Largo assai—very slow.Largo di molto—very slow.Largo ma non troppo—slow, but not too slow.Largo un poco—slow, but not so slow aslargo. (Cf. larghetto.)Lentemente—slowly.Lentando—with increasing slowness.Très lentement—very slowly.Lentissamente—very slowly.Lentissamamente—very slowly.Lento assai—very slowly.Lento a capriccio—slowly but capriciously.Lento di molto—very slowly.Andanteaffettuoso—moderately slow, and with tenderness and pathos.Andante amabile—moderately slow, and lovingly.Andante cantabile—moderately slow, and in singing style.Andante grazioso—moderately slow, and gracefully.Andante maestoso—moderately slow, and majestically.Andante con moto—slightly faster thanandante.Andante (ma) non troppo—not too slowly.Andante pastorale—moderately slow, and in simple and unaffected style; (lit. rural, pastoral).Andante quasi allegro—almost as rapid in tempo asallegro; (lit. anandantein the style ofallegro).Andante sostenuto—moderately slow and sustained.Allegrissimo—much faster thanallegro. (The superlative degree ofallegro.)Allegro agitato—a moderately rapid tempo, and in agitated style.Allegro appassionata—a moderately rapid tempo, and in passionate style.Allegro assai(veryallegro)—faster thanallegro.Allegro commodo—a conveniently rapid tempo.Allegro con brio—anallegroplayed in brilliant style. Faster thanallegro.Allegro con fuoco—anallegroplayed with fire,i.e., with extreme animation. Faster thanallegro.Allegro con spirito—anallegroperformed with spirit.Allegro con moto—faster thanallegro.Allegro di bravura—anallegroperformed in brilliant style,i.e., demanding great skill in execution.Allegro furioso(furiously)—quicker thanallegro; very brilliant.Allegro giusto—anallegromovement, but in exact rhythm.Allegro ma grazioso—anallegroplayed in graceful style.Allegro (ma) non tanto—anallegromovement, but not too rapid.Allegro (ma) non troppo—anallegromovement, but not too rapid.Allegro (ma) non presto—anallegromovement, but not too rapid.Allegro moderato—slower thanallegro.Allegro vivace—faster thanallegro.Presto assai—as rapidly as possible.Presto (ma) non troppo—aprestomovement, but not too rapid.
Largo assai—very slow.
Largo di molto—very slow.
Largo ma non troppo—slow, but not too slow.
Largo un poco—slow, but not so slow aslargo. (Cf. larghetto.)
Lentemente—slowly.
Lentando—with increasing slowness.
Très lentement—very slowly.
Lentissamente—very slowly.
Lentissamamente—very slowly.
Lento assai—very slowly.
Lento a capriccio—slowly but capriciously.
Lento di molto—very slowly.
Andanteaffettuoso—moderately slow, and with tenderness and pathos.
Andante amabile—moderately slow, and lovingly.
Andante cantabile—moderately slow, and in singing style.
Andante grazioso—moderately slow, and gracefully.
Andante maestoso—moderately slow, and majestically.
Andante con moto—slightly faster thanandante.
Andante (ma) non troppo—not too slowly.
Andante pastorale—moderately slow, and in simple and unaffected style; (lit. rural, pastoral).
Andante quasi allegro—almost as rapid in tempo asallegro; (lit. anandantein the style ofallegro).
Andante sostenuto—moderately slow and sustained.
Allegrissimo—much faster thanallegro. (The superlative degree ofallegro.)
Allegro agitato—a moderately rapid tempo, and in agitated style.
Allegro appassionata—a moderately rapid tempo, and in passionate style.
Allegro assai(veryallegro)—faster thanallegro.
Allegro commodo—a conveniently rapid tempo.
Allegro con brio—anallegroplayed in brilliant style. Faster thanallegro.
Allegro con fuoco—anallegroplayed with fire,i.e., with extreme animation. Faster thanallegro.
Allegro con spirito—anallegroperformed with spirit.
Allegro con moto—faster thanallegro.
Allegro di bravura—anallegroperformed in brilliant style,i.e., demanding great skill in execution.
Allegro furioso(furiously)—quicker thanallegro; very brilliant.
Allegro giusto—anallegromovement, but in exact rhythm.
Allegro ma grazioso—anallegroplayed in graceful style.
Allegro (ma) non tanto—anallegromovement, but not too rapid.
Allegro (ma) non troppo—anallegromovement, but not too rapid.
Allegro (ma) non presto—anallegromovement, but not too rapid.
Allegro moderato—slower thanallegro.
Allegro vivace—faster thanallegro.
Presto assai—as rapidly as possible.
Presto (ma) non troppo—aprestomovement, but not too rapid.
111. There are certainterms which indicate a modification of the normal tempoof a movement, these being divided into two classes, (a) those terms which indicate in general a slower tempo, and (b) those which indicate in general a more rapid tempo. The further subdivisions of these two classes are shown below.
(a) Terms indicating a slower tempo.
1. Terms indicating agradualretard.Ritenente, (rit.),ritenuto(rit.),ritardando(rit.),rallentando(rall.),slentando.2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely slowerat once.Più lento(lit. more slowly),meno mosso(lit. less movement).3. Terms indicating a slower tempo combined with an increase in power.Largando,allargando.These words are both derived fromlargo, meaning large, broad.
