This severity was afterwards relaxed, until the oboe was used alone or as the principal wind instrument, generally to support the voice or to strengthen the harmony. It wasCHURCH MUSIC.allowed to assert its own individuality at a later time, but this could only be when it retained its proper place among the different combined wind instruments. Flutes were only rarely used to replace the oboe in soft passages; there were no clarinets in Salzburg. Bassoons served, as a rule, only to strengthen the bass; in various places where they, like the violoncello, were treated with some degree of independence it was so indicated in the score. Also when the tenors were associated with the wind instruments to complete the harmony they were supported by the bassoons. The horns at first closely followed the trumpets, but gradually attempts were made, by the use of sustained notes, to produce the sound effects peculiar to this instrument. The freer treatment of the wind instruments passed to the church from the opera, and those pieces which were altogether more freely treated than masses, prepared the way for the change. The orchestra of Mozart's two last Litanies is just as elaborate and careful as that of his operas, and the later one does not only employ obbligato solo instruments, but in many of its sections approaches modern instrumentation.
We are unfortunately in considerable ignorance as to what masters were studied by Mozart. What has usually been said of his diligent study of Bach, Handel, and the Italian masters, is neither demonstrable nor probable. There would scarcely be much opportunity at Salzburg for the study of any but Salzburg or south German musicians. It is well known that some of these, such as Eberlin, Michael Haydn, and Adlgasser, were earnestly studied and highly esteemed by Mozart. But he first became acquainted with Sebastian Bach56through Van Swieten in Vienna, although he may have come across detached organ or pianoforte compositions in Salzburg. He heard Handel's oratorios as a boy in London, but that was all, and even at Mannheim he took no great interest in the "Messiah." It was again Van Swieten who led him to this master.
We may grant a stronger influence to the Italian masters,ITALIAN INFLUENCE.although the older Italian church music was only exceptionally used at Salzburg.
Leopold Mozart speaks of a Gradual with which he had been much pleased as being the work of "the celebrated long-since deceased Lotti" (November 13, 1777). But we have seen with what zeal Mozart studied in Italy; and a youth with his genius learned rapidly, and could at once apprehend and retain whatever would be likely to benefit him. He must also have taken home with him from Italy much material for future use, as we have seen in the case of the compositions of Padre Martini. But what direction these studies took, and how far they extended, we are not informed. It is not probable that Mozart studied the old masters with the intention of forming his own style on theirs, but rather that he might gain that surer practice in technicalities which the tasks before him required.
DURING the last half of the eighteenth centuryit had become the fashion in Italy and elsewhere to perform detached instrumental pieces as introductions or intermezzi during the pauses in Divine service.1They were written in the then customary symphony form; music of a lively and secular tone not being thought out of place in churches.2Brilliancy of effect was provided for by doubling the orchestra and other mechanical means,3besides forcible composition. Further innovations were made in allowing solo vocalists an opportunity of displaying their powers in church music;INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.and, as a necessary consequence, distinguished instrumental performers also were allowed to add their share to the attractions of Divine worship.4Instrumental concertos were played usually at the conclusion of the service, without any regard to an ecclesiastical character.5We gather from Dittersdorf's account6of his competition with Spagnoletti at the festival of St. Paul at Bologna and its result, that fine performances were thought as much of in the churches as in theatres and concerts.
At Salzburg, as Mozart tells Padre Martini (p. 244), a sonata was introduced between the epistle and the gospel, until Archbishop Hieronymus replaced it by a gradual in 1763.7Seventeen compositions by Mozart of this kind are preserved. The earliest of certain date belongs to 1775 (212 K.), and others to 1776 (241, 244, 245, 263, K.) and 1777 (274, 278, K.), but there are several almost certainly of earlier date. His sacred sonatas were performed even during his absence, according to his father (September 25, 1777). After his return, he composed three pieces of the kind, the last in March, 1780 (328, 329, 336, K.).
They are all inscribed as sonatas, and all consist of a lively movement of moderate length in two parts, and in regulation sonata form. The church sonatas (sonad di chiesa) differ, indeed, from chamber sonatas (sonad di camera) in being serious, dignified, often fugued and in counterpoint, but the style has nothing in it that suggests a sacred performance. The tone is neither solemn nor devotional, nor is the style severe. The tone and treatment of the commencement remind us of the first movements of the smaller sonatas and quartets; the subjects are small, sometimes very pretty'; the treatment is free and skilful, and in the later pieces not without touches of Mozart's originality. They are usually written for two violins and violoncello, to which the organ was always added, but neverORGAN SONATAS—NOBLE AMATEURS.obbligato nor with any regard to executive display; it has often only its customary office of accompaniment to the violoncello, in which case a figured bass part is written. Even when the organ part is independent it is for the most part limited to what the skilful organist can make out of thecontinuo;its independence is very modest, and it never aspires to a solo or any passages. Sometimes trumpets and drums are added (263 K.) as well as oboes (278 K.) and horns (329 K.). With the extension of the orchestra the design and treatment became grander and more impressive, but still kept within comparatively narrow limits. Unhappily these organ sonatas give us not the faintest idea of Mozart's much-admired organ-playing.
Not only were these compositions composed for special occasions, but all instrumental music at that time was in this sense occasional music. Orchestral compositions were, with few exceptions, written with a definite aim and under given conditions.
