Transcriber's note: It is regretted that a line has been missed out by the typesetter.
regulate the amount, or proper proportions, of food material for a well-balanced dietary, as amounts, and the same person requires differentferent conditions. Professor W. O. Atwater, an American, makes the following statement: 'As the habits and conditions of individuals differ, so, too, their needs for nourishment differ, and their food should be adapted to their particular requirements. It has been estimated that an average man at moderately active labor, like a carpenter, or mason, should have (daily) about 115 grams (1750 grains) or 0.25 pound of available protein, and sufficient fuel ingredients in addition to make the fuel value of the whole diet 3,400 calories; while a man at sedentary employment would be well nourished with 92 grams (1400 grains) or 0.20 pound of available protein, and enough fat and carbohydrates in addition to yield 2,700 calories of energy. The demands are, however, variable, increasing and decreasing with increase and decrease of muscular work, or as other needs of the person change. Each person, too, should learn by experience what kinds of food yield him nourishment with the least discomfort, and should avoid those which do not "agree" with him.'
It has been stated that unless the body is supplied with protein, hunger will be felt, no matter if the stomach be over-loaded with non-nitrogenous food. If a hungry man ate heartily ofonlysuch foods as fresh fruit and green vegetables he might soon experience a feeling of fulness, but his hunger would not be appeased. Nature asks for protein, and hunger will continue so long as this want remains unsatisfied. Similarlyas food is the first necessity of life, so is protein the first necessity in food. If a person were deprived of protein starvation must inevitably ensue.
Were we (by 'we' is meant the generality of people in this country), to weigh out our food supply, for, say a week, we should soon realise what a large reduction from the usual quantity of food consumed would have to be made, and instead of eating, as is customary, without an appetite, hunger might perhaps once a day make itself felt. There is little doubt but that the health of most people would be vastly improved if food were only eaten when genuine hunger was felt, and the dietary chosen were well balanced,i.e., the proportions of protein, fat, carbohydrates and salts being about 3, 2, 9, 2-3. As aforesaid, the mixed vegetarian dietary is, in general, well-balanced.
While speaking about too much food, it may be pointed out that the function of appetite is to inform us that the body is in need of nutriment. The appetite was intended by Nature for this purpose, yet how few people wait upon appetite! The generality of people eat by time, custom, habit, and sensual desire; not by appetite at all. If we eat when not hungry, and drink when not thirsty, we are doing the body no good but positive harm. The organs of digestion are given work that is unnecessary, thus detracting from the vital force of the body, for there is only a limited amount of potential energy, and if some of thisis spent unnecessarily in working the internal organs, it follows that there is less energy for working the muscles or the brain. So that an individual who habitually overfeeds becomes, after a time, easily tired, physically lazy, weak, perhaps if temperamentally predisposed, nervous and hypochondriacal. Moreover, over-eating not only adds to the general wear and tear, thus probably shortening life, but may even result in positive disease, as well as many minor complaints such as constipation, dyspepsia, flatulency, obesity, skin troubles, rheumatism, lethargy, etc.
Just as there is danger in eating too much, so there is much harm done by drinking too much. The evil of stimulating drinks will be spoken of later; at present reference is made only to water and harmless concoctions such as lime-juice, unfermented wines, etc. To drink when thirsty is right and natural; it shows that the blood is concentrated and is in want of fluid. But to drink merely for the pleasure of drinking, or to carry out some insane theory like that of 'washing out' the system is positively dangerous. The human body is not a dirty barrel needing swilling out with a hose-pipe. It is a most delicate piece of mechanism, so delicate that the abuse of any of its parts tends to throw the entire system out of order. It is the function of the blood to remove all the waste products from the tissues and to supply the fresh material to take the place of that which has been removed. Swilling the system outwith liquid does not in any way accelerate or aid the process, but, on the contrary, retards and impedes it. It dilutes the blood, thus creating an abnormal condition in the circulatory system, and may raise the pressure of blood and dilate the heart. Also it dilutes the secretions which will therefore 'act slowly and inefficiently, and more or less fermentation and putrefaction will meanwhile be going on in the food masses, resulting in the formation of gases, acids, and decomposition products.'
Eating and drinking too much are largely the outcome of sensuality. To see a man eat sensually is to know how great a sensualist he is. Sensualism is a vice which manifests itself in many forms. Poverty has its blessings. It compels abstinence from rich and expensive foods and provides no means for surfeit. Epicurus was not a glutton. Socrates lived on bread and water, as did Sir Isaac Newton. Mental culture is not fostered by gluttony, but gluttony is indulged in at the expense of mental culture. The majority of the world's greatest men have led comparatively simple lives, and have regarded the body as a temple to be kept pure and holy.
We have now to consider (a) what to eat, (b) when to eat, (c) how to eat. First, then, we will consider the nutritive properties of the common food-stuffs.
Among the foods rich in protein are the legumes, the cereals, and nuts. Those low in protein are fresh fruits, green vegetables, and roots. Fat is chiefly found in nuts, olives, and certain pulses, particularly the peanut; and carbohydrates in cereals, pulses, and many roots. Fruit and green vegetables consist mostly of water and organic mineral compounds, and in the case of the most juicy varieties may be regarded more as drink than food. We have, then, six distinct classes of food—the pulses, cereals, nuts, fruits, green vegetables, and roots. Let us briefly consider the nutritive value of each.
