FOOTNOTES:

FOOTNOTES:[60]The original spelling of the name of this island arose from ignorance of the language. To the question, "Eaha tera fenúa?" (What is the name of this island?) the natives replied, "O Taïti Oia." The article was thus taken for the first syllable and the island was calledO Taheite. Since then the thorough knowledge we have acquired of the language has rectified the mistake. In Tahitian the two verbs "to be" and "to have" are altogether wanting.Ois simply the nominative of an article which very frequently is placed before a proper name to give it emphasis, or even for the sake of euphony.Oaccordingly is used in the above sentence merely to imply "it is." A literal translation from Tahitian into any European language is in most cases impossible. Occasionally one finds Tahiti mentioned by the names ofLa Sagittaria,King George the Third's Island,Nouvelle Cythère, andAmat.[61]The derivation of the name Pomáre, which has since become that of the Tahitian dynasty, is purely accidental. The father of Otu was once travelling among the mountains, and had to camp out in the open air. The bad weather gave him a violent cold with hoarseness, which induced one of his companions to name the night spent in such discomfortPo-mare, i. e. a night (po) of cough (mare). The chieftain so acutely felt the pertinency of this name that he adopted it as hisownname.—(VideEllis, Polynesian Researches, vol. ii. p. 70.)[62]These four missionaries were named Chrysostome Liansu, François d'Assis Caret, Honoré Laval, and Columban Murphy, an Irish catechist.[63]Vide Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, No. xli. p. 31.[64]"It is not surprising," he writes in a letter to his superiors, "that on the arrival in this country, so long given over to the evil spirit of a child of theSacré cœur(Divine heart), that enemy of all which is good should have raged with redoubled fury, and that the Protestant emissaries should have believed I came to overthrow their empire!!"—VideAnnales de la Propagation de la Foi, No. lvi. p. 204.[65]"I am," wrote Queen Pomáre, to the then King Louis Philippe, "only the ruler of a small, insignificant island. May wisdom, renown, and power ever attend your Majesty! Cease then your anger, and pardon the error I have committed."[66]This additional article ran as follows: "The free exercise of the Catholic religion is permitted in the Island of Tahiti, and in all the other possessions of Queen Pomáre. The French Catholics shall enjoy all the privileges accorded to the Protestants,but they shall nevertheless not be entitled to meddle, under any pretext, in the religious affairs of the country. Done at Tahiti, 20th June, 1839."[67]These two letters are dated, "Waiáu, on the Island of Raiatea, 24th Sept. 1844," whither Queen Pomáre had withdrawn after the events of November, 1843, and whence she only returned to Tahiti in 1847.[68]According to the laws of the country, each married resident contributes one franc per annum to the civil list; a widower with one child, one franc; a widower without children, two francs; an unmarried adult, two francs; an adult female unmarried, one franc; boys under sixteen, and girls under fourteen, as also criminals and persons incapacitated for labour, pay nothing. This is the only direct tax the inhabitants are called upon to pay. The revenues of the island do not, however, suffice to defray the expenses of the French occupation. Before the arrival of the Europeans the Tahitians had no description of currency, but had recourse in all business transactions to barter. The Protestant missionaries were the first to introduce about £2000 of copper money, which they had got struck in England for the purpose. This currency was based upon a coin of the value of one half-penny. On one side was a ship, and on the obverse the words "COPPER PREFERABLE TO PAPER." When the French came to the island they flung this money into the sea, and forbade their circulation under heavy penalties! At present the only coins used are francs andréra(about one-third of a franc = 31⁄4d.nearly).[69]This State paper is couched in very brief and intelligible terms in both French and Tahitian, and runs as follows:—"Her Majesty, the Queen of the Society Islands, and H.E. the Governor of the French possessions in Eastern Oceania:—"1st. Considering that there are no 'projets de loi' (Bills) to be submitted for legislative enactment during 1859, and that assembly has further no budget to vote;"2nd. Considering moreover the considerable expenses to which the members of the said assembly are put for their sojourn at Papeete during its session;"3rd. Considering Article 7 of the Ordinance of 28th April, 1847;"Decide,—"The Legislative Assembly of the States of the Protectorate will not meet in session during the year 1859. Papeete, 10th February, 1859.(Signed) "Saisset."A similar notification drawn up in Tahitian, is countersigned by Queen Pomáre. One Tahitian, who was a member of the Legislative Assembly, remarked to us, after reading the foregoing announcement in theMoniteur Tahitian, "How then can any one say beforehand whether or no there are no important questions to discuss?"[70]M. Adam Kulczycki, who was at that period entrusted with the management of native affairs, and is an accomplished Tahitian scholar, besides occupying himself with astronomical and meteorological observations, and geological investigations, has been for seventeen years in the French service, and, a Pole by birth, served not without distinction in the struggles of his native land for liberty.[71]"O Taïti (Tahiti), par G. Cuzent, Pharmacien de la Marine, &c. &c. Paris, Librairie de Victor Masson, 1861." It is a most valuable book, the result for the most part of personal examination and illustration, and arranged with much care and method.[72]Canaka, in the Tahitian dialect, as in that of the Sandwich Islands, is equivalent toMan.[73]At one service which we attended in Mr. Howe's chapel there were fifty "communicants" present; a pupil of the missionary played the organ. The Queen, too, and her family, who are strongly attached to the services of the Evangelical Church, are frequently present at these Sunday gatherings.[74]Several of the girls who live in Mr. Howe's family are Catholics, whose parents prefer they should be educated in a Protestant school rather than not at all.[75]The cost of the Catholic missions in Eastern Oceania amounts on the average to frs. 100,000 (£4000) per annum. "The Society for the Propagation of the Faith" (French) subscribes annually from frs. 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 (£120,000 to £160,000) for the races of heathendom. Of this Oceania and Australia get from frs. 400,000 to frs. 500,000 (£16,000 to £20,000).[76]With reference to this, the following remarks are especially noteworthy, made by M. Guizot at a time when France still possessed a tribune and a parliament: "What particularly strikes me is that our missionaries do not make new conquests for a Church already powerful; that they do not extend the sphere of supremacy of the ecclesiastical government. The Roman Catholic missionary arrives alone, ignorant of the actual state of affairs, having none of the affections common to humanity—in a word, better fitted to acquire an ascendant than to enlist sympathy. The Protestant ministers are, on the contrary, family missions, so to speak; so that a pagan population will more readily be led to regard as brothers men who are husbands and fathers like themselves. Thus these missions instruct by presenting specimens of Christian society side by side with precepts of faith; the example of all the relations and sentiments of domestic life, regulated according to the morality of the Gospel they are sent to teach; a mode of instruction most assuredly not the least efficacious, if not absolutely perfect." (Discours de M. Guizot dans l'Assemblée Générale, du 11 Avril, 1826.)[77]In the "Lois Revisées dans l'Assemblée Législative au mois de Mars de l'année 1848, pour la conduite de tous, sous le gouvernement du Protectorat dans les terres de la Société," is the following stringent passage, "The dance, known as Upa-Upa, is interdicted in the islands under the Protectorate. On fête days and public festivals dancing is permitted, but no indecent gestures will be tolerated." The Upa-Upa dates from the period when the secret society of the Arréois, whose chief tenets were drinking feasts, polygamy, and infanticide, existed over the greater part of the islands of the Pacific. Moerenhout, in his "Voyages aux íles du grand Océan" (Paris, 1837, vol. i. p. 484), gives a very complete account of this singular society, which has since entirely disappeared before the zeal of Protestant missionaries.[78]Experiments have also been made quite recently with coffee, which the Government likewise fosters. The largest plantation is the property of a Frenchman named Bonnefin, who, in 1859, grew as much as 8000 lbs. The high price of labour, however, renders its production so dear that Tahitian coffee costs 100 fr. (£4) the centum (100 lbs), or about ten pence the pound, on the spot, whereas the best Costa Rica coffee costs only from £2 to £2 8s.the centum, or five pence to six pence the pound. The Protectorate officials hope to supply this very perceptible lack of labour by introducing into Tahiti, as field workers, the prisoners of war they take in New Caledonia.