1. Terms indicating agradualretard.
Ritenente, (rit.),ritenuto(rit.),ritardando(rit.),rallentando(rall.),slentando.
2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely slowerat once.
Più lento(lit. more slowly),meno mosso(lit. less movement).
3. Terms indicating a slower tempo combined with an increase in power.
Largando,allargando.These words are both derived fromlargo, meaning large, broad.
(For terms indicating both slower tempo and softer tone, seepage 59,Sec. 127.)
The student should note the difference between groups 1 and 2 as given above: the terms in group 1 indicate that each measure, and even each pulse in the measure, is a little slower than the preceding one, while such terms aspiù lentoandmeno mossoindicate a rate of speed becoming instantly slower and extending over an entire phrase or passage. Some composers (e.g., Beethoven and Couperin) have evidently had this same distinction in mind betweenrallentandoandritardandoon the one hand, andritenutoandritenenteon the other, considering the former (rall.andrit.) to indicate a gradually slackening speed, and the latter (ritenutoandritenente) to indicate a definitely slower rate. The majority of composers do not however differentiate between them in this way, and it will therefore hardly be worth while for the student to try to remember the distinction.
The student should note the difference between groups 1 and 2 as given above: the terms in group 1 indicate that each measure, and even each pulse in the measure, is a little slower than the preceding one, while such terms aspiù lentoandmeno mossoindicate a rate of speed becoming instantly slower and extending over an entire phrase or passage. Some composers (e.g., Beethoven and Couperin) have evidently had this same distinction in mind betweenrallentandoandritardandoon the one hand, andritenutoandritenenteon the other, considering the former (rall.andrit.) to indicate a gradually slackening speed, and the latter (ritenutoandritenente) to indicate a definitely slower rate. The majority of composers do not however differentiate between them in this way, and it will therefore hardly be worth while for the student to try to remember the distinction.
(b) Terms indicating a more rapid tempo.
1. Terms indicating a gradual acceleration.Accelerando,affrettando(this term implies some degree of excitement also),stringendo,poco a poco animato.2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely faster at once.Più allegro,più tosto,più mosso,stretto,un poco animato.
1. Terms indicating a gradual acceleration.
Accelerando,affrettando(this term implies some degree of excitement also),stringendo,poco a poco animato.
2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely faster at once.
Più allegro,più tosto,più mosso,stretto,un poco animato.
112. After any modification in tempo (either faster or slower) has been suggested it is usual to indicate a return to the normal rate by some such expression asa tempo(lit. in time),a tempo primo(lit. in the first time),tempo primo, ortempo.
113.Tempo rubato(ora tempo rubato) means literallyin robbed time,i.e., duration taken from one measure or beat and given to another, but in modern practice the term is quite generally applied to any irregularity of rhythm or tempo not definitely indicated in the score.
The termsad libitum, (ad lib.),a piacere, anda capriccio, also indicate a modification of the tempo at the will of the performer.Ad libitummeans at liberty;a piacere, at pleasure; anda capriccio, at the caprice (of the performer).
114. The termtempo giustois the opposite oftempo rubato(and of the other terms defined in paragraph 113). It means literallyin exact time. (Tempo giustois sometimes translatedquite rapidly,[29]but this is very unusual.)
115.L'istesso tempomeans—at the same rate of speed.E.g., when a measure signature changes from 2/4 to 6/8 with a change in beat-note from a quarter to a dotted-quarter, but with the same tempo carried through the entire movement.
116.Tenuto(ten.) indicates that a tone or chord is to be held to its full value. This word is sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the staccato effect is to be discontinued, but is often used merely as a warning not to slight a melody-tone—i.e., to give it its full value.
117.Velocemeans—swiftly, and is applied to brilliant passages (e.g., cadenzas) which are to be played as rapidly as possible without much regard for measure rhythm. The wordsrapidamente,brillanteandvolante(flying) have the same meaning asveloce.
118. The followingexpressions referring to tempoare also in common use but cannot easily be classified with any of the groups already defined.
Con moto—with motion;i.e., not too slow.Pesante—slowly, heavily.Doppio movimento—twice as rapid as before.Tempo ordinario—in ordinary tempo.Tempo commodo—in convenient tempo.Sempre lento malinconico assai—always slowly and in a very melancholy style.Animando,animato,con anima—with animation.Agitato—agitated.
Con moto—with motion;i.e., not too slow.
Pesante—slowly, heavily.
Doppio movimento—twice as rapid as before.
Tempo ordinario—in ordinary tempo.
Tempo commodo—in convenient tempo.
Sempre lento malinconico assai—always slowly and in a very melancholy style.
Animando,animato,con anima—with animation.
Agitato—agitated.
119.Tempo di marciais given by Riemann (Dictionary of Music, p. 783) as equivalent toandante, M.M. 72-84. The same writer givestempo di menuettoas equivalent toallegretto, andtempo di valsoas equivalent toallegro moderato(which he regards as indicating a more rapid tempo thanallegretto).
120.The worddynamics(cf. dynamic—the opposite of static) as used in the nomenclature of music has to do with the various degrees of power (i.e., the comparative loudness and softness) of tones.
