The difference betweenkeyandscaleis therefore this, that while bothkeyandscaleemploy the same tone material, bykeywe mean the material in general, without any particular order or arrangement in mind, while byscalewe mean the same tones, but now arranged into a regular ascending or descending series. It should be noted in this connection also that not all scales present an equally good opportunity of having their tones used as a basis for tonality or key-feeling: neither the chromatic nor the whole-step scale possess the necessary characteristics for being used as tonality scales in the same sense that our major and minor scales are so used.
The difference betweenkeyandscaleis therefore this, that while bothkeyandscaleemploy the same tone material, bykeywe mean the material in general, without any particular order or arrangement in mind, while byscalewe mean the same tones, but now arranged into a regular ascending or descending series. It should be noted in this connection also that not all scales present an equally good opportunity of having their tones used as a basis for tonality or key-feeling: neither the chromatic nor the whole-step scale possess the necessary characteristics for being used as tonality scales in the same sense that our major and minor scales are so used.
79.There arethree general classes of scalesextant at the present time, viz.: (1) Diatonic; (2) Chromatic; (3) Whole-tone.[13]
80. The worddiatonicmeans "through the tones" (i.e., through the tones of the key), and is applied to both major and minor scales of our modern tonality system. In general a diatonic scale may be defined as one which proceeds by half-steps and whole-steps. There is, however, one exception tothis principle, viz., in the progression six to seven in the harmonic minor scale, which is of course a step-and-a-half. (Seep. 33,Sec. 86.)
81. Amajor diatonic scaleis one in which the intervals between the tones are arranged as follows:
In other words, a major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals between three and four, and between seven and eight are half-steps, all the others being whole-steps. A composition based on this scale is said to be written in the major mode, or in a major key. The major diatonic scale may begin on any one of the twelve pitches C, C♯or D♭, D, D♯or E♭, E, F, F♯or G♭, G, G♯or A♭, A, A♯or B♭, B, but in each case it is the same scale because the intervals between its tones are the same. We have then one major scale only, but this scale may be written in many different positions, and may be sung or played beginning on any one of a number of different pitches.
82. It is interesting to note that the major scale consists of two identical series of four tones each;i.e., the first four tones of the scale are separated from one another by exactly the same intervals and these intervals appear in exactly the same order as in the case of the last four tones of the scale. Fig. 53 will make this clear. The first four tones of any diatonic scale (major or minor) are often referred to as thelower tetrachord[14]and the upper four tones as theupper tetrachord.
Fig. 53
[Listen]
It is interesting further to note that the upper tetrachord of anysharpscale is always used without change as the lower tetrachord of the next major scale involving sharps, while the lower tetrachord of anyflatscale is used as the upper tetrachord of the next flat scale. See Figs. 54 and 55.
Figs. 54-55
[Listen]
83. From the standpoint of staff notation the major scale may be written in fifteen different positions, as follows:
scales
scales
[Listen]
It will be observed that in the above series of scales those beginning on F♯and G♭call for the same keys on the piano,i.e., while the notation is different, the actual tones of the scale are the same. The scales of C♯and D♭likewise employ the same tones. When two scales thus employ the same tonesbut differ in notation they are said to beenharmonic, (cf.p. 38,Sec. 93.)
Note.—The student is advised to adopt some uniform method of writing scales, preferably the one followed in those given above, the necessary sharps and flats appearing before the notes in the scale and then repeated collectively at the end as a signature. He is also advised to repeat these scales and signatures over and over until absolute familiarity is attained.E.g., E—F♯—G♯—A—B—C♯—D♯—E; signature, four sharps, F, C, G, and D.
Note.—The student is advised to adopt some uniform method of writing scales, preferably the one followed in those given above, the necessary sharps and flats appearing before the notes in the scale and then repeated collectively at the end as a signature. He is also advised to repeat these scales and signatures over and over until absolute familiarity is attained.E.g., E—F♯—G♯—A—B—C♯—D♯—E; signature, four sharps, F, C, G, and D.
84. Theminor diatonic scaleis used in several slightly different forms, but the characteristic interval between the first and third tones (which differentiates it from the major scale) remains the same in every case. This interval between the first and third tones consists of four half-steps in the major scale and of three half-steps in the minor scale and this difference in size has given rise to the designationmajorfor the scale having the larger third, andminorfor the scale having the smaller one.
85.The original (or primitive) formof the minor scale has its tones arranged as follows.
As its name implies, this is the oldest of the three forms (being derived from the old Greek Aeolian scale), but because of the absence of a "leading tone" it is suitable for the simplest one-part music only, and is therefore little used at present.
86.The harmonic minor scaleis like the primitive form except that it substitutes a tone one half-step higher for the seventh tone of the older (i.e., the primitive) form. This change was made because the development of writing music in several parts (particularlyharmonicpart-writing) made necessary a "leading tone,"i.e., a tone with a strong tendency to move on up to the key-tone as a closing point. In orderto secure a tone with such a strongly upward tendency the interval betweensevenandeighthad to be reduced in size to a half-step. It should be noted that this change in the seventh tone of the scale caused an interval of a step-and-a-half between the sixth and seventh tones of the scale.