Musical performances were the customary evening entertainments given by distinguished or wealthy persons, in default of better, such as the theatre. Those who maintained their ownKapellerequired daily performances, and in the evening, whether they were alone or entertaining company, a well-appointed concert. Sometimes noble gentler men became so proficient on some instrument that it pleased them to take personal part in such concerts. Not to mention the noted examples of Frederick the Great and the Emperor Joseph, the Elector Maximilian III. of Bavaria was a performer on the bass-viol, and took part in the court concerts, where his sister, Maria Antonia of Saxony, appeared as a singer; sometimes also he played the violin in the symphony.8The flute was an instrument much in vogue with noble amateurs, and was played by the Margrave Friedrich von Bayreuth,9Duke Karl vonINSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.Curland,10and Prince Joseph Friedrich von Hildburghausen;11the Elector Karl Theodore, played the violoncello,12Prince Nicolaus Esterhazy the baritone,13Archduke Maximilian the tenor.14Archbishop Hieronymus adopted the violin15as his instrument, after the example of the Emperor Peter III.16and the Crown Prince Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand von Braunschweig, and he amused himself with it alone after dinner;17in the evening he took part in the concerts given by his choir.18L. Mozart writes to his son, who had a great dislike to violin-playing in court music: "As a connoisseur, you will not be ashamed of the violin-playing in the first symphony, any more than the Archbishop and all the cavaliers who take part in it." The distinguished amateurs did not indeed always improve the orchestra. On one occasion, the Empress Maria Theresa having remarked in an undertone to Haydn that she wondered what would become of four noble amateurs, who were performing with him, if left to themselves, he played her the joke of quietly absenting himself with his next colleague, and enjoyed the complete discomfiture of the gentlemen. Brunetti, who always stood at the Archbishop's side, used at difficult places quietly to take down his viola and strike in; the Archbishop let it pass, and used even to say when he came to these places, "now Brunetti will come in." Mozart had not the most favourable opinion of the Archbishop's musical knowledge. He writes to his father (Vienna, September 26, 1781) about the famous bass singer, Fischer, "who has certainly an excellent bass voice, although the Archbishop told him he sang too low for a bass, upon which I assured His Grace that he would sing higher next time."
COURT CONCERTS—-THEIR LENGTH.
Public performers took the principal parts in these concerts, which fact was taken into consideration in forming the choir; care was taken to attract foreign artists, and in the larger towns many public performers depended on the daily concerts for their means of subsistence.19The performances were long, and included a great deal of orchestral music. Count Firmian's musical soirées lasted from five to eleven o'clock, and at one concert several symphonies by J. C. Bach and four symphonies by Martini were played.20Dittersdorf produced twelve new violin concertos by Benda on one evening;21at a concert given by the Elector of Bavaria Burney heard two symphonies by Schwindl, a song by Panzacchi, a scena by the Electress of Saxony, a trio for bass-viols by the Elector, a song by Rauzzini, a song by Guadagni, and a bass-viol solo by the Elector;, and at a private concert in Dresden both parts contained a symphony, a violin concerto, a flute concerto, and an oboe concerto.22The evening's amusement was generally further provided for by card-playing and conversation. Archbishop Hieronymus limited the duration of his concerts. L. Mozart wrote to his son (September 17, 1778) that they only lasted from seven to a quarter past eight, and included only four pieces—a symphony, a song, another symphony or concerto, another song, and thenaddio.23The court composer took the direction of the court music in turn with the kapellmeister every alternate week, and the director for the time being had the choice andINSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.arrangement of the music24except so far as it was dictated by superior authority.
The position of Mozart's father gave him constant opportunities of bringing his son's instrumental compositions before the public. The fame of the band was enhanced by the performance of works by one of the members, and at every festival something new was performed. Dittersdorf relates that for the fête-day of the Bishop of Grosswardein he composed not only a grand cantata with choruses and a solo cantata, but also two grand symphonies at the beginning and close, a middle symphony, with obbligato wind instruments, and a violin concerto.25In a similar position, under Prince Esterhazy, Josef Hadyn produced his incredibly numerous instrumental compositions. Mozart's fertility during the period of his independent activity at Salzburg, from 1770 to the autumn of 1777, was equally great, but the merit of industry and fertility was one which these great masters shared with many contemporary lesser ones.
The skilful treatment of the orchestra rests mainly on the composer being so imbued with the spirit of the work as a whole as to be able to render the separate parts conducive to the general effect. This can only be accomplished by continuous practical study.
Most especially fortunate was Mozart, whose numerous appointed tasks, not being merely abstract exercises, served him as studies for his works. The danger was indeed great that the influence of the schools and the force of traditional forms would tend to mechanical routine, but it afforded another proof of Mozart's creative nature, that his unintermittent labour in mastering the technicalities of his art never interfered with the spiritual side of his genius.
Many forms were in use for instrumental composition during the last century, of which, at the present day, we can scarcely even distinguish the names or define the limits. The so-called French symphony (or overture) introduced by Lulli, and established through the school of Scarlatti,SYMPHONIES OR OVERTURES.consists of a short slow movement preceding a longer and more varied one, and repeated at the close. This was opposed to the Italian symphony, which contained three movements: an allegro at the beginning and another at the end, separated by a slow movement in effective contrast to them both. The first and the last allegro were, however, different in character, the second being the quicker and more cheerful of the two.
It was easy to sever the slender connection between the symphony and the opera; and operatic symphonies were soon performed alone, as may be proved by the symphonies to the "Finta Semplice," the "Sogno di Scipione" and "Lucio Silla."
The continual demand for new symphonies co-operated with the increasing capacity of the instrumentalists, and the fuller appointments of the orchestra, in developing their importance and independence. In Italy, Sammartini, commissioned by the governor, Pallavicini, first wrote symphonies for full orchestra; he divided the tenors from the violoncelli, gave the second violins an independent part, and rendered service also to the technicalities of playing.26In Germany the composers of the Mannheim Kapelle, who were of the first rank, introduced this kind of composition with great success;27but Jos. Haydn, who surpassed them all in his inexhaustible wealth of productive power and in his thorough knowledge of his art, threw them quite into the shade, and may justly be considered as the creator of the symphony.
The three movements were originally connected; but when the symphonies became independent of the opera, this was only exceptionally the case (74, 181, 184, K.).