Pulse foods usually form an important item in a vegetarian dietary. They are very rich in their nutritive properties, and even before matured are equal or superior in value to any other green vegetable. 'The ripened seed shows by analysis a very remarkable contrast to most of the matured foods, as the potato and other tubers, and even to the best cereals, as wheat. This superiority lies in the large amount of nitrogen in the formof protein that they contain.' Peas, beans, and lentils should be eaten very moderately, being highly concentrated foods. The removal of the skins from peas and beans, also of the germs of beans, by parboiling, is recommended, as they are then more easily digested and less liable to 'disagree.' These foods, it is interesting to know are used extensively by the vegetarian nations. The Mongol procures his supply of protein chiefly from the Soya bean from which he makes different preparations of bean cheese and sauce. It is said that the poorer classes of Spaniards and the Bedouins rely on a porridge of lentils for their mainstay. In India and China where rice is the staple food, beans are eaten to provide the necessary nitrogenous matter, as rice alone is considered deficient in protein.
With regard to the pulse foods, Dr. Haig, in his works on uric acid, states that, containing as they do considerable xanthin, an exceedingly harmful poison, they are not to be commended as healthful articles of diet. He states that he has found the pulses to contain even more xanthin than many kinds of flesh-meat, and as it is this poison in flesh that causes him to so strongly condemn the eating of meat, he naturally condemns the eating of any foods in which this poison exists in any considerable quantity. He writes: 'So far as I know the "vegetarians" of this country are decidedly superior in endurance to those feeding on animal tissues, who mightotherwise be expected to equal them; but these "vegetarians" would be still better if they not only ruled out animal flesh, but also eggs, the pulses (peas, beans, lentils and peanuts), eschew nuts, asparagus, and mushrooms, as well as tea, coffee and cocoa, all of which contain a large amount of uric acid, or substances physiologically equivalent to it.'
Dr. Haig attributes many diseases and complaints to the presence of uric acid in the blood and its deposits in the tissues: 'Uric acid diseases fall chiefly in two groups: (a) The arthritic group, comprising gout, rheumatism, and similar affections of many fibrous tissues throughout the body; (b) the circulation group including headache, epilepsy, mental depression, anæmia, Bright's disease, etc.' Speaking with regard to rheumatism met with among the vegetarian natives of India, Dr. Haig writes: 'I believe it will appear, on investigation, that in those parts of India where rice and fresh vegetables form the staple foods, not only rheumatism, but uric acid diseases generally are little known, whereas in those parts where pulses are largely consumed, they are common—almost universal.'
The cereals constitute the mainstay of vegetarians all the world over, and although not superior to nuts, must be considered an exceedingly valuable, and, in some cases, essential food material. They differ considerably in their nutritive properties, so it is necessary to examine the worth of each separately.
Wheat, though not universally the most extensively used of the cereals, is the most popular and best known cereal in this country. It has been cultivated for ages and has been used by nearly all peoples. It is customary to grind the berries into a fine meal which is mixed with water and baked. There are various opinions about the comparative value of white and whole-wheat flour. There is no doubt but that the whole-wheat flour containing, as it does, more woody fibre than the white, has a tendency to increase the peristaltic action of the intestines, and thus is valuable for persons troubled with constipation.[4]From a large number of analyses it has been determined that entire wheat flour contains about 2.4 per cent. more protein than white flour (all grades), yet experiments have demonstrated that theavailableprotein is less in entire wheat-flour than in white flour.[5]This is probably due to the fact that the protein which is enclosed in the bran cannot be easily assimilated, as the digestive organs are unable to break up the outer walls of woody fibre and extract the nitrogenous matter they contain. On the other hand whole-wheat flour contains considerably more valuable and available mineral matter than does white flour. The two outer layers contain compounds of phosphorus, lime, iron, and soda. Analyses by Atwater show entire-wheat flour to contain twice as much mineral matter as white flour. It is affirmed by Broadbent and others, that this mineral matter is exceedingly valuable both as a nutrient, and because of its neutralising effect upon proteid wastes, and that it is because of this that flour made from the entire-wheat berry has very superior food value to that made from the berry minus the outer cuticles. Many dietetists look upon whole-wheat bread as one of the most salutary of all foods and strongly advise its use in place of white bread. A well-known doctor states that he has known it a cure for many diseases, and thinks that many nervous complaints due to 'saline starvation' can be cured by substituting whole-meal for white bread.
But in opposition to these views Dr. Haig thinks that as the outer brown husk of all cereals contains some xanthin, it should on this account be removed. He therefore recommends white flour, (not superfine, but cheap-grade), in place of the entire-wheat. Others, however, are of the opinion that the amount of xanthin present in the bran is so small as not to be considered, especially when, by the removal of the xanthin, valuable mineral matter is also removed.
Of course, it is difficult for a layman to form an opinion when experts differ. Perhaps the bestthing to do is to use whole-wheat bread if there is any tendency to constipation. If not, then choose that which is the more palatable, or change from one to the other as inclination dictates. This adds to variety, and as digestion is better when the food is better relished, no doubt, in this case, that which pleases the taste best is the best to eat. At least, we can hold this view tentatively for the present.
Wheat flour (entire), ranks the highest of all the cereals in protein, excepting oatmeal, averaging 13 per cent. In fat it exceeds rice and rye, is equal with barley and maize, but considerably below oatmeal: averaging about 1.9 per cent. In carbohydrates it averages about seventy-two per cent., all the cereals being very much alike in quantity of these nutrients. It is a well-balanced food, as indeed, all cereals are, and is palatable prepared in a variety of ways, although, made into unleavened, unsalted bread, the sweet, nutty flavour of the berry itself is best preserved.
Oatmeal is not extensively used, comparatively speaking, although it has an excellent reputation. It is decidedly the richest cereal in protein and fat, especially fat, and this is probably why people living in cold climates find it such a sustaining food. In protein it averages 16.1 per cent.: in fat 7.2 per cent. It is very commonly used as porridge. When well cooked, that is to say, for several hours, this is a good way to prepare it, but a better is to eat it dry in the formof unsweetened oatcakes, scones, etc., these being more easily digested because necessitating thorough mastication. The above remarks regarding the removal of the bran from wheat-flour are precisely as applicable to oatmeal, as well as rye, so no more need be said on that point.
