FINISHING

Figure 9.—A book rounded and backed.Figure 9.—A book rounded and backed.

This process is the most important one in forwarding, calling for skilled labor. If the hammer is not used in exactly the right way the backs of the signatures may be crushed in, the stitches broken, or the paper or bands cut. In any case the book is materially weakened. A good workman will make a sharp joint and round the book perfectly without injuring its strength in any way.

19. Back Lining

All books have a lining of one kind or another on the back. Machine-bound books are generally lined with a coarse "super," as it is called in this country,or "mull" as it is called in England. Some library binders use a thin muslin, but the best material is canton flannel cut in strips wide enough to cover the back of the book and also to project about one inch on each side. The back of the book is glued, while the nap or fuzzy side of the canton flannel is pasted and then put on the back and well rubbed down. It is very important that both the glue and the paste be used. Experience has proved that when only one is used the canton flannel will come off, but when both are used, it becomes an integral part of the book.

The flannel which projects on the sides must be pasted to the end papers. When the paste and the glue have dried, the canton flannel shrinks tight to the back and adds materially to the strength of the book. After drying the flannel is trimmed at the head and tail close to the back.

If the book is a valuable one that will receive hard usage and therefore should be as strong as possible, the flesh side of a piece of split goat skin can be used for back-lining, covering the back from joint to joint. It will seldom be necessary, however, to employ this method.

Perhaps nothing better shows the difference between old methods of library binding and new than this one item of back-lining. In the old methods the binders depended for strength largely upon the bands. In the new the bands are practically immaterial when the book is fastened into the cover.

20. Rebacking

At this point some binders reback to make a sharp joint, and to make the book open more easily. When the canton flannel dries it may pull the back somewhat out of shape. It is doubtful, however, if rebacking is always necessary.

21. Boards Cut

The book is then measured for boards which are cut to the proper size. In measuring it must be remembered that the boards must project an eighth of an inch on all edges (except the back) forming what is called the "squares." It will also make a difference in measuring if the book is to have a French joint. (See page 46.)

22. Cloth Cut

If the book is to be bound in cloth, this is cut the proper size. If leather backs are to be used the covering material consists of two pieces of cloth and one of leather, all of which must be cut to the proper size.

23. Loose Back

If the book is to be made a loose back, a piece of coarse paper is cut the size of the book from joint to joint and the length of the back. This is placed in the book.

24. Making the Case

(a) The cloth for a full cloth book is now glued all over on the inside. The boards are adjusted on the book ("setting the square," as the binders call it) as they ought to be when the book is finally bound,and the book is placed on the right-hand side of the glued cloth, with the back toward the middle of the case, leaving enough cloth projecting on all sides to turn in. The other side of the case is then drawn up over the board on top and pressed down firmly enough so that when it is laid back again, the board which has been uppermost goes with it. The book itself is laid aside. The paper which is to prevent the glued cloth from sticking to the back of the book is then placed in the space between the two boards, and all edges of the cloth turned in on the boards. This forms the complete cover or case.

(b) If the book is to have a leather back, the boards are tipped lightly with paste to the end papers, allowing for the French joint. The leather is pasted and the book is then laid on the leather in the right position so that the rest of the leather can be pulled up over the back on the top board. The top cover is then laid back, the paper forming a loose back inserted, the leather turned in, and cloth sides put on and turned in.

25. Making of a French Joint

The book is now set back in the cover just described and the space between the boards and the back is creased with a bone folder while the cloth or leather is damp. This forms the French joint.

26. Pasting Down End Papers

End papers are then pasted down to the boards and the book, so far as strength is concerned, is finished. It will be remembered that the end paperswere guarded with muslin, or jaconet, that the bands projected beyond the sides and were pasted to the end papers, and that the canton flannel also projected beyond the sides and was pasted to the end papers. Therefore, when the end paper is pasted to the board it carries with it first the canton flannel, then the bands and lastly the jaconet guard. This is as true of leather-backed books as of full cloth.

Strictly speaking, this makes what is technically known as a "cased" book, i. e., the case is made in one whole piece and the book fastened into it. Because leather bound books have always been considered stronger than others, and because they have always been laced-in to the boards (see page 42) before the leather has been put on, a prejudice against cased books has arisen. If the prejudice be directed against the usual commercial binding it is justified, but if directed against library books properly cased it is not justified.