The last Symphony of the year 1773 shows that even in its maturity an artistic mind may cling to long-established customs. The delicately elaborated Andante, full of originalINSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.and tender sentiment, forms the climax of the work. The animated Allegro which precedes it is, with just discrimination, toned down towards the end to prepare for the Andante, whose yearning pathos leaves the mind unsatisfied, and whose subjects are arranged to favour the transition to the lively and restless concluding movement. As a rule, however, each movement was treated as a self-contained whole, which gave freer scope for the development of a definite idea.
In the formation of the separate movements the clavier sonata (in the perfect form given to it by Ph. Eman. Bach, acknowledged as a master by Haydn himself)28had a very considerable influence.
The first allegro was always in two parts; a short slow movement, perhaps a reminiscence of the French symphony, was prefixed to it by Haydn often, by Mozart rarely. A compact arrangement of well-defined subjects takes the place of the long-drawn thread of loosely connected phrases of the older symphonies. The first subject gives the tone of the movement, a second follows, contrasting in expression and structure, and generally a third is added; the connection is by means of free passages. It was long held as a fixed rule that the first theme should close on the subdominant, and that the second theme should be in the key of the dominant, in which also the first part of the movement concludes. In the second part the elaboration of the subjects begins. The composer might please himself as to which of the subjects, or how many or in what new combinations they were to be carried on; nor was there any definite rule as to the method of elaboration, except that it always led back to the principal key and the first theme, which closed on the dominant, and was followed by the second theme, also in the principal key; the first part might either be simply repeated with these modifications, or the change of key might be thoroughly carried out. Sometimes the second part was also repeated; and then followed the final winding-up by a coda, which recurs to one or more of the chief subjects, and which was employed even when theTHE SYMPHONY.second part was not repeated. The elements of this form had already been given in the aria, with its one main idea and its contrasting motifs; but the organic perfection of the form was first attained by instrumental music.
Ph. Eman. Bach declared that the chief and best quality of music was melody,29and this principle once recognised, the laws of song were adopted by instrumental music, although with many modifications, to suit the different characters of the instruments and the necessities of thematic elaboration. The chief improvement was the spirited development of one or more subjects to replace the tedious middle movement of the aria. The artistic development of the separate elements, according to their true significance, introduced both contrast and climax; unity was assured, since nothing foreign either to the form or the substance was admitted; while the repetition of the first part, like a dialectic exposition of an argument, provided a clear and satisfying conclusion. This working-out part did not always receive its due share of honour, and was often treated as a form of harmonic transition; but it asserts itself more and more as the proper nucleus of the whole movement, and has an important reaction on the formation and phrasing of the first part. This becomes, as it were, the foundation prepared for the future development which first displays the whole extent of the conception. The coda was usually confined to a lengthened development of the closing phrase, and gathered to a point in pregnant brevity the most essential elements of the movement. It had its counterpart in the cadenza of the aria. After what manner great vocalists constructed their cadenzas we are unfortunately ignorant, but instrumental cadenzas reproduced the principal subjects of the movement, just as was the case in the coda. Beethoven, who brought the coda to perfection, has himself worked out the cadenzas in the Concerto in E flat major; the cadenza in the first part is identical in mechanism with the coda of one of his great symphonies.
The original middle movement has preserved a slowerINSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.tempo and a moderate tone, with simplicity both of design and composition. The point of departure is the air (lied, romanze), or the cavatine of operatic creation. Mozart, for instance, took a melodious duet from his opera of "Hyacinthus," for the Andante of a symphony (p. 94). There is no question here of artistic symmetry or elaboration of subjects; one main subject dominates the whole, often smothered with embellishments, as the original stem of a tree is hidden by the creepers which grow from its roots. The Andante is often, though not necessarily, divided into two parts, one or both of them to be repeated, sometimes with a coda added. In the second part a new statement of the subject generally takes the place of its actual development, and the contrast of major and minor keys is made use of. Frequent repetition of a simple theme led to the introduction of variations, sometimes strict, sometimes free in form, but in depth and originality always far inferior to thematic elaboration in the proper sense of the term. The Andante, therefore, long continued to be of minor importance, both as to length, form, and substance.
It required not only the mastery of musical theory, but the complete absorption of the individual in the artist before the innermost sentiments of the human heart in all their depth and fulness could be expressed in simple form, as the poet expresses them in lyric verse. The Adagio of instrumental music is, in its most perfect form, essentially a German creation, but it became what it is apart from the influence of the newly awakened German poetry; each in its separate sphere felt the vivifying spirit of the age like the fresh breath of spring, and awoke together to life and beauty.30As the substance of the slow movement grew in interest and importance, the form also became fuller and richer, without, however, any essential alteration; the most magnificent of slow movements have all the main points that we haveSUITE—MINUET.noticed above, and are only in details freer and more full of life and significance.
The closing movement, generally in 3-8, 6-8, or 2-4 time, has something of a dance tone, though not of set purpose. The rondo form, very freely treated, soon became predominant. The impressiveness of frequent repetition of the same melody, the freedom and ease with which the connecting phrases could be treated, the surprises to which ingenious returns to the theme gave rise, all made this easy form very appropriate to a closing movement. What was demanded from instrumental music was such a pleasant sense of enjoyment as should relax the mind without straining the attention, and a cheerful conclusion was considered essential. But by a singular inconsistency the last movement was sometimes made the field for the display of skill in counterpoint; masters of the art required that a genuine artist should know how to render cheerfulness and whimsicality, spirit and fun, even in the strictest forms. So it is customary to this day to introduce contrapuntal work into the scherzo, the proper field for musical wit and humour. This, too, is a production of German instrumental music.