As in the case of words referring to tempo, the expressions referring todynamicsare always relative, never absolute; it is possible to indicate that one measure is to be louder than another, but it is not possible (nor desirable) to indicate exactly how loud either is to be. Thusdynamics, perhaps even more than tempo, will be seen to depend on the taste of the performer or conductor.
The followingwords referring to dynamicsare in common use:
Pianisissimo(ppp)—as softly as possible. (It will be noted that this is a sort of hyper-superlative ofpiano.)Pianissimo(pp)—very softly. (The superlative ofpiano.)Piano(p)—softly.Mezzo piano(mp)—medium softly.Mezzo forte(mf)—medium loudly.Forte(f)—loudly (lit. strong).Fortissimo(ff)—very loudly. (The superlative offorte.)Fortisissimo(fff)—as loudly as possible.The lack of a one-word comparative degree in the case of bothpianoandforteseems to necessitate the hyper-superlative degree as given above, but the practice of using four, or even fivep's orf's is not desirable.
Pianisissimo(ppp)—as softly as possible. (It will be noted that this is a sort of hyper-superlative ofpiano.)
Pianissimo(pp)—very softly. (The superlative ofpiano.)
Piano(p)—softly.
Mezzo piano(mp)—medium softly.
Mezzo forte(mf)—medium loudly.
Forte(f)—loudly (lit. strong).
Fortissimo(ff)—very loudly. (The superlative offorte.)
Fortisissimo(fff)—as loudly as possible.
The lack of a one-word comparative degree in the case of bothpianoandforteseems to necessitate the hyper-superlative degree as given above, but the practice of using four, or even fivep's orf's is not desirable.
121. The terms defined inSec. 120are often combined with others, ase.g.,
Pianissimo possibile—as softly as possible.Piano assai—very softly.Fortissimo possibile—as loudly as possible.Forte piano(fp)—loud, followed at once by soft.
Pianissimo possibile—as softly as possible.
Piano assai—very softly.
Fortissimo possibile—as loudly as possible.
Forte piano(fp)—loud, followed at once by soft.
As in the case of terms relating to tempo, the meaning of many other expressions relating todynamicsmay easily be arrived at by recalling the list of auxiliary terms quoted underSec. 96.
122. The termssforzando,forzando,sforzatoandforzatoall indicate a strong accent on a single tone or chord. These words are abbreviated as follows:—sf,fz, andsfz, the abbreviation being placed directly above (sometimes below) the note or chord affected. The signsvertical accentandhorizontal accentare also commonly used to indicate such an accent.
In interpreting these accent marks the student must bear in mind again the fact that they have a relative rather than an absolute meaning: the marksfoccurring in the midst of apianopassage will indicate a much milder form of accent than would the same mark occurring in the midst of afortepassage.
In interpreting these accent marks the student must bear in mind again the fact that they have a relative rather than an absolute meaning: the marksfoccurring in the midst of apianopassage will indicate a much milder form of accent than would the same mark occurring in the midst of afortepassage.
123. The wordsrinforzandoandrinforzato(abb.—rinf.andrfz.) mean literallyreinforced, and are used to indicate a sudden increase in power usually extending over an entire phrase or passage instead of applying only to a single tone or chord as in the case ofsforzando, etc.
124.Crescendo(abb.—cresc.orcrescendo) means a gradual increase in power. It will be noted that this word does not meanloud, nor does it mean a sudden increase in power unless accompanied by some auxiliary term such assubito, ormolto.
Broadly speaking there aretwo varieties of crescendo: (1) that in which the same tone increases in power while being prolonged; (2) that in which succeeding tones are each sounded more strongly than the preceding one. The first variety is possible only on instruments giving forth a tone which can be variedafter it begins. Thuse.g., the human voice, the violin, the organ enclosed in a swell box, and certain wind instruments, are all capable of sounding a tone softly at first and gradually increasing the volume until the maximal point of power has been reached. But on the piano, organ not enclosed in a swell-box, kettle drum, etc., the power of thetone cannot be varied after the tone has once been sounded, and acrescendoeffect is therefore possible only in apassage, in rendering which each succeeding tone is struck more forcibly than its immediate predecessor. This second variety ofcrescendooffers a means of dramatic effect which may be employed most strikingly, ase.g., when a long passage begins very softly and increases in power little by little until the utmost resources of the instrument or orchestra have been reached. A notable example of such an effect is found in the transition from the third to the fourth movements of the Beethoven Fifth Symphony.
The difference betweensforzando,rinforzando, andcrescendoshould now be noted:sforzandoindicates that a single tone or chord is to be louder;rinforzando, that an entire passage is to be louder, beginning with its first tone; butcrescendoindicates that there is to be a gradual increase in power, this increase sometimes occurring during the sounding of a single tone, but more often in a passage.
The difference betweensforzando,rinforzando, andcrescendoshould now be noted:sforzandoindicates that a single tone or chord is to be louder;rinforzando, that an entire passage is to be louder, beginning with its first tone; butcrescendoindicates that there is to be a gradual increase in power, this increase sometimes occurring during the sounding of a single tone, but more often in a passage.