87.The melodic minor scalesubstitutes a tone one half-step higher than six as well as one a half-step higher than seven, but this change is made in the ascending scale only, the descending scale being like the primitive form. The higher sixth (commonly referred to as the "raised sixth") was used to get rid of the unmelodic interval of a step-and-a-half[15](augmented second), while the return to the primitive form in descending is made because the ascending form is too much like the tonic major scale.
This form is used only to a very limited extent, and then principally in vocal music, the harmonic form being in almost universal use in spite of the augmented second.
88. The minor scale in its various positions (up to five sharps and five flats) and in all three forms follows: a composition based on any one of these forms (or upon a mixture of them, which often occurs) is said to bein the minor mode. It will be noted that the first four tones are alike in all three forms;i.e., the lower tetrachord in the minor scale is invariable no matter, what may happen to the upper tetrachord. The sign + marks the step-and-a-half.
minor scales
[Enlarge]
[Listen to A minor scales]
Note.—The student is advised to recite theharmonic formof the minor scale as was suggested in the case of the major scale, noting that the "raised seventh" does not affect the key-signature.E.g.,—E—F♯—G—A—B—C—D♯—E; signature, one sharp, F.
Note.—The student is advised to recite theharmonic formof the minor scale as was suggested in the case of the major scale, noting that the "raised seventh" does not affect the key-signature.E.g.,—E—F♯—G—A—B—C—D♯—E; signature, one sharp, F.
89. A minor scale having the same signature as a major scale is said to be itsrelative minor.E.g.,—e is the relative minor of G, c of E♭, d of F, etc., the small letter being used to refer to the minor key or scale, while the capital letter indicates the major key or scale unless accompanied by the wordminor. Relative keys are therefore defined as those having the same signature. G and e are relative keys, as are also A and f♯, etc.
90. A minor scale beginning with the same tone as a major scale is referred to as itstonic minor. Thus,e.g., c with three flats in its signature is the tonic minor of C with all degrees in natural condition; e with one sharp is the tonic minor of E with four sharps, etc. Tonic keys are therefore those having the same key-tone.
91. The eight tones of the diatonic scale (both major and minor) are often referred to by specific names, as follows:
1.Tonic—the tone. (This refers to the fact that the tonic is the principal tone, or generating tone of the key,i.e., it isthetone.)2.Super-tonic—above the tone.3.Mediant—midway between tonic and dominant.4.Sub-dominant—the under dominant. (This name does not refer to the position of the tone under the dominant but to the fact that the fifth below the tonic is also a dominant tone—the under dominant—just as the fifth above is the upper dominant).5.Dominant—the governing tone. (From the Latin worddominusmeaningmaster.)6.Super-dominant—above the dominant. OrSub-mediant—midway between tonic and sub-dominant.7.Leading tone—the tone which demands resolution to the tonic (one-half step above it).8.Octave—the eighth tone.
1.Tonic—the tone. (This refers to the fact that the tonic is the principal tone, or generating tone of the key,i.e., it isthetone.)
2.Super-tonic—above the tone.
3.Mediant—midway between tonic and dominant.
4.Sub-dominant—the under dominant. (This name does not refer to the position of the tone under the dominant but to the fact that the fifth below the tonic is also a dominant tone—the under dominant—just as the fifth above is the upper dominant).
5.Dominant—the governing tone. (From the Latin worddominusmeaningmaster.)
6.Super-dominant—above the dominant. OrSub-mediant—midway between tonic and sub-dominant.
7.Leading tone—the tone which demands resolution to the tonic (one-half step above it).
8.Octave—the eighth tone.
92. The syllables commonly applied to the various major and minor scales in teaching sight-singing are as follows:[16]
Major—DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA, TI, DO.Minor[17]—original—LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA.harmonic—LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SI, LA.melodic —LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FI, SI, LA, SOL, FA, MI, RE, DO, TI, LA.
Major—DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA, TI, DO.Minor[17]—original—LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA.harmonic—LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SI, LA.melodic —LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FI, SI, LA, SOL, FA, MI, RE, DO, TI, LA.
It is interesting to study the changes in both spelling and pronunciation that have occurred (and are still occurring) in these syllables. The first one (ut) was changed toDOas early as the sixteenth century because of the difficulty of producing a good singing tone onut. For the same reason and also in order to avoid having two diatonic syllables with the same initial letter, the tonic-sol-fa system (invented in England about 1812 and systematized about 1850) changed SI to TI and this change has been almost universally adopted by teachers of sight-singing in this country. The more elaborate tonic-sol-fa spelling of the diatonic syllables (DOH, LAH, etc.), has not, however, been favorably received in this country and the tendency seems to be toward still further simplification rather than toward elaboration. It is probable that further changes in both spelling and pronunciation will be made in the near future, one such change that seems especially desirable being some other syllable than RE for the second tone of the major scale, so that the present syllable may be reserved for "flat-two," thus providing a uniform vowel-sound for all intermediate tones of the descending chromatic scale, as is already the case in the ascending form.