[79]Mr. Wilson, a missionary, estimated the population of Tahiti in 1797 at 16,000 souls. In 1848, when the French administration took its first census, the native population amounted to 8082 (viz. 4466 males, 3616 females), the number of Europeans being 475 (428 males and 47 females). In 1858 it had fallen to 5988, or 2580 fewer than it had been 30 years before (1829), when, according to a census taken by the English missionaries, the population of Tahiti was 8568 of both sexes and all ages.[80]Among the splendid specimens of the forest flora of Tahiti we remarked, in addition to the cocoa-nut palm, the bread-fruit tree and Pandanus, of which we shall presently speak more at length, on account of their economic, industrial, and therapeutic qualities. TheCalophyllum Inophyllum(Ati),Inocarpus edulis(Masse),Aleurites triloba(Tu-tui),Rhus Taïtense(Apape),Ficus tinctoria(Máti),Ficus prolixa(Ora),Gleichenia Hermanni(Eanúhe),Hibiscus tiliaceus(Puráu or Fáo),Lagenaria vulgaris(Hue),Pisonia inermis(Puna tehea),Spondias dulcis(Bri),Arundo Bambus(Ofé),Tanghinia Maughas(Ruva),Morinda citrifolia(Nono),Guettenda speciosa(Tafano),Boxa Orellana, &c. &c.[81]According to Kulczycki's measurements the lake lies 430 metres (1401 feet) above the sea, and is 400 metres (1304 feet) in circumference, while the precipitous peaks around are 1800 metres (5865 feet) above sea-level.[82]According to the laws of Tahiti, whenever the entire male descendants of a chief have become extinct, his eldest female offspring becomes chief of the district, sits as such in the legislative assembly, and has a voice in the administration of justice. At present there are five chieftainesses, who are members of the Tahitian parliament. Their husbands have no political influence whatever, except as the husbands of these ladies![83]Carabus(Anglicé Calaboose) is a corruption of the Spanish wordCalabozo, a prison. TheCarabusof Papeete is a sort of pound in which drunken people or mischievous vagabonds are confined, and whence they are released on payment of 5 or 10 francs. These mulcts or convictions form a not unimportant source of revenue, and are of twofold demoralizing operation; for while it is the interest of the police on the one hand to make as many arrests as possible, so as to insure a larger sum for division, the wretched, sensual Tahitian girls find in the prosecution of the filthy trade that has brought them within the clutch of the police the best means of procuring their release![84]Queen Pomáre finds herself entirely dependent upon the French Protectorate. On the slightest symptom of asserting her position she is met by a stoppage of her allowance, and as, in consequence of the rather opulent mode of life adopted by the generous-hearted lady, the incomings and outgoings are apt not to square, her pecuniary straits are not infrequently made use of for political purposes.[85]Obviously a corruption of the French "mouton," the popular name for a spy.[86]Of this expensive fruit, which grows in large quantities on the island, and only needs to be gathered, there are exported annually some five or six ship-loads, worth about fr. 200,000 (£8000), all which find their way to California, where 1000 oranges are worth from $40 to $60 (£8 8s.to £12 12s.), whereas, a similar quantity is worth in Tahiti at the outside £1 to £1 4s.[87]Besides the cocoa-nut oil and arrow-root, which are at present exported from Tahiti and constitute its chief trade, the produce of the neighbouring islands might be conveniently passed through Tahiti. The pearl oysters (Meleagrina Margaretifera), which are usually dredged for in the months of January, February, March, and April, come chiefly from the Paomotu and Gambier groups. The latter-named group, however, only sends about 500 tons of these annually, worth about fr. 500 to fr. 600 (£20 to £24) per ton. In the year 1859, the entire importation of these was contracted for by a merchant of Papeete at $140 (£29 10s.) per ton. The natives of Gambier, accustomed to dive, use to bring up the pearl oysters from a depth of from 150 to 180 feet.[88]On the island of Eimeo, or Morea, lying off Tahiti, the area of which is 13,237 hectares, there is a table-land about the centre of the island, surrounded by a semi-circular range of lofty precipices, which would be found thoroughly fit for cattle pasture. The cultivation of the grape and of European vegetables might also be profitably undertaken.[89]Here also we encountered this useful plant, which was first introduced into Tahiti in 1851, by means of seeds from Paris. Of these twenty-five were sown, which within three months gave a sufficient return of seed to admit of the cultivation of the sorgho being extended through a number of districts. One year later, the crop amounted already to about 2100 kilogrammes (4900 lbs., or two tons and a quarter), which were disposed of at 11⁄2d. per kilogramme (somewhat under a penny per lb.).[90]A gallon of cocoa-nut oil is worth, by way of barter for goods, about one franc and a half, and for specie one franc. The adjoining islands abound in cocoa-nuts, Anaa, one of the Paomotu group, being capable of delivering from 300 to 400 tons of oil per annum.[91]The fermented juice of the orange, the pine-apple, thepandanusfruit, thespondias dulcis, and the wild bananas, were also used in former times for the preparation of intoxicants. Since the introduction of European spirits, the natives discriminate all foreign drinks asAva-papáa, their own being namedAva-maóhi.[92]Before the arrival on the island of the Europeans, Tahitian society was divided into three classes: viz. Arii, or chiefs; Raatira, or land-holders, of whom the most distinguished in each district were called Tataui; and, lastly, Manahune, or Tenantry at will. To the latter class belonged all prisoners of war. Between the Arii and Raatira there was a middle class, the Eiétoaï, corresponding to the European title of Honourable. Latterly the nameTacanahas come into almost universal use for the Arii, being in fact nothing but a corruption of the English word "Governor."[93]These calculations are merely approximative. The Custom House at Papeete has sufficient documents, but it keeps them secret, apparently for political reasons, if we may credit the remark of a Tahitian. "It is not wished to let all the world know that we arenotin a prosperous state."[94]Letter concerning the actual state of the island of Tahiti, addressed to H.M. the Emperor Napoleon III., by Alexander Salmon. London, Effingham Wilson, 1858.[95]The French garrison in Tahiti and Eimeo (Morea), including the administrative officials, numbers about 400 men. The Governor receives, besides extras, £1200 pay; theCommandant particulierdraws other £800, in addition to which both these officers drawallowancesas officers in the Imperial navy (13s.4d.to £1 per diem.)[96]We had an opportunity while at Papeete of obtaining some particulars of this renowned French penal settlement from the mouth of a person whom no one will be likely to accuse of exaggeration. M. de la Richerie, who, while we were at Papeete, filled the position of Imperial commissary, and is the present Governor of Tahiti, was for four years (1854-57) director of the penal settlement at Cayenne. During the period of his authority the entire population consisted of from 5000 to 6000 prisoners, 1500 garrison, 200 free settlers, and from 16,000 to 18,000 negroes. The expense of keeping on foot this small colony was not less than from £160,000 to £200,000. The mortality among all classes, free as well as prisoners, was perfectly appalling, averaging from 28 to 33 per cent.!! Of 6000 prisoners, 2000 died in one year; out of 36 medical men, 18 died in the discharge of their duties. The number of fever-stricken in the hospital was never less than from 500 to 600!! The director once entered an apartment in which above 250 of the unfortunate political criminals lay on their sick beds. He inquired of the physician in attendance how long they were likely to live? Possibly a year, was the reply. "Dépêchez-vous donc," said the director, as he turned from the unhappy wretches, who had no resource except the hospital, and, sick in mind and body, longed earnestly for the day which should see their wretched couches vacated for the calm tranquillity of death. M. de la Richerie was of opinion that no political convict lives more than four or five years in Cayenne, and that even the free settler cannot withstand the deadly influence of the climate above ten years. But the government founded on the 2nd December gives itself little concern. The utility of the system of deportation has been fully understood, and is unsparingly carried out. The time seems to be at hand when all Frenchmen who venture to challenge the Napoleonic ideas, will be banished their native country, nay, exiled from Europe.[97]Shortly after his arrival in Valparaiso, Longomasino went to Serena, a city in Chili of 20,000 inhabitants, near some rich copper-mines, where he occupied himself with editing a newspaper in Spanish.[98]Chart of curves of equal magnetic variations, 1858, by Frederick Evans, Master, R.N.[99]This colic stuck to the ship for nearly eight months, and out of 36 cases, the shortest time it took to run its course was nine days, the longest 94.[100]One main source of anxiety, which determined Adams to request the good offices of the British Government, was the scanty supply of drinking-water. There was at this time only one available spring of fresh water, and this supply was so small that two quarts of water were all that each family could be allowed during the day.