To the three original movements of the symphony the minuet was added as a fourth, suggested probably by the Suite. The Suite, whether for orchestra or clavier, came to perfection in the seventeenth century, and consisted of a succession of dances in the same key, but differing in time, rhythm, and expression, and for the most part highly characteristic. Mattheson enumerates them as follows: minuet, gavotte, bourrée, rigaudon, gigue, polonaise, anglaise (country-dances, ballads, hornpipes), passepied, sarabande, courante, allemande;31others give allemande, courante, gigue, passa-caille, gavotte, minuet, chaconne, the chief forms being allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue. An introduction, prelude, fantasia, or overture, preceded the dances, consisting, after the French fashion, of a slow and a livelyINSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.movement, the latter generally elaborated, and returning to the former as a conclusion.32It is evident that the suite was the foundation of the Italian operatic symphonies—not of our modern symphony and sonata forms—but much was doubtless borrowed from the long list of dances as embellishment to the symphony proper. Whether or not Josef Haydn was the first to introduce the minuet into the symphony, it was he undoubtedly who gave it its peculiar and typical character. The minuet was the dance of good society, affording opportunity for the display of dignity, grace, and deportment. We cannot hear those minuets which best reflect the character of the dance without thinking of powder and hoops; and now that the manners it suggests have become obsolete, it can only be humorously reproduced.33Haydn did not parody the minuet of his time, but he divested it of its distinguishing dignity; he took it as it was danced by the middle-classes, and filled it with national cheerfulness and good-humour. He represented a certain amount of joviality and rollicking fun which would have been inadmissible in thesalonsof thenoblesse, and he was inexhaustible in witty suggestions and surprises, without any taint of vulgarity or carelessness of musical treatment. This was being popular in the best sense of the word; the spirit was genuinely national, the form truly artistic; and so the minuet took its place in the symphony, and kept it. The position given to it in relation to the longer movements varied in early days; Mozart generally places it after the andante.
Mozart's first symphonies have only three movements, and it is perhaps not merely accidentally that the minuet is first introduced in the symphonies composed at Vienna in 1767 and 1768, but it is sometimes wanting in later works.
It is interesting to trace in his youthful works Mozart'sMOZART'S SYMPHONIES.gradual progress in mechanism and practical skill. At first there is little melodious invention, but a sense of effect and a knowledge of form always exist, and by degrees the symphonies acquire body and character. Command of the orchestra makes itself felt by degrees; first the separate parts become free and independent, a special movement is given to the second violins by characteristic passages and imitative treatment, and the basses too gain life and independence; they are in free imitation for the first time in a Symphony in G major (no K.) belonging to the year 1771. As development proceeded the subjects became fuller, and the whole work gained in consistency and substance, although it still wanted finish and elaboration. The peculiar character of the string quartet became more and more prominent; for a long time it formed the nucleus of the symphony, the wind instruments strengthening the harmonies and emphasising some particular melody, but only very gradually contributing to effects of light and shade. Oboes and horns, trumpets too (generally without drums), are combined according to rule, and gave the orchestra a sharp clear tone, which was then admired; flutes were employed in movements of a gentle character, usually with muted stringed instruments. It was not until later that the bassoons were made independent of the basses, and then they served, like the tenors, for middle parts. Many and diverse experiments were made in the employment of new instrumental forces before the various parts of the orchestra were successfully combined into a self-contained and living whole.
Nothing whatever is known of Mozart's models in his instrumental music. We may take for granted that he knew Josef Haydn's symphonies, and that they were not without some influence on his genius; but few actual traces of them can be discovered, while his conception of the minuet was altogether different, and remained peculiarly his own.34
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.
The jovial humour and the delight in musical drollery which are Haydn's characteristics are never predominant with Mozart; he preserves a national tone, truly, but the interest it excites is due to the ennobling and beautifying spirit which he throws into it. This side of Mozart's nature appears even in his earlier works, and makes us the more ready to ascribe any lapse into fun and drollery to the direct influence of Haydn. The last symphony, in E flat major, which is avowedly ambitious in conception, betrays undoubted external influence. Both the minuet and the lengthy and elaborate concluding rondo are decided imitations of Haydn. The andante is somewhat constrained ami unnatural, but there is a second and later andante at the close, which is much simpler.
Mozart's instrumental compositions up to the year 1772 are only interesting in so far as they show us how gradually and surely he gained possession of all the means his art could place at his command;35but from this date they begin to acquire an independent interest. It is remarkable that we possess no symphonies composed by Mozart between 1775 and 1777. Reflecting how carefully all the compositions of this time have been preserved, it is not probable that any can have been lost by accident. On the other hand most of the great serenades and concertos for violin and piano fall within these years; and it is quite possible that Mozart's growing discontent with his position and the displeasure of the Archbishop may have caused him to desistMOZART'S SYMPHONIES.from writing symphonies which were primarily intended for performance at court concerts. We have further proof that Mozart wrote no symphonies during these years in a letter from his father, on September 24, 1778, where he says: "When a thing does you no credit, it is better that it should be forgotten. I have sent you none of your symphonies because I feel sure that when you have come to riper years, and have a clearer judgment, you will be glad that they are forgotten, even though you may be satisfied with them now."
Even the more important among the later symphonies are sparing in the use of means, and precise in form, as indeed they were obliged to be, considering that several symphonies were performed in one evening.
And yet Mozart writes to his father from Paris (September 11, 1778) that he could not produce his symphonies there, since they did not suit the French taste: "We Germans like long pieces, but in truth they are better short and good." Progress is shown in greater freedom of treatment; the first movement of a Symphony in D major (202 K.) and the last movement of the Symphonies in G major (199 K.) and C major (200 K.), all belonging to 1774, are full of life and vigour. These qualities presuppose more individuality in the details, the interludes are developed with more independence, and the loosely connected violin and violoncello passages disappear altogether. Many of Mozart's special characteristics exist side by side with turns of expression common to the time; for instance, the second theme is sometimes an offshoot from the first, and the introduction of a new subject at the close of the part often gives a new impetus to the movement.
The Symphonies in G minor (183 K.) and in A major (201 K.) may serve as very opposite examples of Mozart's works of the kind. The first has a serious tone from the first subject onwards, the minuet and finale more especially being almost gloomy in tone, and the andante the same, only somewhat softened down. The second is full from beginning to end of cheerful humour and tender grace, and may serve as an example of the way in which a work of artINSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.of perfect mechanism and delicate shading may be produced from the simplest materials.