27. Pressing

At this stage the book is put under heavy pressure in the standing press until dry. A number of books are placed in the press at one time, separated by backing boards having metal projections which fit into the French joints. They should be left twelve hours at least, longer if necessary. After pressing, the book goes through a general cleaning process. In applying the glue or paste there are many chances of soiling the book. The great pressure which is applied also squeezes out glue at the head and tail. Thismust all be cleaned off before the book goes to the finisher.

28. Gilding

The gilding of a library book is a simple matter compared with that of books bound for individuals. Such books are usually meant to be artistic and their covers bear elaborate designs in gold, generally limited only by the size of the owner's pocketbook or by his taste.[1]In library binding gilding is confined to the furnishing of necessary information. Tooling of all kinds, with the possible exception of that which divides the back into panels, is unnecessary. A description of finishing processes is unnecessary here since they add nothing to the strength of a book. A description of the method of gilding call numbers will be found on page 194.

There are three different ways of lettering books bound in light colored cloths on which gold cannot be used: (a) In gold on leather labels pasted to the back. (b) In gold on panels which have been stained black. (c) In black ink directly on the back. The first two methods make more attractive-looking books but the process adds to the expense, and in the first case the labels have a tendency to peel off. The last method is the one generally used.

In this description of processes numerous details have been omitted, because they would add little, ifanything, to the librarian's ability to criticize properly the work being done by his binder.[2]In some respects the order here outlined may differ in different binderies, but the majority follow it closely.

The processes as outlined are those which should be used in library binding. There are, however, several additional points relating to binding processes with which it is well to be familiar.

[1]Finishing from the artistic point of view with an excellent description of tools, materials and processes will be found in Cockerell's "Binding and the care of books," Chapter 14.

[2]For instructions to the binder about type, space, lettering, etc., see under Lettering, page 141.

In looking at many old books bound in the eighteenth or early part of the nineteenth century, or at books bound within recent years for individuals, one will find many that have the back divided by ridges. These are known as "raised bands." They are formed by sewing the book differently from either of the methods described up to this point.

According to this method the bands are not placed in grooves which sink them below the surface of the back, but are simply laid against the back. In sewing the thread may come out at the near side of the band and in at the far side, thus going around the band on the back of the book; or it may come out at the far side and in at the near side, thus entirely encircling the band. In either case the sewing is exceedingly strong. Since the bands are entirely on the surface, the leaves open all the way to the back of the signatures and greater flexibility can be obtained thereby. (Fig. 10.)

Figure 10.—Sewing on raised bands. No saw cuts except for kettle stitches. Based on illustration in Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.Figure 10.—Sewing on raised bands. No saw cuts except for kettle stitches. Based on illustration in Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

As it is much more difficult to sew and forward books with raised bands, they are not used in ordinary library work. It may be advisable, however, touse them occasionally on a few large reference books such as dictionaries, where great flexibility combined with strength is essential. In fact the merits of binding in this way are not recognized as generally as they should be.

Many books look as if they were sewed on raised bands when in reality they are sewed in the ordinary way, with false raised bands pasted on the back. They add nothing to strength and have no place in library binding.

Lacing-in is a method of attaching the bands to the book, which is in general use for all leather books bound by hand. This method requires that the boards which have been cut to the proper size be laid against the grooves formed in backing and marks be made about half an inch in from the back, opposite each band. At these points holes are punched through the board which is then turned over and other holes are punched about half an inch from the first ones. It is generally desirable to cut a groove in the board from the first holes to the edge of the board, for the bands to lie in, so that there will not be an unsightly protuberance when the book is bound. The bands which have been frayed out are then threaded through the first holes from the outside of the board inward and again through the second holes. They are drawn up tightly enough so that the board will fit close to the joint, but not enough to prevent it from lying flat. The ends of the bands are spread out fan-wise,pasted, and hammered down smooth on the board. Before any back-lining has been put on, the boards are attached to the book simply by these bands. (Fig. 11.)