[60]The original spelling of the name of this island arose from ignorance of the language. To the question, "Eaha tera fenúa?" (What is the name of this island?) the natives replied, "O Taïti Oia." The article was thus taken for the first syllable and the island was calledO Taheite. Since then the thorough knowledge we have acquired of the language has rectified the mistake. In Tahitian the two verbs "to be" and "to have" are altogether wanting.Ois simply the nominative of an article which very frequently is placed before a proper name to give it emphasis, or even for the sake of euphony.Oaccordingly is used in the above sentence merely to imply "it is." A literal translation from Tahitian into any European language is in most cases impossible. Occasionally one finds Tahiti mentioned by the names ofLa Sagittaria,King George the Third's Island,Nouvelle Cythère, andAmat.

[61]The derivation of the name Pomáre, which has since become that of the Tahitian dynasty, is purely accidental. The father of Otu was once travelling among the mountains, and had to camp out in the open air. The bad weather gave him a violent cold with hoarseness, which induced one of his companions to name the night spent in such discomfortPo-mare, i. e. a night (po) of cough (mare). The chieftain so acutely felt the pertinency of this name that he adopted it as hisownname.—(VideEllis, Polynesian Researches, vol. ii. p. 70.)

[62]These four missionaries were named Chrysostome Liansu, François d'Assis Caret, Honoré Laval, and Columban Murphy, an Irish catechist.

[63]Vide Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, No. xli. p. 31.

[64]"It is not surprising," he writes in a letter to his superiors, "that on the arrival in this country, so long given over to the evil spirit of a child of theSacré cœur(Divine heart), that enemy of all which is good should have raged with redoubled fury, and that the Protestant emissaries should have believed I came to overthrow their empire!!"—VideAnnales de la Propagation de la Foi, No. lvi. p. 204.

[65]"I am," wrote Queen Pomáre, to the then King Louis Philippe, "only the ruler of a small, insignificant island. May wisdom, renown, and power ever attend your Majesty! Cease then your anger, and pardon the error I have committed."