Rye flour is not unlike wheat, and is used more extensively than wheat in many parts of Europe. It has 2 per cent. less protein than wheat and its gluten is darker in colour and less elastic and so does not make as light a loaf; but this does not detract from its nutritive value at all. Being more easily cultivated than wheat, especially in cold countries, it is cheaper and therefore more of a poor man's food.
Indian corn, or maize, or Turkish wheat, is one of the finest of cereals. It is used extensively in America, North and South, in parts of the Orient, in Italy, the Balkans, Servia, and elsewhere. It is used as a green vegetable and when fully matured is ground into meal and made into bread, porridge, biscuits, Johnny-cake, etc., etc. Corn compared to wheat is rich in fat, but in protein wheat is the richer by about 3 per cent. Sugar corn, cooked and canned, is sold in England by food-reform dealers. It is perhaps the most tasty of all the cereals.
Rice is the staple of the Orientals. The practice of removing the dark inner skin in order to give the uncooked grain a white and polished appearance, is not only an expensive operation,but a very foolish one, for it detracts largely from the nutritive value of the food, as considerable protein and other valuable matter is removed along with the bran. We are told that the Burmese and Japanese and other nations who use rice as their principal food-stuff, use the entire grain. As compared to undressed rice, the ordinary, or polished rice is deficient 3 per cent. of protein; 6 per cent. of fat; 5 per cent. of mineral matter. 'Once milled' rice can be procured in this country, but has to be specially asked for. Rice is not nearly so nitrogenous as wheat, but is equal to it in fuel value, this being due to the large amount of starch it contains. It is an excellent food, being easily digested and easily prepared.
Millet, buckwheat, wild rice, sesame, and Kaffir corn, are cereals little known in this country, although where they are raised they are largely used by the natives. However, we need not trouble to consider their food value as they are not easily procurable either in Europe or America.
Nuts are perhaps the best of all foods. There is no doubt but that man in his original wild state lived on nuts and berries and perhaps roots. Nuts are rich in protein and fat. They are a concentrated food, very palatable, gently laxative, require no preparation but shelling, keep well, are easily portable, and are, in every sense, an ideal food. They have a name for being indigestible, but this may be due to errors in eating, not to the nuts. If we eat nuts, as is often done, afterhaving loaded the stomach with a large dinner, the work of digesting them is rendered very difficult, for the digestive apparatus tires itself disposing of the meal just previously eaten. Most things are indigestible eaten under such conditions. Nuts should be looked upon as the essential part of the meal and should be eaten first; bread, salad stuffs and fruit help to supply bulk and can follow as dessert if desired. Another cause of nuts not being easily digested is insufficient mastication. They are hard, solid food, and should be thoroughly chewed and insalivated before being swallowed. If the teeth are not good, nuts may be grated in an ordinary nut-mill, and then, if eaten slowly and sparingly, will generally be found to digest. Of course with a weak digestion nuts may have to be avoided, or used in very small quantities until the digestion is strengthened; but with a normal, healthy person, nuts are a perfect food and can be eaten all the year round. Perhaps it is best not to eat a large quantity at once, but to spread the day's supply over four or five light meals. With some, however, two meals a day seems to work well.
Pine kernels are very suitable for those who have any difficulty in masticating or digesting the harder nuts, such as the brazil, filbert, etc. They are quite soft and can easily be ground into a soft paste with a pestil and mortar, making delicious butter. They vary considerably in nitrogenous matter, averaging about 25 per cent. andare very rich in fat, averaging about 50 per cent. Chestnuts are used largely by the peasants of Italy. They are best cooked until quite soft when they are easily digested. Chestnut meal is obtainable, and when combined with wheatmeal is useful for making biscuits and breadstuffs. Protein in chestnuts averages 10 per cent. Walnuts, Hazelnuts, Filberts, Brazils, Pecans, Hickory nuts, Beechnuts, Butternuts, Pistachio nuts and Almonds average 16 per cent. protein; 52 per cent. fat; 20 per cent. carbohydrates; 2 per cent. mineral salts. As each possesses a distinct flavour, one can live on nuts alone and still enjoy the pleasure of variety. A man weighing 140 lbs. would, at moderately active labour, require, to live on almonds alone—11 ozs. per day. 10 ozs. of nuts per day together with some fresh fruit or green salad in summer, and in winter, some roots, as potato, carrot, or beetroot, would furnish an ideal diet for one whose taste was simple enough to relish it.
Fruits are best left alone in winter. They are generally acid, and the system is better without very acid foods in the cold weather. But fruits are health-giving foods in warm and hot weather, and living under natural, primitive conditions, this is the only time of the year we should have them, for Nature only provides fruit during the months of summer. The fraction of protein fruit contains, 1 per cent. or less, is too small to be of anyaccount. The nutritive value of fruits consists in their mineral salts, grape-sugar and water.
Much the same applies to green vegetables. In cooking vegetables care should be taken that the water they are cooked in is not thrown away as it contains nearly all the nutrient properties of the vegetable; that is to say, the various salts in the vegetable become dissolved in the water they are boiled in. This water can be used for soup if desired, or evaporated, and with flour added to thicken, served as sauce to the vegetable. Potatoes are a salutary food, especially in winter. They contain alkalies which help to lessen the accumulation of uric acid. They should be cooked with skins on: 16 grains per lb. more of valuable potash salts are thus obtained than when peeled and boiled in the ordinary way. The ideal method, however, of taking most vegetables is in the form of uncooked salads, for in these the health-giving, vitalising elements remain unaltered.