Figure 11.—Bands laced in, and ends frayed out. Based on illustration in Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.Figure 11.—Bands laced in, and ends frayed out. Based on illustration in Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

When bands are laced-in it is not customary to use anything stronger than paper for back lining; the strength of the book lies in the bands and the leather which covers the back. As long as the leather remains strong and the book does not receive hard usage this method is satisfactory. As soon, however, as the leather begins to disintegrate more strain is placed upon the bands. When the leather breaks completely the bands bear the entire burden at the joint, and eventually break. With the process as outlined in the preceding pages one need never fear that the book will come out of the cover, or that the sides will break at the joint. Even if the leather shouldbreak the canton flannel will hold. The best library binders do no lacing-in at the present time.

Figure 12.—Split boards. In actual work the back-lining would cover the entire back.Figure 12.—Split boards. In actual work the back-lining would cover the entire back.

While the old method of lacing-in is not desirable in library binding, the method of using split boards makes a very strong book. Instead of making a case of cloth, or cloth and leather, the back lining and the bands (or tapes) are inserted in boards which have been split, or between two thin boards glued together with a space left unglued for this purpose. The covering material is put on after the book is in boards and the book is made tight backed. This is probably the strongest method of attaching a book to the boards. In fact it is stronger than is necessary for any except very heavy books which receive hard wear. (Fig. 12.)

For years there has been a certain mild controversy regarding the relative merits of tight and loose backs for leather bound books. Tight backs arethose in which the material used for covering the book is pasted or glued to the back. Loose backs are those which, by means of folded paper or a piece of paper put in as described on page 37, are prevented from adhering to the back. When the book is opened the back springs out. (Fig. 13.)

The tight back book always forms a hinge at the place where the book is opened. Since the place of the hinge is constantly changing the back of the book after much use becomes concave instead of convex, and the appearance of the book is seriously marred. Also the constant creasing of the back tends to erase the gold lettering, so that it becomes indistinct. If labels are put on they speedily come off. It is customary to use tight backs on very heavy books, though there are cases where such books have been put in loose backs.

Figure 13.—Tight back and loose back.Figure 13.—Tight back and loose back.

The loose-back book always preserves its shapeand good appearance, even when the paper on the inside may be so badly worn that the book should be withdrawn. The strain, however, always comes at the joint; therefore if poor leather is used it will quickly wear out at this point.

Each method has its advocates, but so far as the present writer can learn, there seems to be little to choose from the standpoint of strength. It might seem that the tight-back book would be the stronger, but as a matter of fact in actual wear loose-back books seem to hold their own with the others. In fact when the soft, spongy papers are used the loose backs are obviously stronger. It seems clear that there is little choice one way or the other, and the question must be decided by the personal preference of the librarian.

JOINTS

In library binding French joints are now used in place of regular joints. Figure 14 shows plainly the difference between the two. In the regular joint it will be noticed that when the book is opened there is a sharp crease in one line from head to tail. In the French joint the strain is distributed over a much greater area. In regular joints the leather is sometimes pared at the joints to permit of easier opening of the book. In French joints the full thickness of the leather can be used. French joints are made by setting the boards away from the back about one-eighth of an inch. When the cover is put on it is necessary to crease between the board and the backwhile the leather is still damp.

An excellent illustration showing the anatomy of a joint may be found on page 51 of Dana's "Notes on bookbinding for libraries," ed. 2.

A Section of an Ordinary Joint with the board open shows that the creasing of the leather is concentrated on one line.A Section of an Ordinary Joint with the board open shows that the creasing of the leather is concentrated on one line.

A Section of a "French Joint" shows how this creasing is distributed over a great surface, and so enables sufficient flexibility to be obtained with much thicker leather than can be used with an ordinary joint. Figure 14.—French joint. From Report of the Committee on Leathers for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.A Section of a "French Joint" shows how this creasing is distributed over a great surface, and so enables sufficient flexibility to be obtained with much thicker leather than can be used with an ordinary joint.Figure 14.—French joint. From Report of the Committee on Leathers for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

Corners on library books should be rounded to prevent the board from breaking if the book falls and to prevent the cloth from wearing through at this point. Rounded corners are peculiar to library binding. As a rule they are not made by cutting off a corner of the board, but by turning in the cloth diagonally from the corner and then from the side and end. Sometimes both methods are adopted. If government specification cloth is used it is probable that "library corners" will not be necessary.

In some libraries pieces of leather or vellum areput on corners. Leather is put on in order to raise the bottom of the boards from the shelf, while vellum is used to make the corners hard and prevent them from breaking or showing signs of wear. While both serve the purpose for which they are intended, the process of putting them on adds materially to the expense, and in most cases this is not warranted by the increased use of the book.