[66]This additional article ran as follows: "The free exercise of the Catholic religion is permitted in the Island of Tahiti, and in all the other possessions of Queen Pomáre. The French Catholics shall enjoy all the privileges accorded to the Protestants,but they shall nevertheless not be entitled to meddle, under any pretext, in the religious affairs of the country. Done at Tahiti, 20th June, 1839."

[67]These two letters are dated, "Waiáu, on the Island of Raiatea, 24th Sept. 1844," whither Queen Pomáre had withdrawn after the events of November, 1843, and whence she only returned to Tahiti in 1847.

[68]According to the laws of the country, each married resident contributes one franc per annum to the civil list; a widower with one child, one franc; a widower without children, two francs; an unmarried adult, two francs; an adult female unmarried, one franc; boys under sixteen, and girls under fourteen, as also criminals and persons incapacitated for labour, pay nothing. This is the only direct tax the inhabitants are called upon to pay. The revenues of the island do not, however, suffice to defray the expenses of the French occupation. Before the arrival of the Europeans the Tahitians had no description of currency, but had recourse in all business transactions to barter. The Protestant missionaries were the first to introduce about £2000 of copper money, which they had got struck in England for the purpose. This currency was based upon a coin of the value of one half-penny. On one side was a ship, and on the obverse the words "COPPER PREFERABLE TO PAPER." When the French came to the island they flung this money into the sea, and forbade their circulation under heavy penalties! At present the only coins used are francs andréra(about one-third of a franc = 31⁄4d.nearly).

[69]This State paper is couched in very brief and intelligible terms in both French and Tahitian, and runs as follows:—"Her Majesty, the Queen of the Society Islands, and H.E. the Governor of the French possessions in Eastern Oceania:—"1st. Considering that there are no 'projets de loi' (Bills) to be submitted for legislative enactment during 1859, and that assembly has further no budget to vote;"2nd. Considering moreover the considerable expenses to which the members of the said assembly are put for their sojourn at Papeete during its session;"3rd. Considering Article 7 of the Ordinance of 28th April, 1847;"Decide,—"The Legislative Assembly of the States of the Protectorate will not meet in session during the year 1859. Papeete, 10th February, 1859.(Signed) "Saisset."A similar notification drawn up in Tahitian, is countersigned by Queen Pomáre. One Tahitian, who was a member of the Legislative Assembly, remarked to us, after reading the foregoing announcement in theMoniteur Tahitian, "How then can any one say beforehand whether or no there are no important questions to discuss?"

[69]This State paper is couched in very brief and intelligible terms in both French and Tahitian, and runs as follows:—

"Her Majesty, the Queen of the Society Islands, and H.E. the Governor of the French possessions in Eastern Oceania:—

"1st. Considering that there are no 'projets de loi' (Bills) to be submitted for legislative enactment during 1859, and that assembly has further no budget to vote;

"2nd. Considering moreover the considerable expenses to which the members of the said assembly are put for their sojourn at Papeete during its session;

"3rd. Considering Article 7 of the Ordinance of 28th April, 1847;

"Decide,—

"The Legislative Assembly of the States of the Protectorate will not meet in session during the year 1859. Papeete, 10th February, 1859.

(Signed) "Saisset."

A similar notification drawn up in Tahitian, is countersigned by Queen Pomáre. One Tahitian, who was a member of the Legislative Assembly, remarked to us, after reading the foregoing announcement in theMoniteur Tahitian, "How then can any one say beforehand whether or no there are no important questions to discuss?"

[70]M. Adam Kulczycki, who was at that period entrusted with the management of native affairs, and is an accomplished Tahitian scholar, besides occupying himself with astronomical and meteorological observations, and geological investigations, has been for seventeen years in the French service, and, a Pole by birth, served not without distinction in the struggles of his native land for liberty.

[71]"O Taïti (Tahiti), par G. Cuzent, Pharmacien de la Marine, &c. &c. Paris, Librairie de Victor Masson, 1861." It is a most valuable book, the result for the most part of personal examination and illustration, and arranged with much care and method.

[72]Canaka, in the Tahitian dialect, as in that of the Sandwich Islands, is equivalent toMan.

[73]At one service which we attended in Mr. Howe's chapel there were fifty "communicants" present; a pupil of the missionary played the organ. The Queen, too, and her family, who are strongly attached to the services of the Evangelical Church, are frequently present at these Sunday gatherings.

[74]Several of the girls who live in Mr. Howe's family are Catholics, whose parents prefer they should be educated in a Protestant school rather than not at all.

[75]The cost of the Catholic missions in Eastern Oceania amounts on the average to frs. 100,000 (£4000) per annum. "The Society for the Propagation of the Faith" (French) subscribes annually from frs. 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 (£120,000 to £160,000) for the races of heathendom. Of this Oceania and Australia get from frs. 400,000 to frs. 500,000 (£16,000 to £20,000).

[76]With reference to this, the following remarks are especially noteworthy, made by M. Guizot at a time when France still possessed a tribune and a parliament: "What particularly strikes me is that our missionaries do not make new conquests for a Church already powerful; that they do not extend the sphere of supremacy of the ecclesiastical government. The Roman Catholic missionary arrives alone, ignorant of the actual state of affairs, having none of the affections common to humanity—in a word, better fitted to acquire an ascendant than to enlist sympathy. The Protestant ministers are, on the contrary, family missions, so to speak; so that a pagan population will more readily be led to regard as brothers men who are husbands and fathers like themselves. Thus these missions instruct by presenting specimens of Christian society side by side with precepts of faith; the example of all the relations and sentiments of domestic life, regulated according to the morality of the Gospel they are sent to teach; a mode of instruction most assuredly not the least efficacious, if not absolutely perfect." (Discours de M. Guizot dans l'Assemblée Générale, du 11 Avril, 1826.)

[77]In the "Lois Revisées dans l'Assemblée Législative au mois de Mars de l'année 1848, pour la conduite de tous, sous le gouvernement du Protectorat dans les terres de la Société," is the following stringent passage, "The dance, known as Upa-Upa, is interdicted in the islands under the Protectorate. On fête days and public festivals dancing is permitted, but no indecent gestures will be tolerated." The Upa-Upa dates from the period when the secret society of the Arréois, whose chief tenets were drinking feasts, polygamy, and infanticide, existed over the greater part of the islands of the Pacific. Moerenhout, in his "Voyages aux íles du grand Océan" (Paris, 1837, vol. i. p. 484), gives a very complete account of this singular society, which has since entirely disappeared before the zeal of Protestant missionaries.