It is interesting to study the changes in both spelling and pronunciation that have occurred (and are still occurring) in these syllables. The first one (ut) was changed toDOas early as the sixteenth century because of the difficulty of producing a good singing tone onut. For the same reason and also in order to avoid having two diatonic syllables with the same initial letter, the tonic-sol-fa system (invented in England about 1812 and systematized about 1850) changed SI to TI and this change has been almost universally adopted by teachers of sight-singing in this country. The more elaborate tonic-sol-fa spelling of the diatonic syllables (DOH, LAH, etc.), has not, however, been favorably received in this country and the tendency seems to be toward still further simplification rather than toward elaboration. It is probable that further changes in both spelling and pronunciation will be made in the near future, one such change that seems especially desirable being some other syllable than RE for the second tone of the major scale, so that the present syllable may be reserved for "flat-two," thus providing a uniform vowel-sound for all intermediate tones of the descending chromatic scale, as is already the case in the ascending form.
93.Thechromatic scale[18]is one which proceeds always by half-steps. Its intervals are therefore always equal no matter with what tone it begins. Since, however, we have (from the standpoint of the piano keyboard) five pairs of tones[19]which are enharmonically the same, it may readily be seen that the chromatic scale might be notated in all sorts of fashions, and this is in fact the real status of the matter, there being no one method uniformly agreed upon by composers.
Parry (Grove's Dictionary, articlechromatic) recommends writing the scale with such accidentals as can occur in chromatic chords without changing the key in which the passage occurs. Thus, taking C as a type, "the first accidental will be D♭, as the upper note of the minor ninth on the tonic; the next will be E♭, the minor third of the key; the next F♯, the major third of the super-tonic—all of which can occur without causing modulation—and the remaining two will be A♭and B♭, the minor sixth and seventh of the key." According to this plan the chromatic scale beginning with C would be spelled—C, D♭, D, E♭, E, F, F♯, G, A♭, A, B♭, B, C—the form being the same both ascending and descending. This is of course written exclusively from a harmonic standpoint and the advantage of such a form is its definiteness.
Parry (Grove's Dictionary, articlechromatic) recommends writing the scale with such accidentals as can occur in chromatic chords without changing the key in which the passage occurs. Thus, taking C as a type, "the first accidental will be D♭, as the upper note of the minor ninth on the tonic; the next will be E♭, the minor third of the key; the next F♯, the major third of the super-tonic—all of which can occur without causing modulation—and the remaining two will be A♭and B♭, the minor sixth and seventh of the key." According to this plan the chromatic scale beginning with C would be spelled—C, D♭, D, E♭, E, F, F♯, G, A♭, A, B♭, B, C—the form being the same both ascending and descending. This is of course written exclusively from a harmonic standpoint and the advantage of such a form is its definiteness.
94. Forsight-singing purposesthe chromatic scale[20]is usually written by representing the intermediate tones in ascending by sharps, (in some cases naturals and double-sharps), and the intermediate tones in descending by flats (sometimes naturals and double-flats). The chromatic scale in nine different positions, written from this standpoint, follows, and the syllables most commonly applied in sight-singing have also been added. In the first two scales the student of harmony is asked to note that because of the very common practice of modulating to the dominant and sub-dominant keys, the intermediate tones♯4 and♭7 are quite universally used in both ascending and descending melody passages. In other words the scales that follow would more nearly represent actual usage if in each case♯4 (FI) were substituted for♭5 (SE) in the descending scale; and if♭7 (TE) were substituted for♯6 (LI) in the ascending form.
chromatic scales
chromatic scales
[Listen to C chromatic scale]
Note.—In writing chromatic scales from this sight-singing standpoint the student is urged to adopt a three-step process; first, writing the major diatonic scale both ascending and descending; second, marking the half-steps; third, inserting accidental notes calling for the intermediate tones. In the above chromatic scales these intermediate tones have been represented by black note-heads so as to differentiate them from the notes representing diatonic scale tones.
Note.—In writing chromatic scales from this sight-singing standpoint the student is urged to adopt a three-step process; first, writing the major diatonic scale both ascending and descending; second, marking the half-steps; third, inserting accidental notes calling for the intermediate tones. In the above chromatic scales these intermediate tones have been represented by black note-heads so as to differentiate them from the notes representing diatonic scale tones.