If man is to be regarded, as many scientists regard him, as a frugivore, constitutionally adapted and suited to a nut-fruit diet, then to regain our lost original taste and acquire a liking for such simple foods should be our aim. It may be difficult, if not impossible, to make a sudden change after having lived for many years upon the complex concoctions of the chef's art, for the system resents sudden changes, but with proper care, changing discreetly, one can generally attaina desired end, especially when it involves the replacing of a bad habit by a good one.
In the recipes that follow no mention is made of condiments,i.e., pepper, salt, mustard, spice,et hoc genus omni. Condiments are not foods in any sense whatever, and the effect upon the system of 'seasoning' foods with these artificial aids to appetite, is always deleterious, none the less because it may at the time be imperceptible, and may eventually result in disease. Dr. Kellogg writes: 'By contact, they irritate the mucous membrane, causing congestion and diminished secretion of gastric juice when taken in any but quite small quantities. When taken in quantities so small as to occasion no considerable irritation of the mucous membrane, condiments may still work injury by their stimulating effects, when long continued.... Experimental evidence shows that human beings, as well as animals of all classes, live and thrive as well without salt as with it, other conditions being equally favorable. This statement is made with a full knowledge of counter arguments and experiments, but with abundant testimony to support the position taken.... All condiments hinder natural digestion.'
Condiments, together with such things as pickles, vinegar, alcohol, tea, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, opium, are all injurious, and undoubtedly are the cause of an almost innumerable number of minor, and, in some cases, serious, complaints. Theine, caffeine, and theobromine, all stimulant drugs, arepresent in tea, coffee, and cocoa, respectively. Tea also contains tannin, a substance which is said to seriously impair digestion.
Alcohol, tea, coffee, etc., are stimulants. Stimulants do not produce force and should never be mistaken for food. They are undoubtedly injurious, as they are the cause, among other evils, oflossof force. They cause an abnormal metabolism which ultimately weakens and exhausts the whole system. While these internal activities are taking place, artificial feelings of well-being, or, at least, agreeable sensations, are produced, which are unfortunately mistaken for signs of benefit. Speaking of alcohol Dr. Haig writes: 'It introduces no albumen or force, it merely affects circulation, nutrition, and the metabolism of the albumens already in the body, and this call on the resources of the body is invariably followed by a corresponding depression or economy in the future.... It has been truly said that the man who relies upon stimulants for strength is lost, for he is drawing upon a reserve fund, which is not completely replaced, and physiological bankruptcy must inevitably ensue. This is what the stimulants such as tea, coffee, alcohol, tobacco, opium and cocaine do for those who trust in them.'
He who desires to enjoy life desires to possess good physical health, for a healthy body is almost essential to a happy life; and he who desires to live healthily does not abuse his body with poisonous drugs. It may require courage to reform,but he who reforms in this direction has the satisfaction of knowing that his good health will probably some day excite the envy of his critics.
The chemical composition of all the common food materials can be seen from tables of analyses. It would be to the advantage of everyone to spend a little time examining these tables. It is not a difficult matter, and the trouble to calculate the quantity of protein in a given quantity of food, when once themodus operandiis understood, is trifling. As it has not unwisely been suggested, if people would give, say, one-hundredth the time and attention to studying the needs of the body and how to satisfy them as they give to dress and amusement, there is little doubt that there would be more happiness in the world.
The amount of protein in any particular prepared food is arrived at in the following manner: In the first place those ingredients containing a noticeable amount of protein are carefully weighed. Food tables are then consulted to discover the protein percentage. Suppose, for instance, the only ingredient having a noticeable quantity of protein is rice, and 1 lb. is used. The table is consulted and shows rice to contain eight per cent. protein. In 1 lb. avoirdupois there are 7,000 grains; eight per cent. of 7,000 is 70.00 × 8 = 560 grains. Therefore, in the dish prepared there are 560 grains of protein. It is as well after cooking to weight the entree or pudding and divide the number of ounces it weighs into 560,thus obtaining the number of grains per ounce. Weighing out food at meals is only necessary at first, say for the first week or so. Having decided about how many grains of protein to have daily, and knowing how many grains per ounce the food contains, the eye will soon get trained to estimate the quantity needed. It is not necessary to be exact; a rough approximation is all that is needed, so as to be sure that the system is getting somewhere near the required amount of nutriment, and not suffering from either a large excess or deficiency of protein.
The question of when to eat is of some importance. The Orientals eat fewer meals than we do, and in their abstemiousness they set us an example we should do well to follow. Sufficient has already been said to show that it is a mistake to imagine a great deal of food gives great strength. When we eat frequently, and especially when we 'live well,' that is, are accustomed to a large variety of food, we are tempted to eat far more than is good for us. Little and often may work satisfactorily so long as it does not develop into much and often, which, needless to say, it is very likely to do. Most people on this account would probably be much better in their health if they ate but twice daily, at noon, and five or six hours before going to bed. Then there is less chance of over-feeding. If, however, we experimentally determine the quantity of food that our particular system requires in order to be maintained in good health, and can trust our self-command in controlling the indulgence of sense, probably the best method is to eat anyway three times daily, and four, five, or even six times, or doing away with set meals altogether, would be a procedure which,judging from analogy of the anthropoids, ought to be a better method than eating a whole day's supply at once, or at two or three meals.
It is not wise to sit down to a meal when the body is thoroughly fatigued. A glass of hot or cold water will be found reviving, and then, after a short rest, the system will be far better able to assimilate food. When the body is 'tired out,' it stands to reason it cannot perform digestion as easily and as well as when in fit condition.
Also it is unwise to eat immediately before undertaking vigorous muscular work. Strenuous exercise after meals is often the cause of digestive disorders. Starting on exercise after a hearty meal may suspend the gastric digestion, and so prevent the assimilation of protein as to produce a sensation of exhaustion. If, however, rest is taken, the digestive organs proceed with their work, and after a short time recuperation follows, and the exercise can be continued. It is unwise to allow such a suspension of digestion because of the danger of setting up fermentation, or putrefaction, in the food mass awaiting digestion, for this may result in various disorders.