[78]Experiments have also been made quite recently with coffee, which the Government likewise fosters. The largest plantation is the property of a Frenchman named Bonnefin, who, in 1859, grew as much as 8000 lbs. The high price of labour, however, renders its production so dear that Tahitian coffee costs 100 fr. (£4) the centum (100 lbs), or about ten pence the pound, on the spot, whereas the best Costa Rica coffee costs only from £2 to £2 8s.the centum, or five pence to six pence the pound. The Protectorate officials hope to supply this very perceptible lack of labour by introducing into Tahiti, as field workers, the prisoners of war they take in New Caledonia.

[79]Mr. Wilson, a missionary, estimated the population of Tahiti in 1797 at 16,000 souls. In 1848, when the French administration took its first census, the native population amounted to 8082 (viz. 4466 males, 3616 females), the number of Europeans being 475 (428 males and 47 females). In 1858 it had fallen to 5988, or 2580 fewer than it had been 30 years before (1829), when, according to a census taken by the English missionaries, the population of Tahiti was 8568 of both sexes and all ages.

[80]Among the splendid specimens of the forest flora of Tahiti we remarked, in addition to the cocoa-nut palm, the bread-fruit tree and Pandanus, of which we shall presently speak more at length, on account of their economic, industrial, and therapeutic qualities. TheCalophyllum Inophyllum(Ati),Inocarpus edulis(Masse),Aleurites triloba(Tu-tui),Rhus Taïtense(Apape),Ficus tinctoria(Máti),Ficus prolixa(Ora),Gleichenia Hermanni(Eanúhe),Hibiscus tiliaceus(Puráu or Fáo),Lagenaria vulgaris(Hue),Pisonia inermis(Puna tehea),Spondias dulcis(Bri),Arundo Bambus(Ofé),Tanghinia Maughas(Ruva),Morinda citrifolia(Nono),Guettenda speciosa(Tafano),Boxa Orellana, &c. &c.

[81]According to Kulczycki's measurements the lake lies 430 metres (1401 feet) above the sea, and is 400 metres (1304 feet) in circumference, while the precipitous peaks around are 1800 metres (5865 feet) above sea-level.

[82]According to the laws of Tahiti, whenever the entire male descendants of a chief have become extinct, his eldest female offspring becomes chief of the district, sits as such in the legislative assembly, and has a voice in the administration of justice. At present there are five chieftainesses, who are members of the Tahitian parliament. Their husbands have no political influence whatever, except as the husbands of these ladies!

[83]Carabus(Anglicé Calaboose) is a corruption of the Spanish wordCalabozo, a prison. TheCarabusof Papeete is a sort of pound in which drunken people or mischievous vagabonds are confined, and whence they are released on payment of 5 or 10 francs. These mulcts or convictions form a not unimportant source of revenue, and are of twofold demoralizing operation; for while it is the interest of the police on the one hand to make as many arrests as possible, so as to insure a larger sum for division, the wretched, sensual Tahitian girls find in the prosecution of the filthy trade that has brought them within the clutch of the police the best means of procuring their release!

[84]Queen Pomáre finds herself entirely dependent upon the French Protectorate. On the slightest symptom of asserting her position she is met by a stoppage of her allowance, and as, in consequence of the rather opulent mode of life adopted by the generous-hearted lady, the incomings and outgoings are apt not to square, her pecuniary straits are not infrequently made use of for political purposes.

[85]Obviously a corruption of the French "mouton," the popular name for a spy.

[86]Of this expensive fruit, which grows in large quantities on the island, and only needs to be gathered, there are exported annually some five or six ship-loads, worth about fr. 200,000 (£8000), all which find their way to California, where 1000 oranges are worth from $40 to $60 (£8 8s.to £12 12s.), whereas, a similar quantity is worth in Tahiti at the outside £1 to £1 4s.

[87]Besides the cocoa-nut oil and arrow-root, which are at present exported from Tahiti and constitute its chief trade, the produce of the neighbouring islands might be conveniently passed through Tahiti. The pearl oysters (Meleagrina Margaretifera), which are usually dredged for in the months of January, February, March, and April, come chiefly from the Paomotu and Gambier groups. The latter-named group, however, only sends about 500 tons of these annually, worth about fr. 500 to fr. 600 (£20 to £24) per ton. In the year 1859, the entire importation of these was contracted for by a merchant of Papeete at $140 (£29 10s.) per ton. The natives of Gambier, accustomed to dive, use to bring up the pearl oysters from a depth of from 150 to 180 feet.

[88]On the island of Eimeo, or Morea, lying off Tahiti, the area of which is 13,237 hectares, there is a table-land about the centre of the island, surrounded by a semi-circular range of lofty precipices, which would be found thoroughly fit for cattle pasture. The cultivation of the grape and of European vegetables might also be profitably undertaken.

[89]Here also we encountered this useful plant, which was first introduced into Tahiti in 1851, by means of seeds from Paris. Of these twenty-five were sown, which within three months gave a sufficient return of seed to admit of the cultivation of the sorgho being extended through a number of districts. One year later, the crop amounted already to about 2100 kilogrammes (4900 lbs., or two tons and a quarter), which were disposed of at 11⁄2d. per kilogramme (somewhat under a penny per lb.).

[90]A gallon of cocoa-nut oil is worth, by way of barter for goods, about one franc and a half, and for specie one franc. The adjoining islands abound in cocoa-nuts, Anaa, one of the Paomotu group, being capable of delivering from 300 to 400 tons of oil per annum.

[91]The fermented juice of the orange, the pine-apple, thepandanusfruit, thespondias dulcis, and the wild bananas, were also used in former times for the preparation of intoxicants. Since the introduction of European spirits, the natives discriminate all foreign drinks asAva-papáa, their own being namedAva-maóhi.

[92]Before the arrival on the island of the Europeans, Tahitian society was divided into three classes: viz. Arii, or chiefs; Raatira, or land-holders, of whom the most distinguished in each district were called Tataui; and, lastly, Manahune, or Tenantry at will. To the latter class belonged all prisoners of war. Between the Arii and Raatira there was a middle class, the Eiétoaï, corresponding to the European title of Honourable. Latterly the nameTacanahas come into almost universal use for the Arii, being in fact nothing but a corruption of the English word "Governor."