125. Certaincombinations of the word crescendowith other words are so common that they should be especially noted. Among these are:
Crescendo al fortissimo—keep on gradually increasing in power until the fortissimo (or very loud) point has been reached.Crescendo subito—increase in power suddenly (or rapidly).Crescendo poco a poco—increase in power very, very gradually.Crescendo poi diminuendo—first increase, then diminish the tone.Crescendo e diminuendo—same ascresc. poi dim.Crescendo molto—increase in power very greatly.Crescendo ed animando poco a poco—growing gradually louder in tone and quicker intempo.Crescendo edaffrettando—gradually louder and faster.Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine—crescendo gradually even up to the very end.
Crescendo al fortissimo—keep on gradually increasing in power until the fortissimo (or very loud) point has been reached.
Crescendo subito—increase in power suddenly (or rapidly).
Crescendo poco a poco—increase in power very, very gradually.
Crescendo poi diminuendo—first increase, then diminish the tone.
Crescendo e diminuendo—same ascresc. poi dim.
Crescendo molto—increase in power very greatly.
Crescendo ed animando poco a poco—growing gradually louder in tone and quicker intempo.
Crescendo edaffrettando—gradually louder and faster.
Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine—crescendo gradually even up to the very end.
126.Decrescendo(decresc.ordecrescendo) means a gradual diminishing of the tone. It is the opposite ofcrescendo. The worddiminuendois synonymous withdecrescendo.
Decrescendo(ordiminuendo)al pianissimomeans—decrease gradually in power until thepianissimo(or very soft) point is reached.
127.A number ofterms referring to both softer tone and slower tempoare in use. The most common of these are:—mancando,moriente,[30]morendo,perdendo(fromperdere—to lose),perdendosi,calando, andsmorzando.[31]Such expressions are usually translated—"gradually dying away."
128. In piano music the abbreviationPed.indicates that the damper pedal (the one at the right) is to be depressed, while the signdamper releaseshows that it is to be released. In many modern editions this depression and release of the damper pedal are more accurately indicated by the signdamper.
The termsenza sordiniis also occasionally found in old editions, indicating that the damper pedal is to be depressed, whilecon sordinishows that it is to be released. These expressions are taken from a usage in music for stringed instruments, in which the termcon sordinimeans that the mute (a small clamp of metal, ivory or hardwood) is to be affixed to the bridge, this causing a modification in both power and quality of the tone. The damper on the piano does not in any way correspond to the mute thus used on stringed instruments, and the terms above explained as sometimes occurring in piano music are not to be recommended, even though Beethoven used them in this sense in all his earlier sonatas.
The termsenza sordiniis also occasionally found in old editions, indicating that the damper pedal is to be depressed, whilecon sordinishows that it is to be released. These expressions are taken from a usage in music for stringed instruments, in which the termcon sordinimeans that the mute (a small clamp of metal, ivory or hardwood) is to be affixed to the bridge, this causing a modification in both power and quality of the tone. The damper on the piano does not in any way correspond to the mute thus used on stringed instruments, and the terms above explained as sometimes occurring in piano music are not to be recommended, even though Beethoven used them in this sense in all his earlier sonatas.
129. The wordsuna corda(lit.—one string) indicate that the "soft pedal" (the one at the left) is to be depressed, while the wordstre corde(lit. three strings) ortutte le corde(all the strings) show that the same pedal is to be released. These expressions refer to the fact that on grand pianos the "soft pedal" when depressed moves the hammers to one side so that instead of striking three strings they strike only two (in the older pianos only one, henceuna corda), all three strings (tre corde) being struck again after the release of the pedal.
130. Other terms relating either directly or indirectly to the subject of dynamics are:
Con alcuna licenza—with some degree of license.Con amore—with tenderness.Con bravura—with boldness.Con celerita—with rapidity.Con delicato—with delicacy.Con energico—with energy.Con espressione—with expression.Con forza—with force.Con fuoco—with fire and passion.Con grand' espressione—with great expression.Con grazia—with grace.Con melinconia—with melancholy.Con passione—with passion.Con spirito—with spirit.Con tenerezza—with tenderness.Delicato—delicately.Dolce—sweetly, gently.Dolcissimo—most sweetly.Dolce e cantabile—gently and with singing tone.Dolente}Doloroso} plaintively or sorrowfully.Espressivo—expressively.Grandioso—grandly, pompously.Grazioso—gracefully.Giocoso—humorously, (cf. jocose).Giojoso—joyfully, (cf. joyous).Lacrimando,lacrimoso—sorrowfully.Legato—smoothly.Leggiero—lightly.Leggierissimo—most lightly; almost a staccato.Lusingando—caressingly, coaxingly, tenderly.Maesta,maestoso—majestically.Martellando,martellato—strongly accented, (lit.—hammered).Marziale—martial—war-like.Mesto—pensively.Mezzo voce—with half voice.Misterioso—mysteriously.Parlando—well accented or enunciated; applied to melody playing. (The word parlando means literally-speaking.)Pastorale—in simple and unaffected style, (lit.—pastoral, rural).Pomposo—pompously.Precipitoso—precipitously.Recitativo—well enunciated. (This meaning applies only in instrumental music in which a melody is to stand out above the accompaniment. For def. of recitative in vocal music, seep. 78.)Risoluto—firmly, resolutely.Scherzando,scherzoso, etc.—jokingly. These terms are derived from the wordscherzomeaninga musical joke.Semplice—simply.Sempre marcatissimo—always well marked,i.e., strongly accented.Sentimento—with sentiment.Solenne—solemn.Sotto voce—in subdued voice.Spiritoso—with spirit.Strepitoso—precipitously.Tranquillo—tranquilly.Tristamente—sadly.