Binders should be instructed to trim as little as possible. This is important for all books, but most of all for periodicals. In fiction and juvenile books it is important to have wide margins, because the text will remain legible for a longer period of time if protected by a margin from the contact of hands. Non-fiction books which are likely to remain in use for a longer period of years may need to be rebound and trimmed again. Therefore wide margins are essential to good wear as well as to good appearance.

It is customary to bind front covers of periodicals. Sometimes it is desirable to bind advertising pages, and it is necessary to do so when the publishers follow the pernicious practice of continuing regular articles on advertising pages. Covers and advertising pages are generally printed with much narrower margins than the body of the magazine and unless great care is taken in trimming parts of the printed matter will be cut off.

Cotton headbands can be added during the forwarding but inasmuch as they are simply pasted on they add nothing to the strength and very little to the beauty of the book. When silk headbands are carefully sewed on they add both strength and beauty. An excellent description of the process of putting on headbands will be found in Cockerell's "Binding and the care of books," page 147.

The ability to recognize a well bound book is necessary when comparing the work of different binders. A book should be bound in material suitable for the use which the book is to receive and in such a way as to give the maximum amount of service. It should also be as attractive in appearance as is compatible with these two requirements. In deciding whether a book is suitably bound for library use the following points should be kept in mind:

1. A volume must show evidence of neat and careful workmanship.

2. If the book is to be used constantly leather is essential; if occasionally only, leather is an element of weakness.

3. All books that receive hard usage should have end papers and fly-leaves guarded with cloth. If sewed regularly the first and last signatures also should be guarded.

4. Saw cuts should not be deep.

5. The book should be flexible and stay flat wherever opened. (This is not always possible in thecase of overcast books or books printed on stiff, brittle paper.)

6. When the book is lying flat the top should remain flat. When standing on end the sections should not separate slightly at the back.

7. The book should feel firm and compact to the hand.

8. When opened the volume should not make a crackling noise due to too much glue on the back.

9. The book should have a well rounded back and the cover should fit well at the joint. Flat backs are not desirable.

10. Margins should be wide and cut straight. Periodicals should not be trimmed so that printing on covers or advertisements is cut off.

11. The book should have French joints.

12. The cover should not separate easily from the book when pressure is applied.

13. Lettering on the back should be legible and put on straight.

14. On opening the book sections at the back should be perfectly smooth, showing that they have not been crushed in backing.

15. Guards for plates, maps, sections, etc., should be so applied as to leave the paper unwrinkled.

In a recent pamphlet issued by the Government Printing Office, containing a list of materials and articles used in the printing and binding of public documents, the number of items for binding alone reaches the surprising total of 171. Many of these are materials used in marbling, others indicate slight variations of color and weight in standard leathers and cloths. But exclusive of all these the number of materials called for is over forty.

It is not the writer's purpose to discuss all of these forty or more materials, but it seems necessary to mention that many materials other than those used in covering books (always some kind of cloth or leather) are used in binding. Furthermore, the strength of the book after it is bound will depend almost as much upon the materials used in its inner construction as upon those used in covering it. The inner materials, if not wisely selected as to quality or in reference to the kind of service which the book is to receive, may cause an otherwise excellently bound book to give poor service.

In general, however, a reference to binding materials means those which are used in covering books. It is the cover which renders a book attractive or unattractive, and which contributes more than anyother one item, except possibly sewing, to the long life of the book. We should therefore know the initial cost of different covering materials and the length of service which each material will give under different conditions. When they are not imitations we should be able to recognize the best-known materials, either on or off the books. An unscrupulous binder can easily take advantage of ignorance of these matters.

So far as the librarian is concerned only two classes of materials need be considered for the covers of books—leathers and book cloths. This does not indicate a restriction of choice, for when we consider that leather comes from a large number of animals, that there are a great many different kinds of cloth, that cloths and leathers can be obtained in a great variety of colors, there seems to be an embarrassment of riches. As a matter of fact most librarians confine themselves to four kinds of leather and four or five kinds of cloth, each in three or four different shades.

The most expensive materials used in covering books and those which vary most in quality are leathers, the skins of animals which have been tanned and made flexible. The best bookbinding leathers are those which are flexible both in the skin and on books, and the surface of which is not easily damaged by friction. Owing to the many kinds of leathers and their variation in quality, it is difficult to learn toknow them well.