[93]These calculations are merely approximative. The Custom House at Papeete has sufficient documents, but it keeps them secret, apparently for political reasons, if we may credit the remark of a Tahitian. "It is not wished to let all the world know that we arenotin a prosperous state."

[94]Letter concerning the actual state of the island of Tahiti, addressed to H.M. the Emperor Napoleon III., by Alexander Salmon. London, Effingham Wilson, 1858.

[95]The French garrison in Tahiti and Eimeo (Morea), including the administrative officials, numbers about 400 men. The Governor receives, besides extras, £1200 pay; theCommandant particulierdraws other £800, in addition to which both these officers drawallowancesas officers in the Imperial navy (13s.4d.to £1 per diem.)

[96]We had an opportunity while at Papeete of obtaining some particulars of this renowned French penal settlement from the mouth of a person whom no one will be likely to accuse of exaggeration. M. de la Richerie, who, while we were at Papeete, filled the position of Imperial commissary, and is the present Governor of Tahiti, was for four years (1854-57) director of the penal settlement at Cayenne. During the period of his authority the entire population consisted of from 5000 to 6000 prisoners, 1500 garrison, 200 free settlers, and from 16,000 to 18,000 negroes. The expense of keeping on foot this small colony was not less than from £160,000 to £200,000. The mortality among all classes, free as well as prisoners, was perfectly appalling, averaging from 28 to 33 per cent.!! Of 6000 prisoners, 2000 died in one year; out of 36 medical men, 18 died in the discharge of their duties. The number of fever-stricken in the hospital was never less than from 500 to 600!! The director once entered an apartment in which above 250 of the unfortunate political criminals lay on their sick beds. He inquired of the physician in attendance how long they were likely to live? Possibly a year, was the reply. "Dépêchez-vous donc," said the director, as he turned from the unhappy wretches, who had no resource except the hospital, and, sick in mind and body, longed earnestly for the day which should see their wretched couches vacated for the calm tranquillity of death. M. de la Richerie was of opinion that no political convict lives more than four or five years in Cayenne, and that even the free settler cannot withstand the deadly influence of the climate above ten years. But the government founded on the 2nd December gives itself little concern. The utility of the system of deportation has been fully understood, and is unsparingly carried out. The time seems to be at hand when all Frenchmen who venture to challenge the Napoleonic ideas, will be banished their native country, nay, exiled from Europe.

[97]Shortly after his arrival in Valparaiso, Longomasino went to Serena, a city in Chili of 20,000 inhabitants, near some rich copper-mines, where he occupied himself with editing a newspaper in Spanish.

[98]Chart of curves of equal magnetic variations, 1858, by Frederick Evans, Master, R.N.

[99]This colic stuck to the ship for nearly eight months, and out of 36 cases, the shortest time it took to run its course was nine days, the longest 94.

[100]One main source of anxiety, which determined Adams to request the good offices of the British Government, was the scanty supply of drinking-water. There was at this time only one available spring of fresh water, and this supply was so small that two quarts of water were all that each family could be allowed during the day.

The Lasso

Valparaiso.

Stay from 17th April to 11th May, 1859.

Importance of Chile for German emigration.—First impressions of Valparaiso.—Stroll through the city.—Commercial relations of Chile with Australia and California.—Quebrada de Juan Gomez.—The roadstead.—The Old Quarter and Fort Rosario.—Cerro Algre.—Fire Companies.—Abadie's nursery-garden.—Campo Santo.—The German community and its club.—A compatriot festival in honour of theNovara.—Journey to Santiago de Chile.—University.—National Museum.—Observatory.—Industrial and agricultural schools.—Professor Don Ignacio Domey Ko.—Audience of the President of the Republic.—Don Manuel Montt and his political opponents.—Family life in Santiago.—Excursion trip on the southern railroad.—Maipú Bridge.—Melepilla.—The Hacienda of Las Esmeraldas.—Chilean hospitality.—Return to Valparaiso.—Quillota.—The German colony in Valdivia.—Colonization in the Straits of Magellan.—Ball at the Austrian Consul-general's in honour of theNovara.—Extraordinary voyage of a damaged ship.—Departure of theNovara.—Voyage round Cape Horn.—The Falkland Islands.—The French corvetteEurydice.—The Sargasso sea.—Encounter with a merchant-ship in the open ocean.—Hopes disappointed and curiosity excited.—Passage through the Azores channel.—A vexatious calm.

The free State of Chile enjoys a higher degree of tranquillity than any of the former Spanish dependencies of South America,and in climate, in fertility, and in liberal institutions, transcends all others in affording the European emigrant the best prospects of a prosperous future.

Chile possesses a constitution which many a European state might envy, the civil freedom, which forms the basis of all laws, and just now is so eagerly debated and investigated in some parts of Europe, having been in practical operation here for upwards of a quarter of a century, during which it has materially contributed to develope the resources of the country and the prosperity of its inhabitants. Owing to the disturbed state of the American Confederation, hitherto the El Dorado of European emigration, countries such as Chile, of an extent similar to that of England and Greece together, and with a population barely exceeding one million of men, possess the very highest attraction. True, at the period of our visit the long-enjoyed political tranquillity was for a while disturbed by a revolutionary convulsion, but it has cost neither time nor trouble to suppress it, upon which the leaders, more ambitious than patriotic, took to flight, and public order and safety were reinstated upon the broad basis of a constitution, which was wisely drawn up so as to admit of keeping pace with the times.

We beheld Chile under anything but its normal favourable aspect; many of the leading families of the country had been plunged by political troubles into grief and mourning; trade was falling off; the ordinary buoyant disposition of the Chileno had given place to painful anxiety; yet all weheard and saw during our stay at so unpropitious a period, only served to strengthen our conviction that a great and splendid future awaits this delightful country.

He who merely lands at a seaport such as Valparaiso, and wanders through its lengthy but elegant streets, carries away with him no just conception of Chile and the life of the country beyond the Andes. Everything about the town, houses, shops, and population, has quite a European aspect, so that the stranger walking through some of the streets with their lofty grey edifices, gay signs, and large and splendid magazines, abounding in everything that can minister to human luxury, might readily fancy himself transported to some northern European capital. Nothing is here to tell of its being the native country of the Araucanian, nothing recalls that singular national aboriginal type, and it is only when contemplating the majestic forms of the surrounding landscape that he can realize that he is actually in the proximity of Andes, "giant of the Western Star."