If the minuets alone of the two symphonies be compared, it will be acknowledged that an artist who within such confined limits can produce impressions of delicate wit and humour on the one hand, and of gloomy discontent and agitation on the other, has a full mastery of the forms and capabilities of instrumental music.
The symphonies of that time do not, as a rule, attempt to express passion or tragic emotion. They were, with few exceptions, intended to promote social enjoyment; consequently their essential characteristics are animation and brilliancy, or else calm serenity. The composer concentrated his efforts on the form and mechanism of his composition; to express deep feeling or the secrets of his own heart would have been alike impossible to him as an artist and contrary to the spirit of the time. A sharp line of division was drawn in theory and practice between human and artistic emotions, and any display of subjective emotion was discouraged. In the year 1774 "Werther" appeared; the strivings and conflicts of the time which produced it had their influence on music; but music had to pass through a longer and more arduous struggle before attaining to a like freedom of inspiration and expression.
The evident striving of the youthful Mozart to express himself and his innermost feelings in his music affords a significant indication of his development as an artist. Life had not taught him the lessons of passion and disappointment, and his nature was too sound and healthy to attempt to anticipate or represent emotions which had not touched him; he shows himself to us as he is.
The symphony was not then, as it is now, the grandest and most comprehensive form of orchestral music. The first place was given to the so-called serenata, a name originating in the circumstances of its composition, and scarcely applied to a fixed or well-defined form. The serenata was distinguished from the symphony in its narrow sense by greater variety and wealth of ideas and treatment. Several instruments are often grouped together in different combinations,THE SERENADE.and solo instruments are variously employed; also the number of separate movements often reaches as many as eight.
For the arrangement and manipulation of the movements the perfected forms of the symphony are employed, but with numerous modifications.
Serenades were introduced and sometimes also concluded by a march (39, K.). This was concise in form and simple in treatment, very often without even a trio; it was generally lively and cheerful. The detached marches by Mozart which are preserved were doubtless intended for introductions to serenades; they were often transferred from one to another, and so were written separately.
The minuet is almost invariably inserted between each andante and allegro, and therefore occurs two or three times in the symphony. The omission of all the other forms of dance music, so amply represented in the suite, is a proof that this form of instrumental music was not intended for practical use, at least in this juxtaposition. Variations were sometimes made in the character of the minuets by changes in the instrumentation, more especially in the trio. Several trios were frequently given to one minuet with appropriate instrumentation, making use of obbligato violins (185, 203, 204, 250, K.), flutes (204 K.), trumpets (250 K.), and sometimes the stringed instruments alone (100, 250, K.).
A grand allegro in two parts, as a commencement, and an allegro or presto at the close, sometimes introduced by a short adagio, form the main substance of the serenade as well as of the symphony, and the movements are similarly treated. The slow movement between them is in its turn between two minuets (62 K.), and there are sometimes two slow movements, each with a minuet appertaining to them (99 K.), and characterised by varied instrumentation. As time went on, an allegro was inserted between the two slow movements, which, however, was rendered distinct from the two principal quick movements by its lighter colouring and tone; the instruments, too, are grouped with more diversity. For instance (185 K.), the oboe and horn are employed obbligato in the first andante and theINSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.following allegro, and in the second andante flutes are combined with the stringed instruments.
A singular use is sometimes made of obbligato violins in the serenade (185,,203, 204, 214, 215, 237, 239, 250, K.). After the first allegro, the solo violins lead in three movements, viz.: andante, minuet, and allegro (rondo, 250 K.) which are in a measure complete in themselves, and form, apart from their surroundings, a complete symphony. The expression "finalmusik," which frequently occurs in Mozart's letters, seems to prove that these lengthy compositions, with their concerted solo instruments, formed the conclusion of the concert. The "concertantsymphonie" of the two last serenades belonging to 1774 and 1775 (204, 250, K.), are conspicuous from their peculiar instrumentation. In the other movements the usual oboes, horns, and trumpets are used as accompaniment to the obbligato violins, flutes, horns, and bassoons, and in the last movement especially the combination and treatment are quite modern. These two serenades show altogether a marked improvement on the earlier ones, which do not essentially differ from symphonies. The orchestra is firmly handled, and the orchestral subjects freely elaborated. Each of the many movements of the last serenade is worked out as carefully and lovingly as if it were the only one, and the ideas and motifs are so full of meaning and of jovial good-humour that it is impossible not to feel that Mozart has here put forth his best powers.
A short serenata (239 K.), consisting of a march, minuet, and rondo, interrupted by a short adagio, was written in January, 1776, for stringed instruments and drums only. A sort of chorus of two solo violins, accompanied by violas and violoncelli, is opposed to another, composed of two violins, viola, and violoncello, with the drums, all treated as tutti parts. Such admirable use is made of the contrast and combination of the two choruses, of the tutti parts and of varied sound effects, such aspizzicato, &.c., and even the drum is so skilfully employed, that this little work has taken a highly original colouring; with true tact the separate movements are made short, in order that theSERENADES—CASSATIO, 1771.singular charm of the piece may not suffer from the fatigue of the ear.36
The same praise may be bestowed on a nocturne (286 K.) for four orchestras, each consisting of a stringed quartet and two horns, so arranged as to represent a threefold echo. When the first orchestra has played a connected phrase the second orchestra falls in at the last bar with the same, or with the four last bars of the same, the third follows the second at the last bar with the three last bars, and the fourth comes in in the same way with the two last bars; then the first orchestra continues the theme. In this way all the three movements—andante, allegro, and minuet—are managed, with but slight modifications; only the trio of the minuet is played by one orchestra alone, or by all together. It need scarcely be said that the omission of the echoes does not affect the connection of the parts. The main point in such a trifle as this is to carry it out with as little visible constraint as possible.