The skins of all sorts of animals have been used for covering books. Certain ones, not suitable for library binding, are still used for the purpose in various parts of the country, so that librarians need to become expert in their knowledge of which leathers may be employed and which ought to be rejected.

Variations in the same kinds of leathers are caused by:

(a)Age.Skins of animals which have not reached full growth should not be used for binding library books. Since they are immature, the fibres have not become tough, and they have not reached their maximum thickness. If the skins which the binder is using are exceptionally small, it is probable that the animals from which they were obtained were too young. On the other hand, the skins of very old animals should not be used, since the fibres of the skins have lost something of their flexibility and strength. They cannot be readily detected, but they are sure to give poor service. As an illustration of the effect which age has upon leather it will be sufficient to note the well-known fact that calf skin is useless for library purposes, while cowhide within certain well-defined limits is exceedingly useful.

(b)The sex of the animal.It has been proved beyond question that the skin from the female of some animals, notably goats, does not wear as well as that from the male.

(c)Country from which they come.It is an interesting fact that the skin of a sheep which comesfrom Persia is not the same kind of a skin as that of a sheep which is raised in the United States. In general, it may be said that skins from animals inhabiting warm countries are more likely to be serviceable than those from the same kind of animals inhabiting cold countries. In the cold countries more of the strength goes into the fur or hair which protects it, while in warm countries a greater amount of strength goes into the skin itself.

In addition to variations due to these causes there is likely to be a certain amount of variation in different parts of the same skin. That part of the skin which comes from the back of the animal is tougher than that which comes from the abdomen. The difference is very noticeable in the skins of some animals, less so in others.

Decay of Leather.Of late years there has been much dissatisfaction expressed over the decay of modern leathers. In many cases leathers 100 years old or more are in a fair state of preservation, while many leathers—perhaps we should say most leathers—30, 20 or even 10 years old, show signs of decay, and some have rotted away almost entirely. In no way is the decay of modern leathers shown more conclusively than in a long file of the sheep-bound set of the United States Public Documents. The earlier volumes, covering the 15th Congress up to the 36th, will in general be found to be in a good state of preservation. About the year 1860, however, marked deterioration appears. In some cases it seems as if the backs had entirely disintegrated.While a sheep-bound set is the best example of the decay of modern leathers, many libraries have been greatly annoyed by the decay of other leathers which are supposed to be much stronger than sheepskin.

So great was the dissatisfaction with modern leathers that in the year 1900 the Society of Arts in London appointed a committee to investigate modern leathers and to ascertain the best methods for preparing leathers for binding. The report of this committee was published in 1905, and a general knowledge of its contents is necessary for those who wish to know why leathers decay and how they may be preserved. Another valuable work which should be carefully studied is entitled "Leathers for libraries," published by the Sound Leather Committee of the Library Association in England. In a chapter of this book J. Gordon Parker, Ph. D., Director of the London Leather Industries Research Laboratories, tells us that the chief causes of decay are as follows:

1. The introduction of tanning materials other than oak and sumac, stronger in tannin, and more rapid in their action. Many of these tanning materials are unstable, and the leather produced disintegrates on exposure to light and air.

Tanning is the process of changing hides, which are animal matter subject to decay, into material which is strong and flexible and which is not subject to decay. There are two groups of tanning materials. The one called the pyrogallol group, which includes sumac, gall nuts and oak bark, is commended by the Committee of the Society of Arts. The other is called the catechol group and is strongly condemned.Among the materials belonging to the catechol group are hemlock bark and larch, used chiefly in this country, and turwar bark used largely in tanning East Indian goat and sheep skins.

The United States Government Printing Office proposals call for leathers tanned with a pyrogallol tannin, since it has been proved that such leathers prove most resistant to the evil effects of light, heat and gas. If a skin has been tanned with sumac, or sumac in combination with oak bark, it has received the best possible preparation for its life as a bookbinding leather.

It is not possible, neither is it necessary, to have all leathers tanned with sumac. Those leathers which are intended to remain on the shelves for many decades, should be in this tannage. Those which will be discarded in a few years may be tanned in a less expensive manner. Even some of the quick, modern materials, which accomplish in a few hours what once would have taken weeks, are not too poor for leathers which are not to be kept indefinitely.