95. Thewhole-step scale(the third type mentioned inSec. 79) is, as its name implies, a scale in which the intervals between the tones consist in every instance of whole-steps. This reduces the number of tones in the scale to seven. Beginning with C the scale reads: C, D, E, F♯or G♭, A♭, B♭, C. This scale has been used somewhat extensively by the ultramodern French school of composition represented by Debussy, Ravel, and others, but is not making any progress toward universal adoption. The remarks of a recent English writer[21]on this subject may be interesting to the student who is puzzled by the apparent present-day tendencies of French music. He says:
"The student of some interesting modern developments will also speedily discover that the adoption of the so-called whole-tone scale as a basis of music is, except upon a keyed instrument tuned to the compromise of equal temperament, unnatural and impossible. No player upon a stringed instrument can play the scale of whole-tones and arrive at an octave which is in tune with the starting note, unless he deliberately changes one of the notes on the road and alters it while playing it. The obvious result of the application of the whole-tone scale to an orchestra or a string quartet would be to force them to adopt the equal temperament of the pianoforte, and play every interval except the octave out of tune. When this modification had taken hold all music in the pure scale would be distorted and destroyed, unless string players were to face thepractically impossible drudgery of studying both the equal temperament and the pure scale from the start, and were able to tackle either form at a moment's notice. A thorough knowledge of the natural genesis of the scale of western nations will be the best antidote to fads founded upon ignorance of it. It is a curious commentary upon this question that Wagner, in the opening of the third act ofTristan(bars 6 to 10), experimented with the whole-tone scale and drew his pen through it, as was to be expected from a composer whose every work proves the writer to have had the pure scale inbred in him."
"The student of some interesting modern developments will also speedily discover that the adoption of the so-called whole-tone scale as a basis of music is, except upon a keyed instrument tuned to the compromise of equal temperament, unnatural and impossible. No player upon a stringed instrument can play the scale of whole-tones and arrive at an octave which is in tune with the starting note, unless he deliberately changes one of the notes on the road and alters it while playing it. The obvious result of the application of the whole-tone scale to an orchestra or a string quartet would be to force them to adopt the equal temperament of the pianoforte, and play every interval except the octave out of tune. When this modification had taken hold all music in the pure scale would be distorted and destroyed, unless string players were to face thepractically impossible drudgery of studying both the equal temperament and the pure scale from the start, and were able to tackle either form at a moment's notice. A thorough knowledge of the natural genesis of the scale of western nations will be the best antidote to fads founded upon ignorance of it. It is a curious commentary upon this question that Wagner, in the opening of the third act ofTristan(bars 6 to 10), experimented with the whole-tone scale and drew his pen through it, as was to be expected from a composer whose every work proves the writer to have had the pure scale inbred in him."
There may be some difference of opinion among acousticians as to whether Mr. Stanford is correct in his scientific assumptions regarding the difference between "tempered" and "pure" scales,[22]but even so, there is a far more potent reason why the whole-step scale will probably never become popular as the major and minor scales now are, viz., the fact that it offers no possibility ofinculcating tonality feeling, which has always been the basis of even the simplest primitive music. Tonality scales give rise to a feeling of alternate periods of contraction and relaxation—an active tone (or chord) followed by a passive one, but no such effect is possible in the whole-step scale, and it seems suitable therefore only for that class of music whose outlines arepurposely intended to bevague and indefinite—the impressionistic style of music writing.
96.Being a list of articles, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and endings, often utilized in compounding terms relating to musical effects.
A—preposition—variously translated to, at, for, by, in, with, towards.A cappella—in church style.A capriccio—at the fancy of the performer.À deux mains—for two hands.A mezza voce—with half voice.À la, oralla—in the manner of.Alla marcia—in the style of a march.Assai—very, or very much.Allegro assai—very fast.Ben—well.Ben marcato—well marked.Coi, con, col, colla, colle, collo—with, or with the.Con amore—with tenderness.Colla voce—with the voice.Come—as, like.Come primo—as at first.Contra—against. In compound words means "an octave below."Da—from.Da Capo—from the head.Di—by, with, of, for.Di bravura—with daring.Di molto—exceedingly—very much.Allegro di molto—exceedingly rapid.Doppio—double.Doppio movimento—double movement.E, ed, et—and.Cresc. et accel.—louder and faster.Ensemble—together, the opposite of solo.Il, La, l', le—the.Il basso—the bass.L'istesso tempo—the same speed.Il più—the most.Il più forte possible—as loudly as possible.Issimo—Italian superlative ending.Forte—fortissimo.Ino, etto—Italian diminutive endings.Andante—andantino.Poco—pochetto.Meno—less.Meno forte—less loud.Mente—the ending which changes a noun or adjective to an adverb.Largo largamente.Mezzoormezza—half, or medium.Mezzo forte—medium loud.Molto—much, or very much.Molto cresc.—very much louder.Nel, nella, etc.—in the, or at the.Nel battere—at the down beat.Non—not.Non tanto—not too much.Ossia—or else.Ossia più facile—or else more easily.Per—for.Per il violino—for the violin.Peu—little.Un peu cresc.—a little increase in tone.Più—more.Più forte—more loudly.Poco—little.Poco a poco—little by little.Poi—then.E poi la coda—and then the coda.Possibile—possible.Forte possibile—as loudly as possible.Quasi—in the manner of.Allegro quasi andante—a fairly rapid movement, yet in the style of an andante; almost as slow as an andante.Sans—without.Sans pedales—without pedals.Sempre—always, or continually.Sempre forte—a long passage to be played forte throughout its entirety.Senza—without.Senza accompagnamento—without accompaniment.Sino, sin—as far as. Seep. 14, note.Solo—alone. Opposite of ensemble.Sub—under or lower.Sub-dominant—the under dominant.Tanto—same astroppo, q.v.Tre—three.Tre corde—three strings.Très—very.Très vivement—very lively.Troppo—too much.Non tanto allegro, ornon troppo allegro—not too fast.Una, un, uno—one, or a.Una corda—one string.Un peu—a little.