Con alcuna licenza—with some degree of license.
Con amore—with tenderness.
Con bravura—with boldness.
Con celerita—with rapidity.
Con delicato—with delicacy.
Con energico—with energy.
Con espressione—with expression.
Con forza—with force.
Con fuoco—with fire and passion.
Con grand' espressione—with great expression.
Con grazia—with grace.
Con melinconia—with melancholy.
Con passione—with passion.
Con spirito—with spirit.
Con tenerezza—with tenderness.
Delicato—delicately.
Dolce—sweetly, gently.
Dolcissimo—most sweetly.
Dolce e cantabile—gently and with singing tone.
Dolente}Doloroso} plaintively or sorrowfully.
Espressivo—expressively.
Grandioso—grandly, pompously.
Grazioso—gracefully.
Giocoso—humorously, (cf. jocose).
Giojoso—joyfully, (cf. joyous).
Lacrimando,lacrimoso—sorrowfully.
Legato—smoothly.
Leggiero—lightly.
Leggierissimo—most lightly; almost a staccato.
Lusingando—caressingly, coaxingly, tenderly.
Maesta,maestoso—majestically.
Martellando,martellato—strongly accented, (lit.—hammered).
Marziale—martial—war-like.
Mesto—pensively.
Mezzo voce—with half voice.
Misterioso—mysteriously.
Parlando—well accented or enunciated; applied to melody playing. (The word parlando means literally-speaking.)
Pastorale—in simple and unaffected style, (lit.—pastoral, rural).
Pomposo—pompously.
Precipitoso—precipitously.
Recitativo—well enunciated. (This meaning applies only in instrumental music in which a melody is to stand out above the accompaniment. For def. of recitative in vocal music, seep. 78.)
Risoluto—firmly, resolutely.
Scherzando,scherzoso, etc.—jokingly. These terms are derived from the wordscherzomeaninga musical joke.
Semplice—simply.
Sempre marcatissimo—always well marked,i.e., strongly accented.
Sentimento—with sentiment.
Solenne—solemn.
Sotto voce—in subdued voice.
Spiritoso—with spirit.
Strepitoso—precipitously.
Tranquillo—tranquilly.
Tristamente—sadly.
131. Many other terms are encountered which on their face sometimes seem to be quite formidable, but which yield readily to analysis. Thuse.g.,crescendo poco a poco al forte ed un pochettino accelerando, is seen to mean merely—"increase gradually toforteand accelerate a very little bit." A liberal application of common sense will aid greatly in the interpretation of such expressions.
132. Aformin music is a specific arrangement of the various parts of a composition resulting in a structure so characteristic that it is easily recognized by the ear. Thuse.g., although every fugue is different from all other fugues in actual material, yet the arrangement of the various parts is so characteristic that no one who knows thefugue formhas any doubt as to what kind of a composition he is hearing whenever a fugue is played. The wordformis therefore seen to be somewhat synonymous with the wordplanas used in architecture; it is the structure or design underlying music. Examples of form are the canon, the fugue, the sonata, etc.
Speaking broadly we may say thatformin any art consists in the placing together of certain parts in such relations of proportion and symmetry as to make a unified whole. In music this implies unity of tonality and of general rhythmic effect, as well as unity in the grouping of the various parts of the work (phrases, periods, movements) so as to weld them into one whole, giving the impression of completeness to the hearer.
Speaking broadly we may say thatformin any art consists in the placing together of certain parts in such relations of proportion and symmetry as to make a unified whole. In music this implies unity of tonality and of general rhythmic effect, as well as unity in the grouping of the various parts of the work (phrases, periods, movements) so as to weld them into one whole, giving the impression of completeness to the hearer.
133. The primalbasis of formis the repetition of some characteristic effect, and the problem of the composer is to bring about these repetitions in such a way that the ear will recognize them as being the same material and will nevertheless not grow weary of them. This is accomplished by varying the material (cf. thematic development), by introducing contrasting material, and by choice of key.
134.The student should note at the outset of this topic thedifference in meaning betweenthe termsformandstyle:Aformis a plan for building a certain definite kind of composition, but astyleis merely a manner of writing. Thuse.g., thefugueis aform—i.e., it is a plan, which although capable of variation in details, is yet carried out fairly definitely in every case; butcounterpointis merely astyleor manner of writing (just as Gothic architecture is a style of building), which may be cast into any one of severalforms.
135. The material found in the following sections is an attempt to explain in simple language certain terms relating toformsandstyleswhich are in common use; in many cases the definition is too meagre to give anything but a very general idea, but it is hoped that the student will at least be set to thinking and that he will eventually be led to a more detailed and scholarly study of the subject. (The article "Form" and the separate articles under each term here defined, as found in Grove's Dictionary, are especially recommended. For examples of the various forms described, see also Mason and Surette—"The Appreciation of Music," Supplementary Volume.)
136. In a very general way there may be said to betwo styles of musical composition, the monophonic (or homophonic)—the one-voiced—and the polyphonic—the many voiced. The polyphonic[32]style antedates the monophonic historically.