Even the expert cannot detect skins which have not been tanned and dyed properly, but leathers which last a short time may be suspected either of being improperly tanned or of having some kind of injurious acid in their composition.

2. The use of dried and cured skins of variable soundness imported from abroad. Goat, calf and sheep skins are imported into this country (England) from all over the world; some are simply dried in the sun, some salted, whilst others are cured with various ingredients.3. The use of infusions of acids and other bleachingagents to produce bright and even shades of colour.

3. The use of infusions of acids and other bleachingagents to produce bright and even shades of colour.

Skins tanned with sumac are light-colored and can be dyed any desired color. Most other tanning materials, however, make darker-colored skins, which can be dyed only with dark colors. It has been found possible to scour and bleach skins with sulphuric acid and to re-tan with sumac.

4. The use of sulphuric or other mineral acids for the purpose of developing the depth of colour during the process of dyeing.

Sulphuric acid is the cause of decay of over 90% of modern bookbinding leathers. Having once been used, it cannot be wholly removed without the use of other chemicals.

5. The shaving and splitting of skins for producing an even substance.

In splitting and shaving, the long, strongest fibres of the skin are torn or cut off, and the part which remains for binding purposes is the weakest part of the skin.

6. Printing and embossing grains upon leather, together with other methods of finishing now in common use.

There are various ways of bringing out the natural grain of leathers which are perfectly legitimate and which do no harm. The danger in graining comes when the grain is embossed by means of a plate, which is heated and pressed on the skin. No good leather should ever be embossed.

7. The stripping, scouring, souring and re-tanning ofEast India leathers (Persians).

Some imported skins are only partially tanned, and it is necessary to wash out the tannin with some kind of alkali, which also takes out much of the natural grease of the skin. They are then treated with sulphuric acid and re-tanned. They are always poor and are seldom sold as re-tanned skins.

8. The removal of the natural grease or nourishment of the skin.

The foregoing eight causes of decay are beyond our direct control. The leathers are manufactured and put on the market, and the binder has to use such as he is able to obtain. No matter how much the librarian may insist upon leathers free-from-acid, he is helpless if the binder cannot obtain them. All that he can do is to insist that leathers without acid must be used, if obtainable.

Although these causes of decay are beyond the librarian's control, there are several causes of decay quite within his power to avoid. They are the following, due to improper methods used in binding, or to physical conditions after the book is on the shelf:

1. Direct sunlight.

2. Gas fumes. This evil is hard to guard against if there are gas pipes in the building. There is sure to be more or less leakage, and even a small amount of gas in the air has a bad effect upon leather.

3. Tobacco smoke. This is not likely to be very detrimental in libraries, since the rules generallyforbid smoking.

4. Excessive dampness, which encourages mildew.

5. Extreme dry heat. A temperature much in excess of 70° Fahrenheit is likely to dry up the oil which gives flexibility to leather.

6. Undue wetting or stretching the leather in covering. Some binders soak the leathers and stretch them in placing them on the books. When the leathers dry they shrink, the fibres are strained and the life of the leather shortened.

7. Use of poor paste in binding. This frequently sets up a fermentation that is very harmful to leathers.

8. Dust, especially in conjunction with dampness, is very injurious to leather.

Doubtless there are other things which have a deleterious effect upon leathers in libraries; but if a library is well ventilated, if leather-covered books are not kept in cellars or basements that are very damp, or where direct sunlight can fall upon them, and if the binder uses good paste and proper care in covering the books, we may reasonably place the responsibility of undue decay of leathers upon the manufacturers.

The various reports quoted so far have dealt with qualities of leathers due to tanning, manufacture, method of binding and time in use. Natural or mechanical qualities of leathers have not been touched upon. Those who are interested in this phase of the question should read the report of Mr. CedricChivers on "The relative value of leathers and other binding materials," made at the meeting of the American Library Association at Pasadena in 1911. Mr. Chivers employed Mr. Alfred Seymour Jones, in England, to make tests which would show the tearing and breaking strain of various leathers. These natural qualities of leathers are obviously important, but too much stress must not be laid upon them. It is possible that a leather naturally strong and tough when new would rapidly deteriorate with age. The records as presented in Mr. Chivers' report must be taken in conjunction with facts determined by the investigation of the Society of Arts. In the main, however, it will be found that leathers which best stood the tests of the Society of Arts also showed the greatest resistance to the tearing and breaking strains made by Mr. Chivers.