A—preposition—variously translated to, at, for, by, in, with, towards.A cappella—in church style.A capriccio—at the fancy of the performer.À deux mains—for two hands.A mezza voce—with half voice.
À la, oralla—in the manner of.Alla marcia—in the style of a march.
Assai—very, or very much.Allegro assai—very fast.
Ben—well.Ben marcato—well marked.
Coi, con, col, colla, colle, collo—with, or with the.Con amore—with tenderness.Colla voce—with the voice.
Come—as, like.Come primo—as at first.
Contra—against. In compound words means "an octave below."
Da—from.Da Capo—from the head.
Di—by, with, of, for.Di bravura—with daring.
Di molto—exceedingly—very much.Allegro di molto—exceedingly rapid.
Doppio—double.Doppio movimento—double movement.
E, ed, et—and.Cresc. et accel.—louder and faster.
Ensemble—together, the opposite of solo.
Il, La, l', le—the.Il basso—the bass.L'istesso tempo—the same speed.
Il più—the most.Il più forte possible—as loudly as possible.
Issimo—Italian superlative ending.Forte—fortissimo.
Ino, etto—Italian diminutive endings.Andante—andantino.Poco—pochetto.
Meno—less.Meno forte—less loud.
Mente—the ending which changes a noun or adjective to an adverb.Largo largamente.
Mezzoormezza—half, or medium.Mezzo forte—medium loud.
Molto—much, or very much.Molto cresc.—very much louder.
Nel, nella, etc.—in the, or at the.Nel battere—at the down beat.
Non—not.Non tanto—not too much.
Ossia—or else.Ossia più facile—or else more easily.
Per—for.Per il violino—for the violin.
Peu—little.Un peu cresc.—a little increase in tone.
Più—more.Più forte—more loudly.
Poco—little.Poco a poco—little by little.
Poi—then.E poi la coda—and then the coda.
Possibile—possible.Forte possibile—as loudly as possible.
Quasi—in the manner of.Allegro quasi andante—a fairly rapid movement, yet in the style of an andante; almost as slow as an andante.
Sans—without.Sans pedales—without pedals.
Sempre—always, or continually.Sempre forte—a long passage to be played forte throughout its entirety.
Senza—without.Senza accompagnamento—without accompaniment.
Sino, sin—as far as. Seep. 14, note.
Solo—alone. Opposite of ensemble.
Sub—under or lower.Sub-dominant—the under dominant.
Tanto—same astroppo, q.v.
Tre—three.Tre corde—three strings.
Très—very.Très vivement—very lively.
Troppo—too much.Non tanto allegro, ornon troppo allegro—not too fast.
Una, un, uno—one, or a.Una corda—one string.Un peu—a little.
A working knowledge of these auxiliary terms will aid the student greatly in arriving at the meaning of hundreds of terms without stopping to look up each individual one.
97.From the standpoint of the eye, ameasureis that portion of the staff found between two bars, (in certain cases this space may be less than a measure, ase.g., at the beginning and end of a movement); but from the standpoint of the ear a single, isolated measure is not possible, and the term must therefore be defined in the plural form.
Measuresare similarly accented groups of evenly-spaced beats, each group having at least one accented and one non-accented beat. The strongest accent falls normally on the first beat in the measure.
Two essential characteristics are involved in the ordinary musical measure:
(1) A group of even beats (or pulses), always felt, though not always actually sounded, one or more of these beats being stronger than the rest;
(2) Certain rhythmic figures (rhythmic figureetc.) which form the actual musical content of these groups.
The student will note the essential difference between rhythm and measure. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent in a series of beats (or pulses), while measure is the grouping of these beats according to some specified system. In listening to a piece of music, two hearers A and B may feel therhythmequally strongly, but A may subjectively group the beats into—one, two |one, two |—etc., while B feels the groups as—one, two,three, four |one, two,three, four |—etc. Rhythm is thus seen to be a fundamental thing, inherent in the music itself, while measure is to a certain extent at least an arbitrary grouping which musicians have adopted for practical purposes.