One of our first walks through the city, the buildings of which extend, row after row, for a considerable distance along the bay, and surmount the hillocks (Quebradas) which rise at a short distance from the shore, brought us to theAduana, or Custom-house, one of the most extensive, beautiful, and commodious buildings in the city, which, commenced in 1850 by a Frenchman, was finished six years later by an American, named John Brown. The ground on which the various buildings are erected was quite recently gained from the seaby embankment, as was also done in the case of the existingPlaza de Armas, and the wide and gracefulCalle de Planchada, both which sites were under water less than twenty years since!

The Custom-house buildings, including the vast solid warehouses, cost the State more than 1,000,000 Spanish piastres (£210,000), but form the finest and most convenient edifice of the kind throughout South America. An enormous quantity of the most valuable merchandise, which used to be scattered about among private houses or disposed of, are now stored in large, dry, well-lighted apartments, and can without much trouble or delay be got at and taken away. About 200 officials are at work in spacious offices registering the trade of the State, which is in a very flourishing state, owing to the immense importation of the most various foreign fabrics, paid for in a not less extensive export of Chilean products, chiefly corn and precious metals. The start taken by the country in commerce and agriculture, as also the development of its natural resources, dates from the period of the discovery of the Californian gold-fields. Chile, so admirably suited for agriculture, very speedily became the granary of the gold-country, and set about making the most of its manifold advantages. Wheat, barley, beans, increased so much in value, that many fields which, on account of comparative poverty, had been suffered to lie fallow hitherto, now got under cultivation, and the former scanty means of the majority of the proprietors of the soil was at once exchanged forunexampled prosperity. The influx of specie did not fail to stimulate activity in every other occupation as well, and was mainly instrumental in working the mines more systematically, and thus making them more productive than hitherto.

The exportation to California speedily increased ten-fold, and within two years had increased nearly 2,500,000 piastres (£525,000).

When the gold fever had a few years later abated somewhat in California, and the settlers there began to grow grain for themselves, the Chilean exports thither dwindled away, till, about 1857, they had sunk to a minimum hardly worth mentioning. But meanwhile a second, though rather more distant, market was found for Chilean exports, by the discovery of not less productive gold-fields in Australia, the imports into which from Valparaiso, despite the enormous distance, proved so immensely remunerative that the ventures of former years to California were quite eclipsed.[101]

Leaving the Custom-house buildings, we climbed up the Quebrada de Juan Gomez, one of the numerous narrow valleys or clefts which, spangled on both acclivities with villas, usually thatched with shingle, impart to the environs of Valparaiso so peculiar an appearance. The most extraordinary of these is theCerro de Carretas, a hill from 200 to 300 feethigh, to the slopes of which cling a variety of filthy wicker huts of the poorest sort, which, regarded from a distance, have a picturesque effect. On a closer inspection, however, they exhibit utter destitution and degraded poverty. At the highest point of the steep Quebrada de Juan Gomez are some fortified lines recently thrown up, together with the artillery barracks (Cuartel de Artilleria), with accommodation for 800 men. The Chilean troops are pretty well equipped, but have a by no means imposing air; they appear to be patient and persevering, fit for encountering great privations and overcoming obstacles, rather than courageous, or eager for the fray. There is, in short, a total absence of "dash" about them. From the barracks one enjoys a magnificent view over the city and the environs, hemmed in on all hands by the ocean. The roadstead greatly resembles that of Trieste, and, like the latter, suffers much from N.W. winds. The merchantmen lie at anchor in pretty regular order, with the double object that, in case of a sudden "norther," they may not suffer from ships dragging their anchors, and may be able at once to make sail if necessary.

Although at the commencement of the winter season (May to October) of the southern hemisphere, when frequent storms from north and north-west make the roads of Valparaiso, if not dangerous, at least hazardous, the majority of sailing vessels make for other better-sheltered harbours along the west coast, yet there were still about 180 vessels of all sizes and every flag lying at anchor off the town. The mostunpleasant and severe months are June and July, although it is at that period less the violence of the gales than the tremendous sea, which occasionally hurls a ship, if not properly made fast, into a position of danger, and occasionally interrupts all communication with the shore for days together. A season sometimes passes over, however, without the occurrence of any elemental strife. It would be of the highest interest to be able to ascertain the periodicity of the return of severe winters, which there can be little doubt obeys some natural law.

The barometer is, at Valparaiso, a pretty correct index of the wind that may be expected. The more the mercury sinks, the more perceptible will be the N. or N.W. wind. Rain and foggy weather usually precede these winds, and continue till the wind draws somewhat to the west, upon which the mercury rises and the weather improves. North or north-west winds are, however, as a rule never of long continuance, and indeed frequently continue only a few hours, because so soon as the first burst is over, the trade-wind, upon whose limits it has encroached, soon begins to drive it before it, under the influence of an air-wave from the southward, and ships which, with the view of suffering as little as possible from north or north-west winds, keep as far from the lighthouse as possible, have nothing to dread from even a heavy "norther," if all proper precautions are taken, and their anchors and cables hold.[102]

In the harbour were the screw steamersMaipúandEsmeralda, and the paddle screw steamerMaule, belonging to the very insignificant navy of the Chilean Republic. From the barracks we passed up several Quebradas to the ancient "Cuartel" and Fort Rosario, two buildings remarkable enough in their way, the erection of which dates back to an early age, as they in fact belong to the period when Valparaiso had only 400 population, and was part of the assize-circuit of Casa Blanca. The latter, however, which we pass on the road to Santiago, is still an insignificant settlement, while Valparaiso has become the wealthiest and most important commercial emporium along the whole west coast of South America, and boasts a population of above 60,000 souls. There are also in this vicinage numbers of small filthy one-storeyed huts orranchosbuilt of cane, which seem as though hanging to the acclivities, and are not intended to last any time. As it rarely rains at Valparaiso, and then but little, and the temperature being tolerably mild throughout the year, the poor have little occasion to provide themselves shelter against cold or boisterous weather, or to build strong and solid habitations. Moreover, there is perceptible among the Chilean populace, as among all other Spanish Americans, an innate trait of character, in the shape of indolence and indisposition to labour, as they usually strike work for the day assoon as they have earned enough for the daily necessaries of life, which they can supply for a trifle. Nay, we are told that it is by no means unusual for day-labourers, as soon as they have earned their day's wage for their principal want, to reply in an indifferent tone to the offer of farther work, "Tengo mis dos reals" (I have my two reals)![103]