There is an especially good effect in the minuet where short passages follow each other in rapid succession, falling in at different parts of the bars, and the way in which in the first part the horns alone conclude a phrase with—[See Page Image] cutting each other short in the most impatient manner, is truly comical.
Similar instrumental compositions to this are called by the name of divertimento or cassatio (which last term has never been satisfactorily explained), in which the various parts are simply arranged.37The first of these (113 K.), composed in Milan in 1771, "Concerto ossia Divertimento," has the four movements of the symphony, the last in rondo form, andINSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.resembles the symphonies of that time also in the brevity and preciseness of its arrangement. The strings are not obbligato, the wind instruments—two clarinets and two horns—although not concertante, are more than usually independent. For a later performance, probably in 1773, two oboes, two English horns, and two bassoons were so added that the clarinets might be omitted.38The stringed instruments were left untouched; the strengthening of the wind instruments was utilised for the alternations, with slight and clever modifications.
In the next divertimento, belonging to June, 1772 (131 K.), consisting of seven movements, the combination of the different instruments (four horns,39flutes, oboes, and bassoons) is varied with evident care. The first adagio is for strings alone, the second for wind instruments; the first minuet is for strings, the wind instruments alternate with each other in the three trios, and all the instruments unite in the coda. In the second minuet the four horns are especially prominent; in the third movement, an allegretto, the flute is obbligato and the horns are silent; in the first and last movements all the instruments work together.
A divertimento, singular in many respects, in six movements, for oboes and two horns, together with stringed instruments, seems to have been written quickly for some special occasion in July, 1776 (54 K.), and then to have been laid aside. The score is hurriedly jotted down on already used music paper of different shapes, with abbreviations, directions for the copyist, and various corrections. The second minuet has no trio, but is three times varied. The oboe is prominent and striking, not in passages, but in sustained notes and tuneful melodies. The stringed instruments, without being actually concertante, enliven the wholeDIVERTIMENTI, 1776-77.by their free arrangement of parts. The national German character of the melodies is very noticeable; they remind us in style of popular German songs.
The alliance of the horns with the strings was a favourite one at the time, although the instruments do not readily blend. The freer the thematic elaboration of the string parts the more difficult it became for the horns to keep pace with them, although now and then fine effects might be produced by their means.
The difficulty was so to engraft, as it were, the horns on the stringed instruments as to leave them free play for their own natural effects, and to produce a certain richness and depth of colouring not attainable without their aid.
In a divertimento, written about 1773 or 1774 (205 K.), two horns are in union with violin, tenor, and violoncello, strengthened by a bassoon. It is short and precise, but cleverly written. The adagio is a duet for violin and tenor, to a very simple bass, the horns being silent. It must be remembered that such pieces as these were always accompanied on the clavier.
Two divertimenti or cassationi, as they are oftener called in the letters, for string quartet, with two horns (247, 287, K.),40were written in June, 1776 and June, 1777, for the fête-day of the Countess Ant. Lodron; they are finished works of the genuine Mozart type. Both have six elaborately worked-out movements, and abound in grace and fertility of invention, and in skilful harmonic treatment. The style is that of a true quartet, that is, the instruments have each their independent part, but the first violin, as a solo part, is markedly predominant; in the first divertimento, in F major (247 K.), it sustains the melody in every movement, but is bravura and concertante only in the adagio.
In the second divertimento, in B flat major (287 K.), which is grand in design and composition, the first violin is treated as a solo instrument throughout, with a strongINSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.tendency to bravura, the remaining instruments co-operating in such a way as to display the creative spirit of an artist in every detail, however delicate or subordinate. In the very first thematically elaborated passage the solo passages for the violin occur, which it is the chief concern of the second part to elaborate. The second place—which in the former divertimento (247 K.) was given to a simple, exceedingly graceful andante grazioso, a kind of song without words—is occupied in the latter (287 K.) by an air with variations, in which all the instruments take part, but the violin more prominently, and with more of executive bravura than any of the others. This is most apparent in the two minuets, but it is very decided also in the broadly conceived adagio, where the second violin and tenor are muted, the violoncello plays pizzicato, while the first violin leads a melody richly adorned with figures and passages, and requiring the execution of a finished performer. The use of muted strings, especially in slow movements, was very frequent at that time in accompaniments, as well as in symphonies and quartets, and was intended to produce variety of tone-colouring; the violoncello not being muted, butpizzicato, afforded a contrast of tone. The concluding movement is introduced by an andante with a recitative for the first violin, not too long, and so worked out that the whole compass of the instrument is characteristically displayed. A long molto allegro follows this introduction, in 3-8 time, which keeps the violinist in constant movement, and gives him an opportunity of displaying the variety of his technical skill; but the movement is carefully planned and composed, due consideration being given to each part in its place. The recitative recurs at the end, followed by a short and brilliant conclusion. The tone of this movement is not as cheerful as usual; it is full of impulsive haste and changeful humour, and its stronger accent betrays a certain intensity, even in the introductory recitative.
The third divertimento, in D major (334 K.), may be most fitly noticed here, although it was not composed till 1779 or 1780, since it accords in every respect with the two last"HARMONIEMUSIK."mentioned.41In breadth of conception and grandeur of composition, it stands nearest to that in B flat major; the first violin is perhaps less elaborately treated, and the tone of the whole is somewhat calmer and more cheerful. Mastery of form in plan, grouping, and arrangement is perfect in both compositions, as well as freedom and ease in the elaboration of the subjects, as if they sprang spontaneously forth as expressions of thought, each in its proper place and degree. Perhaps the first movement is grander in design, and has broader motifs than the later work; but the adagio is deeper and more elaborate, and the last movement is more original in the B flat major divertimento. The remaining movements are fairly equal.42
It was the B flat major divertimento that Mozart played at Munich in 1777, "as if he was the first violinist in Europe," so that "every one stared." It is evident that difficulty of execution in his composition for the violin, which is more noticeable after 1773, kept pace with Mozart's progress as a violinist.43
A style of composition much in vogue at that time was the so-called "harmoniemusik," for wind instruments alone. Sometimes it was used as serenades, sometimes people of rank had performances of six- or eight-part harmoniemusik morning and evening, during meals, in which they were imitated by the more pretentious tavern-keepers. There was opportunity enough for cultivating this branch of composition at Salzburg.