For the same reason it is a bad plan to eat late at night. It is unwise to take a meal just before going to bed, for the digestive organs cannot do their work properly, if at all, while the body is asleep, and the food not being digested is liable to ferment and result in dyspepsia. The 'sinking feeling' sometimes complained of if ameal is not eaten late at night and described as a kind of hunger is probably due to an abnormal secretion of acid in the stomach. A glass of hot water will often relieve this discomfort. This feeling is seldom experienced by vegetarians of long standing. The natives of India, it is said, do not experience it at all, which fact leads us to surmise the cause to be in some way connected with flesh-eating. Farinaceous foods, however, prepared as soup, porridge, gruel, pultaceous puddings, etc., when eaten, as is customary, without proper insalivation, are liable to be improperly digested and to ferment, giving rise to the sensation described as a 'sinking feeling' and erroneously thought to be hunger.
It is an excellent rule that prescribes fasting when without hunger. When there is no appetite do not eat. It is an example of conventional stupidity that we eat because it is 'meal time,' even though there be not the slightest feeling of genuine hunger. Leaving out of consideration the necessitous poor and those who for their living engage themselves in hard physical toil, it is safe to say that hardly one person in a thousand has ever felt real hunger. Yet no one was ever the worse for waiting upon appetite. No one was ever starved by not eating because of having no appetite. Loss of appetite is a sign that the digestive organs require a rest. It is better to go without food for a time than to force oneself to eat against inclination. The forcing of oneselfto eat to 'keep up one's strength,' is perhaps the quickest way to bring down one's strength by overworking the system and burdening it with material it does not need. Eat by appetite, not by time. Eat frequently when the appetite demands frequent satisfaction, and seldom when seldom hungry. These rules hold good at all times and for everyone. Loss of appetite during sickness should not be looked upon as anything serious in itself, but as a sign that the system does not require food. A sick man like a well man will feel hunger as soon as food is needed, and the practice of tempting the appetite with rich and costly foods is not only a waste of money but is injurious physiologically. Possibly there may be pathological conditions under which hunger cannot make itself felt, but it would seem contrary to Nature as far as the writer, a layman, understands the matter. At least, leaving abnormal conditions of health out of consideration, we can say this much affirmatively: if a man is hungry enough to relish dry bread, then, and then only, does he really require nourishment.
Hunger is always experienced when nutriment is needed, and will be felt a dozen times a day if the food eaten at each of a dozen meals has supplied only sufficient nutriment to produce the force expended between each meal. If the meal is large and supplies sufficient nutriment to produce the force expended in a whole day, then the one meal is all that is required. Never eat to be sociable, or conventional, or sensual; eat when hungry.
Professor Pavlov says: 'Appetite is juice'; that is to say, the physiological condition existing when the body has run short of food-fuel, produces a psychological effect, the mind thinking of food, thereby causing through reaction a profuse secretion of saliva, and we say 'the mouth waters.' It is true the appetite is amenable to suggestion. Thus, though feeling hunger, the smell of, or even thought of, decayed food may completely take away appetite and all inclination to eat. This phenomenon is a provision of Nature to protect us from eating impure food. The appetite having thus been taken away will soon return again when the cause of its loss has been removed. Therefore the appetite should be an infallible guide when to eat.
There is one further point to be noted. Food should not be eaten when under the influence of strong emotion. It is true that under such conditions there probably would be no appetite, but when we are so accustomed to consulting the clock that there is danger of cozening ourselves into the belief that we have an appetite when we have not, and so force ourselves to eat when it may be unwise to do so. Strong emotions, as anger, fear, worry, grief, judging by analogy, doubtless inhibit digestive activity. W. B. Cannon, M.D., speaking of experiments on cats, says: 'The stomach movements are inhibited whenever the catshows signs of anxiety, rage, or distress.' To thoroughly enjoy one's food, it is necessary to have hunger for it, and if we only eat when we feel hungry, there is little likelihood of ever suffering from dyspepsia.
In passing, it is appropriate to point out that as when food is better enjoyed it is better digested, therefore art, environment, mental disposition, indirectly affect the digestive processes. We should, therefore, remembering that simplicity, not complexity, is the essence of beauty, ornament our food and table, and be as cheerful, sociable, and even as merry as possible.
The importance of thorough mastication and insalivation cannot be overestimated. The mouth is a part of the digestive apparatus, and in it food is not only broken down, but is chemically changed by the action of the saliva. If buccal (mouth) digestion be neglected, the consequence is that the food passes into the stomach in a condition that renders it difficult for that organ to digest it and any of a great number of disturbances may result.
Mastication means a thorough breaking up of the food into the smallest particles, and insalivation means the mixing of the small particles with the saliva. The mechanical work is done with the jaws and tongue, and the chemical work is performed by the saliva. When the mechanical work is done thoroughly the chemical work is also thorough, and the test for thoroughness is loss of taste. Masticate the food until all taste has disappeared, and then it will be found that the swallowing reflex unconsciously absorbs the food, conscious swallowing, or at least, an effort to swallow, not being called for.
It may take some while to get into the habit of thorough mastication after having been accustomed to bolting food, but with a conscious effort at the first, the habit is formed, and then the effort is no longer a laborious exercise, but becomes perfectly natural and is performed unconsciously.
This ought to be common knowledge. That such a subject is not considered a necessary part of education is indeed lamentable, for the crass ignorance that everywhere abounds upon the subject of nutrition and diet is largely the cause of the frightful disease and debility so widespread throughout the land, and, as a secondary evil of an enormous waste of labour in the production and distribution of unneeded food. Were everyone to live according to Nature, hygienically and modestly, health, and all the happiness that comes with it, would become a national asset, and as a result of the decreased consumption of food, more time would be available for education, and the pursuit of all those arts which make for the enlightenment and progress of humanity.