137. Inmonophonic musicthere is one voice which has a pronounced melody, the other voices (if present) supporting this melody as a harmonic (and often rhythmic) background. An example of this is the ordinary hymn-tune with its melody in the highest part, and with three other voices forming a "four-part harmony." The sonata, symphony, opera, modern piano piece, etc., are also largelymonophonic, though polyphonic passages by way of contrast are often to be found.
138. Inpolyphonic musiceach voice is to a certain extent melodically interesting, and the "harmony" is the result of combining several melodies in such a way as to give a pleasing effect, instead of treating a melody by adding chords as an accompaniment or support. Counterpoint, canon, round, fugue, etc., are allpolyphonicin style. The wordcontrapuntalis often used synonymously withpolyphonic.
(Sections139to143relate especially to terms describing polyphonic music.)
(Sections139to143relate especially to terms describing polyphonic music.)
139.Counterpointis the art of adding one or more parts or melodies to a given melody, the latter being known as the "cantus firmus," or subject. It may therefore be broadly defined as "the art of combining melodies."
The wordcounterpointcomes from the three words "punctus contra punctum," meaning "point against point." The word point as here used refers to thepunctus—one of the neumae of the mediaeval system, these neumae being the immediate predecessors of modern notes.Both vocal and instrumental music have been written in contrapuntal style. The familiar two- and three-part "inventions" by Bach are excellent examples of instrumental counterpoint, while such choruses as those in "The Messiah" by Handel illustrate the highest type of vocal counterpoint.
The wordcounterpointcomes from the three words "punctus contra punctum," meaning "point against point." The word point as here used refers to thepunctus—one of the neumae of the mediaeval system, these neumae being the immediate predecessors of modern notes.
Both vocal and instrumental music have been written in contrapuntal style. The familiar two- and three-part "inventions" by Bach are excellent examples of instrumental counterpoint, while such choruses as those in "The Messiah" by Handel illustrate the highest type of vocal counterpoint.
140.Imitationis the repetition by one part, of a subject or theme previously introduced by another part. If the imitation is exact, the termstrict imitationis applied, but if only approximate, then the termfree imitationis used in referring to it. The repetition need not have the exact pitches of the subject in order to bestrict; on the contrary the imitation is usually at the interval of an octave, or a fifth, or a second, etc. Fig. 57 shows an example of strict imitation in which thethirdpart comes in an octavelowerthan the first part.
141. Acanonis a contrapuntal composition in the style of strict imitation, one part repeating exactly (but at any interval) what another part has played or sung. The term "canonic style" is sometimes applied to music in which the imitation is not exact. An example of three-part canon is given in Fig. 57.
CANON IN THREE VOICES, IN THE UNISON AND OCTAVE
Fig. 57. Mozart Canon
[Listen]
The wordcanonmeanslaw, and was applied to this particular form of composition because the rules relating to its composition were invariable. It is because of this non-flexibility that thecanonis so little used as a form at the present time: the modern composer demands a plan of writing that is capable of being varied to such an extent as to give him room for the exercise of his own particular individuality of conception, and this thecanondoes not do. For this same reason too the fugue and the sonata have successively gone out of fashion and from Schumann down to the present time composers have as it were created their own forms, the difficulty in listening arising from the fact that no one but the composer himself could recognize the formasa formbecause it had not been adopted to a great enough extent by other composers to make it in any sense universal. The result is that in much present-day music it is very difficult for the hearer to discover any trace of familiar design, and the impression made by such music is in consequence much less definite than that made by music of the classic school. It is probable that a reaction from this state of affairs will come in the near future, for in any art it is necessary that there should be at least enough semblance of structure to make the art work capable of standing as a universal thing rather than as the mere temporary expression of some particular composer or of some period of composition.
The wordcanonmeanslaw, and was applied to this particular form of composition because the rules relating to its composition were invariable. It is because of this non-flexibility that thecanonis so little used as a form at the present time: the modern composer demands a plan of writing that is capable of being varied to such an extent as to give him room for the exercise of his own particular individuality of conception, and this thecanondoes not do. For this same reason too the fugue and the sonata have successively gone out of fashion and from Schumann down to the present time composers have as it were created their own forms, the difficulty in listening arising from the fact that no one but the composer himself could recognize the formasa formbecause it had not been adopted to a great enough extent by other composers to make it in any sense universal. The result is that in much present-day music it is very difficult for the hearer to discover any trace of familiar design, and the impression made by such music is in consequence much less definite than that made by music of the classic school. It is probable that a reaction from this state of affairs will come in the near future, for in any art it is necessary that there should be at least enough semblance of structure to make the art work capable of standing as a universal thing rather than as the mere temporary expression of some particular composer or of some period of composition.
142. The commonschool roundis an example of canon, each voice repeating exactly what the first voice has sung, while this first voice is going on with its melody. Theroundis therefore defined as a variety of canon in which the imitation is always in unison with the subject.
143.Thefugue(Latin,fuga= flight) is a form of contrapuntal composition in which the imitation is always in the dominant key,i.e., a fifth above or a fourth below. The imitation (called "the answer") may be an exact repetition of the subject (sometimes called "the question"), but is usually not so.