In form these compositions, which were generally called divertimenti or partite (partie) resembled those just described. They consist of three, four, or sometimes more movements, which were grouped without any fixed rule. OneINSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.divertimento (186 K.) closes with a contredanse en rondeau; another (240 K.) has an andante as first movement; then follows a minuet, and then a polonaise; a third (253 K.) begins with an andante and variations.
The two first pieces of this kind are both scored for ten parts, two oboes, two clarinets, two English horns, two French horns, and two bassoons. Since one of the divertimenti (166 K.) was composed at Salzburg on March 24, 1773, and the other probably at much the same time; and since there were no clarinets in the usual Salzburg orchestra, they must have been composed for some very special occasion. But neither the plan nor the composition are on a larger scale than usual; the work is wanting both in extent and expression, and the instrumentation is neither free nor forcible.
There are two striking partites, one consisting of ten, the other of six movements, which were written for two flutes, five trumpets (in C and D), and four drums (in C, G, D, A) (187, 188, K.), about the year 1773 or 1774, apparently to employ the trumpet orchestra on some festival occasion. Whether the union of flutes with trumpets was founded on precedent or not I cannot say. The flutes lead the melody, and have allotted to them musical passages, connected, but short and unimportant in substance and style. The trumpets seldom take part in the melody, but are for the most part employed either together or separately as accompaniment; the object has apparently been to preserve the effect of a body of sound in the trumpets as far as possible, while aiming at giving them a definite musical form. In the earlier and more prosperous times of the trumpeters' guild, accomplished masters of horn-playing would not have needed the support of flutes.
It is of more interest to note how a great master works within narrow limits, and with small means at his command, by a consideration of the six divertimenti for two oboes, two bassoons, and two horns (213, 240, 252, 253, 270, 289, K.), which were composed between 1775 and 1777.
The destination of these trifling pieces, as table-music or such-like, allows neither greatness of conception nor anyTHE QUARTET—JOS. HAYDN.expression of deep feeling; all must be pleasing, cheerful, and quickly over. But Mozart was not content with satisfying these conditions; his harmonie-musik is full of delicacy and grace, tender and pure in conception, and touched with the firm hand of a master. The details are carefully and neatly handled, without any exaggeration; little side touches are scattered freely about—here an imitation, there an original passage or turn in the middle parts, making the whole interesting and full of life; happy instrumental effects abound, and by varied combinations and changes of tone-colouring the outline of the symmetrical structure is thrown into clear relief, in spite of the limited means at command; just as a painter in monochrome shades his one colour with such skill as to give a plastic roundness to his forms.44
This species of instrumental composition as it developed became limited, curiously enough, to stringed instruments, for the most part in quartets for two violins, tenor, and bass (replaced by the violoncello), more rarely in quintets, with either the tenor or the violoncello doubled, or in trios. They were still called divertimento or cassation, and did not originally differ from this class of composition, either in form or in liberty as to the number and arrangement of movements.
The rule that the quartet (as the whole species came to be called) should consist, like the symphony and the sonata, of four fixed movements, was laid down by Joseph Haydn. It was his inexhaustibly fertile invention and his freedom in the treatment of form which nourished and developed the germ of this chamber-music, until it bore the most beautiful blossoms of German musical art. Mozart, destined later to surpass in this direction his freely acknowledged example, displays evident tokens of Haydn's influence even in his youth. On the whole, however, quartet music does not seem to have enjoyed much favour in Salzburg; Mozart'sINSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.not very numerous attempts fall in earlier years, and were not all written in Salzburg.
Mozart's first quartet, in G major (80 K.), was composed on the first journey to Italy, at Lodi, on March 15, 1770, at seven o'clock in the evening—a circumstance of which he preserved the memory long afterwards. The concluding rondo is written in a later hand on different paper; and perhaps the whole consisted originally of only three movements—adagio, allegro and minuet.45A clear insight into the essential conditions of quartet style, freedom and independence of all the parts, a concentration of the whole work into a well-defined form, together with a perfection of thematic elaboration, are all plainly discernible in this first attempt, which, unimportant and wanting in originality as it may be, yet gives the impression of a well-rounded piece of workmanship. The second violin is worked out independently, with special care, in which the tenor participates; less success has attended the effort for a free movement for the bass. Attempts in counterpoint—as, for instance, at the beginning of the second part—are, as might be expected, learner-like, but they show that he knew what he was about. The last movement betrays a firmer hand from the very beginning.
Three short divermenti follow, in D, B flat, and F major (136-138, K.), each having three movements, composed at Salzburg in 1772, precise and fresh in treatment, but evidently only meant for exercises.
On the journey to Milan at the end of October, 1772, Wolfgang beguiled the tedium of the way by composing a "quattro"; and in Milan he was again (February 6, 1773) busy with a quartet under his father's directions. This no doubt belongs to a succession of six quartets in D, G, C, F, B flat, and E flat major (155-160, K.), which, judging from style and handwriting, fall within this period. They consist each of three movements, two closing with the minuet (156, 158, K.), while the presto, 3-8, with which the first begins has quite the form of a closing movement. The adagioQUARTETS, 1772.which follows it is unusually serious—a simple melody with a uniform accompaniment in rich harmonies. This is erased and another substituted, which is longer and more elaborate, with a freer movement of the parts and a lighter expression. In other cases the andante begins (as in 137 K.), and is followed by the allegro. These quartets are not of wide scope, nor are the different movements actually elaborated, but greater practice in composition is evident throughout.