To become a convert to this new order, adopting non-animal food and hygienic living, is not synonymous with monastical asceticism, as some imagine. Meat eaters when first confronted with vegetarianism often imagine their dietary is going to be restricted to a monotonous round of carrots, turnips, cabbages, and the like; and if their ignorance prevents them from arguing that it is impossible to maintain health and strength on suchfoods, then it is very often objected that carrots and cabbages are not liked, or would not be cared forallthe time. The best way to answer this objection is to cite a few plain facts. From a catalogue of a firm supplying vegetarian specialties, (and there are now quite a number of such firms), most of the following information is derived:
Of nuts there are twelve varieties, sold either shelled, ground, or in shell. Many of these nuts are also mechanically prepared, and in some cases combined, and made into butters, nut-meats, lard, suet, oil, etc. The varieties of nut-butters are many, and the various combinations of nuts and vegetables making potted savouries, add to a long list of highly nutritious and palatable nut-foods. There are the pulses dried and entire, or ground into flour, such as pea-, bean-, and lentil-flour. There are the cereals, barley, corn, oats, rice, rye, wheat, etc., from which the number of preparations made such as breakfast foods, bread, biscuits, cakes, pastries, etc., is legion. (One firm advertises twenty-three varieties of prepared breakfast foods made from cereals.) Then there are the fruits, fresh, canned, and preserved, about twenty-five varieties; green vegetables, fresh and canned, about twenty-one varieties; and roots, about eleven varieties.
The difficulty is not that there is insufficient variety, but that the variety is so large that there is danger of being tempted beyond the limits dictated by the needs of the body. When, having hadsufficient to eat, there yet remain many highly palatable dishes untasted, one is sometimes apt to gratify sense at the expense of health and good-breeding, to say nothing of economy. Simplicity and purity in food are essential to physical health as simplicity and purity in art are essential to moral and intellectual progress. 'I may say,' says Dr. Haig, 'that simple food of not more than two or three kinds at one meal is another secret of health; and if this seems harsh to those whose day is at present divided between anticipating their food and eating, I must ask them to consider whether such a life is not the acme of selfish shortsightedness. In case they should ever be at a loss what to do with the time and money thus saved from feasting, I would point on the one hand to the mass of unrelieved ignorance, sorrow, and suffering, and on the other to the doors of literature and art, which stand open to those fortunate enough to have time to enter them; and from none of these need any turn aside for want of new Kingdoms to conquer.'
This question of feeding may, by superficial thinkers, be looked upon as unimportant; yet it should not be forgotten that diet has much more to do with health than is commonly realized, and health is intimately connected with mental attitude, and oftentimes is at the foundation of religious and moral development. 'Hypochondriacal crotchets' are often the product of dyspepsia, and valetudinarianism and pessimism are not unrarelyfound together. 'Alas,' says Carlyle, 'what is the loftiest flight of genius, the finest frenzy that ever for moments united Heaven with Earth, to the perennial never-failing joys of a digestive apparatus thoroughly eupeptic?'
Our first duty is to learn to keep our body healthy. Naturally, we sooner expect to see a noble character possess a beautiful form than one disfigured by abuse and polluted by disease. We do not say that every sick man is a villain, but we do say that men and women of high character regard the body as an instrument for some high purpose, and believe that it should be cared for and nourished according to its natural requirements. In vegetarianism,scientifically practised, is a cure, and better, a preventative, for many physical, mental, and moral obliquities that trouble mankind, and if only a knowledge of this fact were to grow and distil itself into the public mind and conscience, there would be halcyon days in store for future generations, and much that now envelops man in darkness and in sorrow, would be regarded as a nightmare of the past.
The following table exhibits the percentage chemical composition of the principal vegetable food materials; also of dairy produce and common flesh-foods for comparison.
Food MaterialProteinFatCarbohydratesSaltsWaterFuel Valuecals.Vegetable Foodsp. ct.p. ct.p. ct.p. ct.p. ct.p. lb.Wheat Flour (entire)18.81.971.91.011.41,675Oatmeal16.17.267.51.97.31,860Rice8.0.379.0.412.31,630Barley8.51.177.81.111.51,650Corn Meal9.21.975.41.012.51,655Rye0.8.978.7.712.91,630Lentils (dried)25.71.059.25.78.41,620Beans (dried)22.51.859.63.512.61,605Peas (dried)24.61.062.02.99.51,655Nuts, various (aver.)16.052.020.02.010.02,640Dates2.12.878.41.315.41,615Figs4.3.374.22.418.81,475Potatoes2.2.118.41.078.3385Apples.4.514.2.384.6290Bananas1.3.622.0.875.3460Dairy FoodsMilk, whole (not skim)3.34.05.0.787.0325Cheese, various (aver.)24.528.42.14.041.01,779Hens' Eggs (boiled)14.012.00.0.873.2765Flesh FoodsBeef18.619.10.01.061.31,155Mutton (medium fat)18.218.00.01.062.81,105Ham (fresh)15.633.40.0.950.11,700Fowl19.016.30.01.063.71,045White Fish (as purchased)22.16.50.01.669.8700
[The amount of heat that will raise one kilogram of water 1 deg. C. is termed acalorie. Fuel value, or food units, means the number of calories of heat equivalent to the energy it is assumed the body obtains from food when the nutrients thereof are completely digested.]
The following recipes are given as they appear in the English edition of this book and were prepared for English readers. While some of these will be difficult for American readers to follow, we give them as in the original edition, and many of the unusual ingredients called for can be obtained from the large grocers and dealers, and if not in stock will be obtained to order. 'Nutter' is a name given a nut butter used for cooking. It is, so far as we know, the only collection of strictly vegetarian recipes published.