The student will note the essential difference between rhythm and measure. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent in a series of beats (or pulses), while measure is the grouping of these beats according to some specified system. In listening to a piece of music, two hearers A and B may feel therhythmequally strongly, but A may subjectively group the beats into—one, two |one, two |—etc., while B feels the groups as—one, two,three, four |one, two,three, four |—etc. Rhythm is thus seen to be a fundamental thing, inherent in the music itself, while measure is to a certain extent at least an arbitrary grouping which musicians have adopted for practical purposes.
98. Insyncopationthe normal system of accenting is temporarily suspended and the accented tone falls on the regularly unaccented part of the measure. Syncopation may therefore be defined as the temporary interruption of a normalseries of accents,i.e., accenting a beat that is usually not accented. Thuse.g., in Fig. 56, measureonehas the regular system of accents normally found in four-quarter-measure, (strong accent on one, secondary accent on three); but measurethreehas only one accent, and it falls on the second beat.
Fig. 56
[Listen]
99.Measures are usually classified assimpleandcompound. Asimple measureis one which has but a single accent,i.e., the measure cannot be divided into smaller constituent groups. There are two main classes of simple measures, two-beat measure, and three-beat measure. Acompound measureis (as its name implies) one made up by combining two or more simple measures, or by the elaboration of a single measure (in slow tempo) into several constituent groups. The principal compound measures are four-beat and six-beat, both being referred to as compound-duple measures. Five-beat, seven-beat, nine-beat, and twelve-beat measures are also classified as compound measures.
An English writer[23]classifies measures as duple, triple, or quadruple, specifying that a simple measure is one in which each beat is represented by a note whose value can be divided into halves (simple measureetc.) and that a compound measure is one in which each beat is represented by a dotted-note, whose value can be divided into three parts, (compound measure). There is thus seen to be considerable difference of opinion as to the meaning of the wordssimpleandcompoundwhen applied in this connection, the principal question at issue being whether four-beat measure is an individual variety, or whether it is a variety compounded out of two-beat measures, either by placing two of these in a group or by the elaboration of a single measure into a larger number of beats, as is often necessary in slow tempi. Perhaps the easiest way out of the difficulty is to admit that both may be true—but in different compositions. That is, it is frequently impossible to tell whether a composition that is being listened to is in two-beat, or in four-beat measure; and yet itissometimes possible so to discriminate. Since, however, one cannot in the majority of cases distinguish between two-beat and four-beat measures, it will probably be best to leave the original classification intact and regard four-beat measure as a compound variety.
An English writer[23]classifies measures as duple, triple, or quadruple, specifying that a simple measure is one in which each beat is represented by a note whose value can be divided into halves (simple measureetc.) and that a compound measure is one in which each beat is represented by a dotted-note, whose value can be divided into three parts, (compound measure). There is thus seen to be considerable difference of opinion as to the meaning of the wordssimpleandcompoundwhen applied in this connection, the principal question at issue being whether four-beat measure is an individual variety, or whether it is a variety compounded out of two-beat measures, either by placing two of these in a group or by the elaboration of a single measure into a larger number of beats, as is often necessary in slow tempi. Perhaps the easiest way out of the difficulty is to admit that both may be true—but in different compositions. That is, it is frequently impossible to tell whether a composition that is being listened to is in two-beat, or in four-beat measure; and yet itissometimes possible so to discriminate. Since, however, one cannot in the majority of cases distinguish between two-beat and four-beat measures, it will probably be best to leave the original classification intact and regard four-beat measure as a compound variety.
100. Thecommonest varieties of measureare:
1.Duple(sometimes called even measure, or even time), in which there are two beats, the first one being accented. Examples of duple measure are 2/4, 2/8, 2/2, two-quarter,[24]two-eighth, and two-half measure, respectively.2.Triple, (the old perfect measure), in which there are three beats, the first one being accented, the second and third unaccented. Examples are 3/8, 3/4, 3/2, three-eighth, three-quarter, and three-half measure, respectively.3.Quadruple, in which there are four beats, the first and third being accented (primary accent onone, secondary accent onthree), the second and fourth unaccented. (See note above, underSec. 99.)4.Sextuple, in which there are six beats, the first and fourth being accented, the others not. In rapid tempi this is always taken as compound duple measure, a dotted quarter note having a beat. It will be noted that the two measuressextupleare identical in effect withsextuple.
1.Duple(sometimes called even measure, or even time), in which there are two beats, the first one being accented. Examples of duple measure are 2/4, 2/8, 2/2, two-quarter,[24]two-eighth, and two-half measure, respectively.
2.Triple, (the old perfect measure), in which there are three beats, the first one being accented, the second and third unaccented. Examples are 3/8, 3/4, 3/2, three-eighth, three-quarter, and three-half measure, respectively.
3.Quadruple, in which there are four beats, the first and third being accented (primary accent onone, secondary accent onthree), the second and fourth unaccented. (See note above, underSec. 99.)