The different motifs are better adapted for elaboration, and there is a remarkable increase of skill in dealing with the smaller divisions of each part, on the working out of which depend the life and unity of the whole conception. The opening phrases, repetitions, &c., are freer and better fitted in; two-part imitation is sometimes neatly introduced and fluently and gracefully carried out.
The composer's power has evidently grown as he worked, and the later quartets are by far the most original. The second movement of the fifth (159 K.), an allegro 3-4 in G minor, following an andante in B flat major, has, through its rhythm and modulation, an expression of dry humour that is quite suggestive of one of the later scherzos.
Six quartets, composed in August and September of the same year, at Vienna, stand on a far higher level, and were probably written to order (168-175, K.). The superscription of the first shows that the whole six were planned together; they were written in quick succession, and their variety represented the different tendencies of the quartet style. In Vienna, of all places, the birthplace and domain of Haydn's chamber-music, the ambitious youth would exert himself to satisfy the demand for the highest class of compositions. Most of them have the approved four movements, and the composer's invention and execution keep pace with the more extended scope of the composition. The quartets are manlier and more mature than in the earlier works of the kind; but the singular beauty of form, the grace and freshness of Mozart in his full development, only show themselves in momentary gleams of inspiration.
An effort to mould the raw material into form by means of skilful workmanship, and to make it subservient to theINSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.spirit, is apparent throughout. We can see traces already of the study and preparatory work which resulted in the fine and serious compositions of the following year—the Masses in F and D major, and the Litany in D major. First and foremost is apparent the effort to analyse and vary the musical materials ready to hand by means of counterpoint. The first and last quartet end with a thoroughly worked-out fugue, complete with stretto and inversions. The close of the first fugue ended abruptly; Mozart has therefore erased the last four bars, and has substituted the subject in unison, thereby producing a lengthened and very effective conclusion. The second fugue is not by any means so fresh and lively as the earlier one, but it is richer in artistic work. Nor are Mozart's studies in counterpoint apparent here only. An adagio (168 JK.) begins with a four-part canon and retains the same character, although not so strictly carried out; in tone and substance this is one of the best of the series. Imitation is the rule in the elaboration of the first movements; and in the last quartet the whole of the first movement in D minor is built upon one characteristic motif. A free movement of the parts, a skilful employment of passages, variety of instrumentation, and other such means for giving life and animation to the music, are carefully provided, more especially in the minuets. An examination into details will discover traces of careful and delicate handling throughout the work.
There are more instances of fantastic ideas, generally rhythmical in form, than are usually found in Mozart; this is owing, no doubt, to Haydn's influence. The slow movements are for the most part expressive of simple feeling, the andantino grazioso of the last quartet being especially tender and graceful. The closing rondos are least significant; they are not worked out, and the different parts are put together without any true connection. The demands on the instruments are increased in comparison to the earlier quartets, but there is still no bravura; the first violin leads the parts, but is not treated as a solo instrument. In fact all four instruments are treated in essentials as on an equality, so that the tone and character of theQUINTET, 1772.whole regulate every detail, thus fulfilling a fundamental law in the composition of quartets.
It must have been as a result of his Vienna studies that Mozart wrote a quintet (174 K.) after his return in December of the same year; perhaps the example of Michael Haydn had some influence. Mozart writes from Munich (October 6, 1777) that he had invited Herr Dubreil, a pupil of Tartini, and that they played "Haydn's two quintets." Joseph Haydn declares, in answer to A. Romberg, who asked him why he has not written any quintets, that he had never been commissioned to do so;46on the other hand, three quintets by Michael Haydn in F, C, and G major, dating between 1770 and 1780, now lie before me. Mozart's quintet shows unmistakable progress; both the plan and execution are broader, and there is more of the true Mozart spirit in the conception of the motives. It is especially interesting to compare two different elaborations of the finale which exist.47Mozart has taken the primary subject of the first work, and treated it independently in the second, thereby providing a just standard of criticism against himself. The first theme in the later elaboration is quite new, and gives the key to the character of the movement; then follows as a contrasting motif the chief subject of the former work with suitable alterations. Originally this consisted of eight bars, and was in three parts—[See Page Image]INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.but afterwards the two first bars form the subject, taken up by one part after the other; while the minims, which are appended to the rapid semiquavers, give an effect of rhythmical and harmonious climax:—[See Page Image]
It results from this that the divisions next following are easier and more flowing; while, on the other hand, the preparation for the third principal motif is broader and calmer. This third motif gives occasion for an especially happy modification. Originally it ran thus—[See Page Image]
and was then repeated entire; but now only the first four bars are retained, the four last are omitted, and movement and expression are provided by a shake passage. The conclusion of the first part is rendered more impressive by a new and broader motif, and more homogeneous and concentrated by the recurrence of the first subject. The working-out of the second part, which was confined to the elaboration of the two first bars of the original motif, is partially retained; but it is extended by the recurrence and elaboration of theMOZART'S STUDIES.principal theme. Finally, a new and important climax is introduced in the coda by the opposition of the two chief subjects.
This work may be taken to prove that Mozart was a severe self-critic, and was not by any means always content with his first attempts. It can only be by chance that no other example of remodelling a composition has been preserved; the earlier attempts and studies would, no doubt, be generally destroyed. The greater part of Mozart's works of this period have been preserved in carefully written fair copies. We are amazed at the vigour and ease with which he worked, but it would be wrong to represent him as able to dispense with studies and preparatory sketches, even for his great works. The creative power of genius is indeed a gift of nature, but a mastery of art is only acquired by hard labour and pains; strength to labour indefatigably and ability to make the labour bear fruit are the prerogatives of genius. It would be doing Mozart an injustice to deny him the reputation of true and conscientious industry; the beauty of perfect work proves not that no labour has been bestowed on it, but that the labour has been successful. Mozart's youth was occupied with his endeavours to master the forms and materials which he found ready to hand, and he would not be likely to neglect studies and exercises to this end, though he might not think them worth preserving.