Preservation of Leather.Various attempts have been made both by librarians and others to discover some substance which would preserve leather effectually after the book is bound. Some of these attempts have been temporarily successful, but time alone will tell whether leathers are permanently preserved by the treatments used, or whether applications of the preservative must be frequently made. Owing to the fact that in law libraries practically all the books published previous to 1900 were bound in sheepskin, the lasting qualities of leathers is a question that affects law libraries more than any other. Dr. Wire, of the Worcester (Mass.) County Law Library, who has made a careful study of the problem, advises the use of vaseline or some othersimilar by-product of petroleum well rubbed into the leather with the bare hand and allowed to dry in the air until the leather has absorbed it. Better results were obtained by allowing the volumes to dry in the summer by natural heat instead of artificial heat in the winter. For some books Dr. Wire makes use of a bookbinder's varnish after the softening product has thoroughly penetrated the leather. A full description of the processes may be obtained from Dr. Wire's pamphlet, "Leather preservation," published in 1911.

Some of the disadvantages of Dr. Wire's method are:

1. The necessity of rubbing in the preservative from three to five times, according to the condition of the leather at the time of first treatment.

2. The care necessary to prevent the material used from smearing tables, trucks, floor, shelves and clothing at time of application; also when books are back on the shelves the care required to keep from rubbing against them and the necessity of wiping them off when they are handed to readers.

3. The tendency of books to swell at the back when first treated in this way, demanding extra care lest, in an effort to pull out one book, a whole shelf-full fall to the floor.

4. The repetition of the process after ten years.

It is possible that these drawbacks will be sufficient to dissuade all except the most stout-hearted from using this method of preserving leather. Rebinding in cloth seems to be much more simple and, on the whole, not much more expensive.

The question of a preservative is discussed inthe Report of the Society of Arts, from which the following quotation is taken:

Enquiries have frequently been made as to the use of preservative pastes upon old bindings. It has been mentioned that the seasonings of white of egg or blood albumen usually employed in finishing leather have some preservative effect, and no harm can arise from the application of very thin coatings of white of egg. The use of ammonia to thin or preserve the solution must be avoided, but the whites, after thorough beating, may be rendered antiseptic by the addition of a small quantity of camphor, thymol, or some essential oil. Vaseline has been employed as a dressing, and, if otherwise suitable, will no doubt have a preservative effect upon the leather. A very moderate use of the wax, soap, and turpentine preparations made as shoe pastes, is also likely to be beneficial, and no doubt a special preparation might be made on these lines which would be still more suitable. Paraffin wax dissolved in benzine is also harmless, and the surface to which it has been applied takes a good polish with a flannel after drying. Professor Proctor has experimented with a finish introduced by the Berlin Aniline Company some years ago for coloured leathers, with apparently satisfactory results. The preparation is practically a very hard stearine soap with excess of stearic acid, and is made by boiling 8 parts of stearic acid with 1 part of caustic soda and 50 parts of water until thoroughly dissolved, and then adding 150 parts of cold water and stirring till the material sets to a jelly. It is applied very thinly with a sponge or rag, and after thorough drying is polished with a soft brush or flannel. The alkali present in the soap is useful in neutralising any mineral acids contained in the leather. In very acid leathers it has been noticed that the sodium sulphate so formed will sometimes appear upon the surface as a white film, but this is easily removed with a damp cloth, and the surface, after drying, repolished with flannel.

Old books which it is desirable to preserve aslong as possible in their original bindings and books which will be used very little may be treated with some form of preservative. If the book is to be much used, it would better be rebound. Dr. Wire's experiments have been carried on exclusively with law books. Whether the same processes could be used on books bound in morocco or pigskin is something that has not yet been determined. Most leather-bound books break first at the joint. The sheep bindings in a law library would show signs of disintegration long before the leather reached the breaking point, whereas the librarian would first notice that morocco was decaying when the leather actually cracked. Once cracked, no amount of preservative would do any good.

The leathers that have been used in binding books have come from all sorts of animals, but so far as the librarian is concerned the skins of four animals only need be taken into consideration—the sheep, the cow, the pig and the goat. In England some experiments have been made with sealskin, but it has not been used long enough to give any definite idea of its resistance to the encroachments of time.

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