4.Sextuple, in which there are six beats, the first and fourth being accented, the others not. In rapid tempi this is always taken as compound duple measure, a dotted quarter note having a beat. It will be noted that the two measuressextupleare identical in effect withsextuple.
101. Other varieties of measure sometimes found are 9/8 and 12/8, but these are practically always taken as three-beat and four-beat measures respectively, being equivalent to these if each group of three tones is thought of as a triplet.9/8 baris identical in effect with3/4 bar.
102.Quintuple(five-beat) andseptuple(seven-beat) measures are occasionally met with, but these are rare and will always be sporadic. The five-beat measure is taken as a combination of three and two, or of two and three (sometimes a mixture of both in the same composition), while theseven-beat measure is taken in groups of four and three, or of three and four.
103. The signcommon timeis usually understood to mean four-quarter measure, and the signcut-time, two-half measure, but usage varies somewhat, and the second sign is sometimes used to indicate four-half measure. It may safely be said however that the signcut-timealways indicates that a half-note has a beat.cut-timecut-timemay occasionally be found indicating four-half measure but this is rare.
The student will note that the signcommon timeis not aletterC, but an incomplete circle, differentiating two-beat (imperfect) measure from three-beat (perfect) measure. SeeAppendix A, p.106.
The student will note that the signcommon timeis not aletterC, but an incomplete circle, differentiating two-beat (imperfect) measure from three-beat (perfect) measure. SeeAppendix A, p.106.
104. The wordtimein musical nomenclature has been greatly abused, having been used to indicate:
(1) Rhythm; as "the time was wrong."(2) Variety of measure-signature; as "two-four time."(3) Rate of speed; as "the time was too slow."
(1) Rhythm; as "the time was wrong."
(2) Variety of measure-signature; as "two-four time."
(3) Rate of speed; as "the time was too slow."
To obviate the confusion naturally resulting from this three-fold and inexact use of the word, many teachers of music are adopting certainchanges in terminologyas noted in Sections105,106, and107. Such changes may cause some confusion at first, but seem to be necessary if our musical terminology is to be at all exact.
105.Thefirst of the changesmentioned in the above paragraph is to substitute the wordrhythmfor the wordtimewhen correcting mistakes involving misplaced accent, etc.E.g., "Yourrhythmin the third measure of the lower score was wrong," instead of "Yourtime—was wrong."
106.Thesecond changementioned would eliminate such blind and misleading expressions as "two-four time," "three-four time," "four-four time," "six-eight time," etc., and substitute therefor such self-explanatory designations as "two-quarter measure," "three-quarter measure," "four-quarter measure," "six-eighth measure," etc.E.g., "The first movement of the Beethoven Sonata Op. 2, No. 3, is infour-quarter measure."
107.Thethird changereferred to above would substitute the wordtempo(plural—tempi) for the wordtimein all allusions to rate of speed.E.g., "The scherzo was played in very rapidtempo."
The wordtempohas been used in this connection so long by professional musicians that there can be no possible objection to it on the ground of its being a foreign word. In fact there is a decided advantage in having a word that is understood in all countries where modern music (i.e., civilized music) is performed, and just here is found the principal reason for the popularity of the Italian language in musical terminology. Schumann, MacDowell and other well known composers have tried to break down this popularity by using their own respective vernaculars in both tempo and dynamic indications, but in spite of these attempts the Italian language is still quite universally used for this purpose, and deservedly so, for if we are to have amusic notationthat is universal, so that an American is able to play music written by a Frenchman or a German, or a Russian, then we ought also to have a certain number of expressions referring to tempo, etc., which will be understood by all,i.e., a music terminology that is universal. The Italian language was the first in the field, is the most universally known in this particular at the present time, and is entirely adequate. It should therefore be retained in use as a sort of musical Esperanto.
The wordtempohas been used in this connection so long by professional musicians that there can be no possible objection to it on the ground of its being a foreign word. In fact there is a decided advantage in having a word that is understood in all countries where modern music (i.e., civilized music) is performed, and just here is found the principal reason for the popularity of the Italian language in musical terminology. Schumann, MacDowell and other well known composers have tried to break down this popularity by using their own respective vernaculars in both tempo and dynamic indications, but in spite of these attempts the Italian language is still quite universally used for this purpose, and deservedly so, for if we are to have amusic notationthat is universal, so that an American is able to play music written by a Frenchman or a German, or a Russian, then we ought also to have a certain number of expressions referring to tempo, etc., which will be understood by all,i.e., a music terminology that is universal. The Italian language was the first in the field, is the most universally known in this particular at the present time, and is entirely adequate. It should therefore be retained in use as a sort of musical Esperanto.