Readers interested in the foreign products referred to, should write to Pitman's Health Food Company, Aston Brook St., Birmingham, England, and to Mapleton's Nut Food Company, Ltd., Garston, Liverpool, England, for price list and literature.
The Publishers.
1.—Vegetable Soup
1 large cupful red lentils, 1 turnip, 2 medium onions, 3 potatoes, 1 carrot, 1 leek, 1 small head celery, parsley, 1 lb. tomatoes, 3½ quarts water.
Wash and cut up vegetables, but do not peel. Boil until tender, then strain through coarse sieve and serve. This soup will keep for several days and can be reheated when required.
2.—Semolina Soup
4 oz. semolina, 2 chopped onions, 1 tablespoonful gravy essence,[6]2 quarts water or vegetable stock.[7]
3.—Spinach Soup No. 1
1 lb. Spinach, 1 tablespoonful gravy essence, 1 quart water.
Cook spinach in its own juices (preferably in double boiler). Strain from it, through a hair sieve or colander, all the liquid. Add essence and serve.
4.—Spinach Soup No. 2
1 lb. spinach, 1 lb. can tomatoes, 1 tablespoonful nut-milk (Mapleton's), 1½ pints water.
Dissolve nut-milk in little water, cook all ingredients together in double-boiler for 1½ hours, strain and serve.
5.—Pea Soup
4 ozs. pea-flour, 2 potatoes, 1 large onion, 1 tablespoonful gravy essence, 2 quarts water.
Cook potatoes, (not peeled), and onion until soft. Skin and mash potatoes and chop onion. Mix pea-flour into paste with little water. Boil all ingredients together for 20 minutes, then serve.
Lentil and Haricot Soups
These are prepared in the same way as Recipe No. 5 substituting lentil, or haricot flour for pea-flour.
6.—Tomato-Pea Soup
4 ozs. pea-flour, 1 lb. tin tomatoes, 1 chopped leek, 1 quart water.
Mix pea-flour into paste with little water. Boil ingredients together 30 minutes, then serve.
Tomato-Lentil and Tomato-Bean Soups
These are prepared in the same way as Recipe No. 6, substituting lentil-, or bean-flour for pea-flour.
7.—Rice-Vermicelli Soup
2 ozs. rice-vermicelli, 1 tablespoonful nut-milk, 1 dessertspoonful gravy essence, 1 quart water.
Boil vermicelli in water until soft. Dissolve nut-milk in little water. Boil all ingredients together 5 minutes, then serve.
8.—Pea-Vermicelli Soup
2 ozs. pea-vermicelli, 1 tablespoonful nut-milk, 1 tablespoonful tomato purée, 1 quart water.
Boil vermicelli in water until soft, dissolve nut-milk in little water. Boil all ingredients together 5 minutes, then serve.
9.—Pot-barley Soup No. 1
4 ozs. pot-barley, 1 onion, 1 tablespoonful gravy essence, 2 quarts water, corn flour to thicken.
Cook barley until quite soft; chop onion finely; mix a little corn flour into paste with cold water. Stir into the boiling soup. Boil all ingredients together for 20 minutes, then serve.
Wheat and Rice Soups
These are prepared in the same way as Recipe No. 9, substituting wheat or rice grains for barley.
10.—Pot-barley Soup No. 2
4 ozs. pot-barley, 1 dessertspoonful nut-milk, 1 chopped onion, 1 dessertspoonful tomato purée, 1 quart water.
Cook barley until soft; dissolve nut-milk in little water; boil all ingredients together for 20 minutes, then serve.
11.—Corn Soup
1 lb. tin sugar-corn, ½ lb. tin tomatoes, 2 chopped onions, 2 ozs. corn flour, 1 quart water.
Boil onion until soft; mix corn flour into paste with cold water. Place sugar-corn, tomatoes, onions, and water into stew pan; heat and add corn flour. Boil ingredients together 10 minutes, and serve.
12.—Nut Rissoles
3 ozs. mixed grated nuts, 3 ozs. breadcrumbs, 1 oz. nut butter, 1 chopped onion, 1 large cupful canned tomatoes.
Mix ingredients together; mould into rissoles, dust with flour and fry in 'Nutter.' Serve with gravy.
13.—Lentil Cakes
8 ozs. red lentils, 3 ozs. 'Grape Nuts,' 1 small onion, 1 teaspoonful gravy essence, breadcrumbs.
Cook lentils until soft in smallest quantity of water; chop onion finely; mix all ingredients, using sufficient breadcrumbs to make into stiff paste; form into cakes and fry in 'Nutter.' Serve with gravy.
14.—Marrow Roast
1 vegetable marrow, 3 ozs. grated nuts, 1 onion, 1 oz. 'Nutter,' 1 cup breadcrumbs, 2 teaspoonfuls tomato purée.
Cook marrow, taking care not to allow it to break; when cold, peel, cut off one end and remove seeds with spoon. Prepare stuffing:—chop onion finely; melt nut fat and mix ingredients together. Then stuff marrow and tie on decapitated end with tape; sprinkle with breadcrumbs and bake 30 minutes. Serve with gravy.
15.—Stewed Celery
1 head celery, 4 slices whole-meal bread, nut butter.
Slice celery into suitable lengths, which steam until soft. Toast and butter bread, place celery on toast and cover with pea, bean, or lentil sauce, (see Recipe No. 39).
16.—Barley Entrée
4 ozs. pot-barley, 1 lb. tin tomatoes, 1 chopped onion, 2 tablespoonfuls olive oil.
Cook barley until quite soft in smallest quantity of water (in double boiler). Then add tomatoes and oil, and cook for 10 minutes. To make drier, cook barley in tomato juice adding only 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of water.
