentora-butmentis the joined end, where there is a connexion with something else. Abuttof ridicule is an object to which ridicule is attached.

"Notonly saw he all that was,But(add)muchthat never came to pass."M'Fingal.

"Notonly saw he all that was,But(add)muchthat never came to pass."

M'Fingal.

To button,butt-on, is derived from the same word, to join one side to the other, to fasten together. It was formerly spelledbotan,boote,bote,bot,butte,bute,but. It is still spelledbootin certain cases as a verb; as,

"Whatboots itthee to fly from pole to pole,Hang o'er the earth, and with the planets roll?What boots ( ) thro space's fartherest bourns to roam,Ifthou, O man, a stranger art at home?"Grainger.

"Whatboots itthee to fly from pole to pole,Hang o'er the earth, and with the planets roll?What boots ( ) thro space's fartherest bourns to roam,Ifthou, O man, a stranger art at home?"

Grainger.

"If love hadbootedcare or cost."

A man exchanged his house in the city for a farm, and received fifty dollars toboot;to addto his property, and make the exchange equal.

Letpresents the same construction in form and meaning asbut, for it is derived from two radicals of opposite significations. It means sometimes topermitorallow; as,letme go;letme have it; and tohinderorprevent; as, "I proposed to come unto you,but(add this fact) I waslethitherto."—Rom. 1: 13."He who nowletteth, willletuntil he be taken out of the way."—2 Thess. 2: 7.

Andis a past participle signifyingadded,one-ed,joined. It was formerly placed after the words; as, "James, John, David,and, (united to-gether-ed,) go to school." We now place itbeforethe last word.

Tho,altho,yet. "Tho (admit,allow,the fact) he slay me, yet (get,have,know,the fact) I will trust in him."Yesis from the same word asyet. It meansgetorhavemy consent to the question asked.Nayis the opposite ofyes,ne-aye, nay, no. Theayesandnoeswere called for.

I can pursue this matter no farther. The limits assigned me have been overrun already. What light may have been afforded you in relation to these words, will enable you to discover that they havemeaningwhich must be learned before they can be explained correctly; that done, all difficulty is removed.

Interjections deserve no attention. They form no part of language, but may be used by beasts and birds as well as by men. They are indistinct utterances of emotions, which come not within the range of human speech.

[1]The reader is referred to "The Red Book," by William Bearcroft, revised by Daniel H. Barnes, late of the New-York High School, as a correct system of teaching practical orthography.

[2]Gall, Spurzheim, and Combe, have reflected a light upon the science of the mind, which cannot fail of beneficial results. Tho the doctrines of phrenology, as now taught, may prove false—which is quite doubtful—or receive extensive modifications, yet the consequences to the philosophy of the mind will be vastly useful. The very terms employed to express the faculties and affections of the mind, are so definite and clear, that phrenology will long deserve peculiar regard, if for no other reason than for the introduction of a vocabulary, from which may be selected words for the communication of ideas upon intellectual subjects.

[3]Metaphysics originally signified the science of the causes and principles of all things. Afterwards it was confined to the philosophy of the mind. In our times it has obtained still another meaning. Metaphysicians became so abstruse, bewildered, and lost, that nobody could understand them; and hence,metaphysicalis now applied to whatever is abstruse, doubtful, and unintelligible. If a speaker is not understood, it is because he is too metaphysical. "How did you like the sermon, yesterday?" "Tolerably well; but he was too metaphysical for common hearers." They could not understand him.

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