108. There are severalways of finding the correct tempoof a composition:
1. From the metronomic indication found at the beginning of many compositions. Thuse.g., the mark M.M. 92 (Maelzel's Metronome 92) means that if the metronome (either Maelzel's or some other reliable make) is set with the sliding weight at the figure 92 there will be 92 clicks per minute, and they will serve to indicate to the player or singer the rate at which the beats (or pulses) should follow one another. This is undoubtedly the most accurate means of determining tempi in spite of slight inaccuracies in metronomes[25]and of the mistakes which composers themselves often make in giving metronomic indications.2. Another means of determining the tempo of a composition is to play it at different tempi and then to choose the one that "feels right" for that particular piece of music. This is perhaps the best means of getting at the correct tempo but is open only to themusician of long experience, sure judgment, and sound scholarship.3. A third method of finding tempi is through the interpretation of certain words used quite universally by composers to indicate the approximate rate of speed and the general mood of compositions. The difficulty with this method is that one can hardly find two composers who employ the same word to indicate the same tempo, so that no absolute rate of speed can be indicated, and in the last analysis the conductor or performer must fall back on the second method cited above—i.e., individual judgment.
1. From the metronomic indication found at the beginning of many compositions. Thuse.g., the mark M.M. 92 (Maelzel's Metronome 92) means that if the metronome (either Maelzel's or some other reliable make) is set with the sliding weight at the figure 92 there will be 92 clicks per minute, and they will serve to indicate to the player or singer the rate at which the beats (or pulses) should follow one another. This is undoubtedly the most accurate means of determining tempi in spite of slight inaccuracies in metronomes[25]and of the mistakes which composers themselves often make in giving metronomic indications.
2. Another means of determining the tempo of a composition is to play it at different tempi and then to choose the one that "feels right" for that particular piece of music. This is perhaps the best means of getting at the correct tempo but is open only to themusician of long experience, sure judgment, and sound scholarship.
3. A third method of finding tempi is through the interpretation of certain words used quite universally by composers to indicate the approximate rate of speed and the general mood of compositions. The difficulty with this method is that one can hardly find two composers who employ the same word to indicate the same tempo, so that no absolute rate of speed can be indicated, and in the last analysis the conductor or performer must fall back on the second method cited above—i.e., individual judgment.
109.In spite of the inexactness of use in the case of expressions relating to tempo, these expressions are nevertheless extremely useful in giving at least a hint of what was in the composer's mind as he conceived the music that we are trying to interpret. Since a number of the terms overlap in meaning, and since the meaning of no single term is absolute, these expressions relating to tempo are best studied in groups. Perhaps the most convenient grouping is as follows:
1.Grave(lit. weighty, serious),larghissimo,adagissimo, andlentissimo—indicating the very slowest tempo used in rendering music.2.Largo,[26]adagio,[27]andlento—indicating quite a slow tempo.3.Larghetto(i.e.,a little largo) andadagietto(a little adagio)—a slow tempo, but not quite so slow aslargo, etc.4.Andante(going, or walking, as contrasted with running) andandantino—indicating a moderately slow tempo.Andantinois now quite universally taken slightly faster thanandante, in spite of the fact that ifandantemeans "going," and if "ino" is the diminutive ending, thenandantinomeans "going less,"i.e., more slowly!5.Moderato—a moderate tempo.6.Allegroandallegretto[28]—a moderately quick tempo,allegrettobeing usually interpreted as meaning a tempo somewhat slower thanallegro.The wordallegromeans literally happy, joyous, and this literal meaning is stillsometimesapplicable, but in the majority of instances the term refers only to rate of speed.7.Vivo,vivace, (lit. lively)—a tempo betweenallegroandpresto.8.Presto,prestissimo,vivacissimo, andprestissimo possibile—the most rapid tempo possible.
1.Grave(lit. weighty, serious),larghissimo,adagissimo, andlentissimo—indicating the very slowest tempo used in rendering music.
2.Largo,[26]adagio,[27]andlento—indicating quite a slow tempo.
3.Larghetto(i.e.,a little largo) andadagietto(a little adagio)—a slow tempo, but not quite so slow aslargo, etc.
4.Andante(going, or walking, as contrasted with running) andandantino—indicating a moderately slow tempo.
Andantinois now quite universally taken slightly faster thanandante, in spite of the fact that ifandantemeans "going," and if "ino" is the diminutive ending, thenandantinomeans "going less,"i.e., more slowly!
5.Moderato—a moderate tempo.
6.Allegroandallegretto[28]—a moderately quick tempo,allegrettobeing usually interpreted as meaning a tempo somewhat slower thanallegro.
The wordallegromeans literally happy, joyous, and this literal meaning is stillsometimesapplicable, but in the majority of instances the term refers only to rate of speed.
7.Vivo,vivace, (lit. lively)—a tempo betweenallegroandpresto.
8.Presto,prestissimo,vivacissimo, andprestissimo possibile—the most rapid tempo possible.
110. Innumerable combinations of the words defined inSec. 109with one another and with other words occur. Some of these combinations with their approximate meanings follow. The meaning of any such expression not found in the list may usually be arrived at by consulting the terms defined inparagraph 109and recalling the use of certain auxiliary terms quoted inChapter IX.