Thefuguediffers from the canon also in that the subject is given in complete form before the answer begins, while in the canon the imitation begins while the subject is still going on. Thefugueis not nearly so strict in form as the canon and gives the composer much greater opportunity for expressing musical ideas. A canon may be perfect informand yet be very poor music; this same statement might of course be made about any form, but is especially true in the stricter ones.
Thefuguediffers from the canon also in that the subject is given in complete form before the answer begins, while in the canon the imitation begins while the subject is still going on. Thefugueis not nearly so strict in form as the canon and gives the composer much greater opportunity for expressing musical ideas. A canon may be perfect informand yet be very poor music; this same statement might of course be made about any form, but is especially true in the stricter ones.
(Sections144to160relate particularly to terms used in descriptions ofmonophonicmusic[33].)
(Sections144to160relate particularly to terms used in descriptions ofmonophonicmusic[33].)
144.Aphraseis a short musical thought (at least two measures in length) closing with either a complete or an incomplete cadence. The typicalphraseis four measures long. The two-measurephraseis often calledsection. The wordphraseas used in music terminology corresponds with the same word as used in language study.
145. Aperiodis a little piece of music typically eight measures long, either complete in itself or forming one of the clearly defined divisions of a larger form. Theperiod(when complete in itself) is the smallest monophonic form.
The essential characteristic of theregular periodis the fact that it usually consists of two balanced phrases (often calledantecedentandconsequentorthesisandantithesis), the first phrase giving rise to the feeling of incompleteness (by means of a cadence in another key, deceptive cadence, etc.,) the second phrase giving the effect of completeness by means of a definite cadence at the close.
The second half of the period is sometimes a literal repetition of the first half, in all respects except the cadence, but in many cases too it is a repetition of only one of the elements—rhythm, intervals, or general outline. Figs. 58 and 59 show examples of both types. The principle almost invariably holds that the simpler the music (cf. folk-tunes) the more obvious the form of the period, while the more complex the music, the less regular the period.
The second half of the period is sometimes a literal repetition of the first half, in all respects except the cadence, but in many cases too it is a repetition of only one of the elements—rhythm, intervals, or general outline. Figs. 58 and 59 show examples of both types. The principle almost invariably holds that the simpler the music (cf. folk-tunes) the more obvious the form of the period, while the more complex the music, the less regular the period.
Figs. 58-59
[Listen to Fig. 58]
[Listen to Fig. 59]
146. Theprimary formsare built up by combining two or more periods.
Thesmall two-part primary form(often calledsong-formorLied-form) consists of two periods so placed that the second constitutes a consequent or antithesis to the first. The second half of this second period is often exactly the same as the second half of the first period, thus binding the two periods together into absolute unity. The theme of the choral movement of the Ninth Symphony (Beethoven) quoted below is a perfect example of this form. Other examples are "Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes," and "The Last Rose of Summer."
Beethoven
Beethoven
[Listen]
Thesmall three-part primary formis like the two-part primary form except that it has a section of contrasting material interpolated between the two periods. This middle part is usually an eight-measure phrase.
Thelarge two- and three-part primary formsusually have sixteen-measure periods instead of eight-measure ones, but are otherwise similar in construction.
These variousprimary formsare used in constructing many varieties of compositions, among them thetheme and variations, thepolka, thewaltz, themarch, etc., as well as most of the shorter movements in sonatas, quartets, etc. They are used in vocal music also, but are less apt to be regular here because the form of vocal music is largely dependent upon the structure of the text.
These variousprimary formsare used in constructing many varieties of compositions, among them thetheme and variations, thepolka, thewaltz, themarch, etc., as well as most of the shorter movements in sonatas, quartets, etc. They are used in vocal music also, but are less apt to be regular here because the form of vocal music is largely dependent upon the structure of the text.
147. Athemeis a fragment of melody used as the subject of a fugue, as the basis of the development section in "sonata form," etc. Sometimes it is a complete tune (often in period form), on which variations are made, ase.g., in the familiartheme and variations.
148.Thematic developmentconsists in taking a short theme (or several short themes) and by means of transposition, interval expansion and contraction, rhythmic augmentation and diminution, inversion, tonality changes, etc., building out of it a lengthy composition or section of a composition. Fig. 60b,c,d,e, andfshow how the theme given in Fig. 60 (a) may be varied in a few of these ways. There are hundreds of other fashions in which this same theme might be varied without destroying its identity. For other examples of thematic development see the development section of Sonata Op. 31,No. 3, as analyzed inAppendix E.
Fig. 60
Fig. 60
[Listen]
For further illustrations of development in the case of this same theme, see—Christiani—The Principles of Expression in Pianoforte playing, p. 144, ff. from which the foregoing themes have been adapted.
For further illustrations of development in the case of this same theme, see—Christiani—The Principles of Expression in Pianoforte playing, p. 144, ff. from which the foregoing themes have been adapted.
149. Arondois an instrumental composition (in homophonic style) in which a certain theme appears several times almost always in the same form (i.e., not thematically varied), the repetitions of this theme being separated by contrasting material.
Therondois the oldest of the larger monophonic forms and has been used in many different ways, but perhaps its most characteristic construction is as follows: (1) Principal subject; (2) second subject in dominant key; (3) principal subject; (4) third subject; (5) first subject again; (6) second subject, intonic key; (7) coda (or ending).