Not all the Quebradas, however, round Valparaiso are infested with wretched huts; some are occupied by tasteful and comfortable residences, especially the Cerro Algre, where at present a considerable number of Germans reside, and which is conspicuous for the number of elegant little villas, as also by the cordiality and hospitality there lavished upon strangers. Cerro Algre is one of the most charming, delightful, and salubrious spots in the neighbourhood of Valparaiso, with a magnificent panorama, although not so fashionable a resort as the Almendral, which, since the recent appalling conflagration of 1858, reducing within a few hours the finest portion of the city to ashes, has been rebuilt with numbers of handsome edifices, and has at the same time been widened and extended.

The frequency of fires, and the totally inadequate means and appliances for their extinction at the disposal of the authorities, led to a number of foreigners settled in Valparaiso organizing a Fire-brigade (Pomperos), in which theéliteof the community shortly after were enrolled. The founders and first company were the English, after whom came theGermans, French, Spaniards, Italians, and lastly the Chilenos following suit. A hook and ladder company, consisting of English, Germans, and North Americans, was set on foot in 1850. All the arrangements are modelled after the Fire Companies of the United States. The engines were imported from New York, and cost over £800 a piece. The French displayed the greatest luxury in the splendid uniforms of their company and the elegant fittings of their very beautiful engine; the Germans, on the other hand—not always the case with them—show but a very simple attirement, but are behind no other nation in the zeal and courage with which their fire company performs its self-imposed duties.

Valparaiso is sadly deficient in suitable promenades, and consequently strangers must not be surprised, should they be invited to take a walk to the Cemetery (Campo Santo), in order to promenade there among cypress alleys, and pretentious-looking memorials of the departed.

The Campo Santo is situated on one of the rising grounds behind the city, and with its clumps of trees and flower-plots, looks in fact much more like a promenade-garden than a grave-yard. Each Catholic fraternity (hermandad) has its own place assigned it for interment of the dead. Beautiful and costly monuments are raised over some of the recent graves, like so many testimonies in marble of the influence exercised even upon the resting-places of the dead, by the accumulated wealth of the last twenty years. Close beside the Catholiccemetery is that of the Protestants, which, like the other, is neatly laid out and kept in excellent order, but on the whole impresses the visitor less by the splendour of the monuments and the elegance of the inscriptions, than by its air of solemn simplicity.

Not far from the spot where repose their dead is the place of worship of the Protestant community, a slight but neatly-finished edifice of wood, somewhat like the "chapels" of the English colonies. This is a pleasing evidence of the tolerant spirit of the Chilean Government, in strong contrast with most other Catholic states in South America, where religious intolerance of heterodoxy goes the length of prohibiting all public profession of their faith.

Valparaiso is as badly off for fine open squares and monumental erections as for promenades. The Government Square, with its neat Exchange, and Victoria Square, with its Theatre, are neither by their antiquity, nor their general appearance, calculated to make any impression upon the traveller. There is great need of large, good hotels upon the European plan; and as there are no cheerful, comfortable cafés, to serve as a rallying-point for the male sex after the business of the day is over, the traveller is usually dependent for society upon being introduced at the different clubs, founded by the various nationalities. Of these the German was the finest; but, in consequence of their beautiful, spacious club having fallen a sacrifice to the recent conflagration, the members had to seek temporary accommodation in rather confined apartments,which greatly hampered their desire to show all due honour to our Expedition. Not less cordial, however, was our reception, nor the warm interest taken by the entire German community of Valparaiso in the scientific attainments of certain of its members.[104]Nowhere did the old German hospitality shine forth with more serene lustre than among the Germans of Chile, nowhere is there a more splendid manifestation of the vigorous intellectual life of the good old stock, nowhere a more thorough expression of German unity in foreign countries! Exercising a powerful influence in society, as merchants, physicians, professors, naturalists, astronomers, chemists, engineers, architects, &c., the activity of the German in Chile in every avocation of life has not been without a permanent influence on the destinies of this free State, and has already left in its institutions many a trace of German origin.

One of our most pleasing reminiscences is undoubtedly that of the magnificent natural fête got up by the German residents of Valparaiso in honour of theNovaraone heavenly Easter morning, which came off at the beautiful Quebradas of Quilpué, about twelve miles from the port. Quilpué is a station on the railroad which runs from Valparaiso into theinterior, and is intended to form the communication between it and Santiago de Chile, 110 miles distant, but of which at present only the first 40 miles have been completed.

A special train, its locomotive neatly decorated with garlands of flowers and banneroles, conveyed the guests, 150 in number, to Quilpué. From this station the joyous party marched with the German flag at the head to one of the neighbouring dells, which seemed intended by nature to serve as the site of pic-nics in the open air. Here, under a number of spacious and elegant tents, we found long tables set out, which a cloud of waiters and cooks seemed engaged in loading with every delicacy that could tempt the palate.

The company wandered through the adjoining glades, or lay stretched out in the shade, in a delicious ecstasy of music and song. The alarm of war, which at the moment was booming through Europe, had found its way even to the foot of the Chilean Andes, and imparted to the festival a political feeling. Although the then state of political matters in Austria was by no means such as to fill the mind with enthusiasm for it, yet all the feelings of the German of Valparaiso were enlisted on the side of Austria in her struggle with France; less out of sympathy with her policy as then displayed than out of hatred of Napoleonic assumption.

Thus, in some of the after-dinner speeches which followed in due course, as well as in the inspiring songs with which the entertainment was enlivened, there was free expression given to this sentiment. A Bavarian physician and pharmaceutist,Dr. Aquinas Ried, whose house we found one of the most pleasant points of cordial re-union for the members of the Expedition, had composed a chorus for male voices, called "Welcome to theNovara," which he led himself with some of the members of the German Choral Union, the closing strophe of which,

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