Rice, Wheat, Macaroni, Lentil, Bean, Split-pea Entrées
These are prepared in the same way as Recipe No. 16, substituting one of these cereals or légumes for barley.
17.—Savory Pie
Paste (Recipe No. 59), marrow stuffing (Recipe No. 14).
Line sandwich tin with paste; fill interior with stuffing; cover with paste or cooked sliced potatoes; bake in sharp oven.
18.—Baked Bananas
Prepare the desired number by washing and cutting off stalk, but do not peel. Bake in oven 20 minutes, then serve.
19.—Barley Stew
4 ozs. pot-barley, 2 onions, parsley.
Chop onions and parsley finely; cook ingredients together in very small quantity of water in double boiler until quite soft. Serve with hot beetroot, or fried tomatoes or potatoes.
Corn, Rice, Frumenty, Pea-Vermicelli Stews
These are prepared in the same way as Recipe No. 19, substituting one of the above cereals or pulses for barley.
20.—Mexican Stew
1 cupful brown beans, 2 onions, 2 potatoes, 4 tomatoes, 1 oz. sugar, 1 cupful red grape-juice, rind of 1 lemon, water.
Soak beans overnight; chop vegetables in chunks; boil all ingredients together 1 hour.
21.—Vegetable Pie
5 ozs. tapioca, 4 potatoes, 3 small onions, paste, (see Recipe No. 59), tomato purée to flavor.
Soak tapioca. Partly cook potatoes and onions, which then slice. Place potatoes, onions, and tapioca in layers in pie-dish; mix purée with a little hot water, which pour into dish; cover with paste and bake.
22.—Rice Rissoles
6 ozs. unpolished rice, 1 chopped onion, 1 dessertspoonful tomato purée, breadcrumbs.
Boil rice and onion until soft; add purée and sufficient breadcrumbs to make stiff; mould into rissoles; fry in 'Nutter,' and serve with parsley sauce, (Recipe No. 38).
23.—Scotch Stew
3 ozs. pot-barley, 2 ozs. rolled oats, 1 carrot, 1 turnip, 2 potatoes, 1 onion, 4 tomatoes, water.
Wash, peel, and chop vegetables in chunks. Stew all ingredients together for 2 hours. Dress with squares of toasted bread.
24.—Plain Roasted Rice
Steam some unpolished rice until soft; then distribute thinly on flat tin and brown in hot oven.
25.—Nut Roast No. 1
1 lb. pine kernels (flaked), 4 tablespoonfuls pure olive oil, 2 breakfastcupfuls breadcrumbs, ½ lb. tomatoes (peeled and mashed).
Mix ingredients together, place in pie-dish, sprinkle with breadcrumbs, and bake until well browned.
26.—Nut Roast No. 2
1 lb. pine kernels (flaked), 1 cooked onion (chopped), ½ cupful chopped parsley, 8 ozs. cooked potatoes (mashed).
Mix ingredients together, place in pie-dish and cover with layer of boiled rice. Cook until well browned.
27.—Maize Roast
8 ozs. corn meal, 1 large Spanish onion (chopped), 2 tablespoonfuls nut-milk, 1 dessertspoonful gravy essence.
Cook onion; dissolve nut-milk thoroughly in about ½ pint water.
Boil onion, nut-milk, and essence together two minutes, then mix all ingredients together, adding sufficient water to make into very soft batter; bake 40 minutes.
28.—Plain Savory Rice
4 ozs. unpolished rice, 1 lb. tin tomatoes.
Boil together until rice is cooked. If double boiler be used no water need be added, and thus the rice will be dry and not pultaceous.
29.—Potato Balls
4 medium sized potatoes, 1 large onion (chopped), 1 dessertspoonful pure olive oil, breadcrumbs.
Cook onion and potatoes, then mash. Mix ingredients, using a few breadcrumbs and making it into a very soft paste. Roll into balls and fry in 'Nutter,' or nut butter.
30.—Bean Balls
4 ozs. brown haricot flour, 1 onion (chopped), 1 dessertspoonful pure olive oil, 1 tablespoonful tomato purée, breadcrumbs.
Cook onion; mix flour into paste with purée and oil; add onion and few breadcrumbs making into soft paste. Fry in 'Nutter.'
31.—Lentil and Pea Balls
These are made in the same way as Recipe No. 30, substituting lentil-or pea-flour for bean-flour.
31.—Lentil Patties
4 ozs. lentils, 1 small onion (chopped), 1 oz. 'Nutter,' or nut butter, 1 teaspoonful gravy essence, paste (see Recipe No. 59).
Cook ingredients for filling all together until lentils are quite soft. Line patty pans with paste; fill, cover with paste and bake in sharp oven.
Barley, Bean, Corn, Rice, and Wheat Patties
These are prepared in the same way as in Recipe No. 31,substituting one of the above cereals or beans for lentils.
32.—Lentil Paste
8 ozs. red lentils, 1 onion (chopped), 4 tablespoonfuls pure olive oil, breadcrumbs.
Boil lentils and onions until quite soft; add oil and sufficient breadcrumbs to make into paste; place in jars; when cool cover with melted nut butter; serve when set.
33.—Bean Paste
8 ozs. small brown haricots, 2 tablespoonfuls tomato purée, 1 teaspoonful 'Vegeton,' 2 ozs. 'Nutter' or nut butter, 1 cup breadcrumbs.
Soak beans over night; flake in Dana Food Flaker; place back in fresh water and add other ingredients; cook one hour; add breadcrumbs, making into paste; place in jars, when cool cover with nut butter; serve when set.
34.—Spinach on Toast
Cook 1 lb. spinach in its own juice in double boiler. Toast and butter large round of bread. Spread spinach on toast and serve. Other vegetables may be served in the same manner.