The student should note particularly the problem of repetition and contrast (mentioned inSec. 134) as here worked out, as the rondo was the first monophonic form in which this matter was at all satisfactorily solved, and its construction is especially interesting because it is readily seen to be one of the direct predecessors of the highest form of all—the sonata. Examples of rondos may be found in any volume of sonatas or sonatinas.
150. Asuiteis a set of instrumental dances all in the same or in nearly related keys. The first dance is usually preceded by an introduction or prelude, and the various dances are so grouped as to secure contrast of movement—a quick dance being usually followed by a slower one.
The suite is interesting to students of the development of music as being the first formin several movementsto be generally adopted by composers. It retained its popularity from the beginning of the seventeenth to the end of the eighteenth centuries, being finally displaced by the sonata, whose immediate predecessor it is thus seen to be.
The suite is interesting to students of the development of music as being the first formin several movementsto be generally adopted by composers. It retained its popularity from the beginning of the seventeenth to the end of the eighteenth centuries, being finally displaced by the sonata, whose immediate predecessor it is thus seen to be.
Thesuitewas formerly written for solo instrument only (harpsichord, clavichord, piano) but modern composers like Dvořák, Lachner, Moszkowski, and others have written suites for full orchestra also.
151.Among the dances commonly found in suites are the following:
Allemande—duple or quadruple measure.Bolero—triple measure.Bourée—duple or quadruple measure.Chaconne—triple measure.Courante—a very old dance in triple measure.Csardas—Hungarian dance in duple or quadruple measure.Gavotte—quadruple measure.Gigue(orjig)—duple measure.Habanera—Spanish dance in triple measure.Minuet—slow dance in triple measure.Mazurka—Polish dance in triple measure.Polonaise—Polish dance in triple measure.Rigaudon—lively dance in duple or triple measure.Sarabande—triple measure.Tarantella—swift Italian dance in sextuple measure.
Allemande—duple or quadruple measure.
Bolero—triple measure.
Bourée—duple or quadruple measure.
Chaconne—triple measure.
Courante—a very old dance in triple measure.
Csardas—Hungarian dance in duple or quadruple measure.
Gavotte—quadruple measure.
Gigue(orjig)—duple measure.
Habanera—Spanish dance in triple measure.
Minuet—slow dance in triple measure.
Mazurka—Polish dance in triple measure.
Polonaise—Polish dance in triple measure.
Rigaudon—lively dance in duple or triple measure.
Sarabande—triple measure.
Tarantella—swift Italian dance in sextuple measure.
Theallemandeis especially interesting to students of music form because of its relation to the sonata, it being the prototype of the sonata-allegro (i.e., the first movement of the sonata). Thesarabandeandcouranteare likewise interesting as the prototypes of the second movement, and thebourée,minuet, etc., for their connection with the third movement.
152. Thescherzo(lit. musical joke) is a fanciful instrumental composition. It was used by Beethoven as the third movement of the sonata instead of the more limited minuet, but is also often found as an independent piece.
153. Asonatais an instrumental composition of three or more movements (usually four), the first and last of which arealmost always in rapid tempo. Each of these movements is a piece of music with a unity of its own, but they are all merged together in a larger whole with a broad underlying unity of larger scope. The composition receives its name from the fact that its first movement is cast insonata-form. (SeeSec. 157for description of sonata-form.)
When thesonatahas four movements, these are usually arranged as follows:
1. A quick movement (allegro,presto, etc.), often preceded by a slower introduction.2. A slow movement (largo,andante,adagio, etc.).3. A minuet or scherzo, often with a trio added, in which case the part preceding the trio is repeated after the trio is played.4. A quick movement—the finale, sometimes a rondo, sometimes another sonata-form, sometimes a theme with variations.
1. A quick movement (allegro,presto, etc.), often preceded by a slower introduction.
2. A slow movement (largo,andante,adagio, etc.).
3. A minuet or scherzo, often with a trio added, in which case the part preceding the trio is repeated after the trio is played.
4. A quick movement—the finale, sometimes a rondo, sometimes another sonata-form, sometimes a theme with variations.
These movements are all in closely related keys, but in a variety of contrasting rhythms.
154. Atriois a sonata for three instruments (such as piano, violin, and cello), while aquartetis a sonata for four instruments, the most common quartet combination being as follows: First and second violins, viola, and violoncello.
The termchamber musicis often applied to instrumental music for trio, quartet, quintet, and other similar combinations which are suitable for a small room rather than for a large concert hall.
The wordstrioandquartetare also applied to vocal works for three and four voices respectively, these having no relation whatsoever to the sonata as described above. The wordtriois also applied to the middle section of minuets, scherzas, marches, etc., the term originating in the old usage of writing this part for three instruments only.
The wordstrioandquartetare also applied to vocal works for three and four voices respectively, these having no relation whatsoever to the sonata as described above. The wordtriois also applied to the middle section of minuets, scherzas, marches, etc., the term originating in the old usage of writing this part for three instruments only.
155. Aconcertois a sonata for a solo instrument with orchestral accompaniment, the form being usually somewhat modified so as to adapt it to a composition in which there mustnecessarily be opportunity for a good deal of technical display. There are usually but three movements in theconcerto.