(1) Because the amount of food put into the cooker is too small to contain much heat. It is always better to have the food nearly fill the dish.(2) Because the time required is so long that the heat of the food and liquid becomes exhausted before the cooking is completed.(3) Because it is desirable to finish the cooking in less time.
(1) Because the amount of food put into the cooker is too small to contain much heat. It is always better to have the food nearly fill the dish.
(2) Because the time required is so long that the heat of the food and liquid becomes exhausted before the cooking is completed.
(3) Because it is desirable to finish the cooking in less time.
Use a large wooden box or a small trunk with a close-fitting cover. Make it as air-tight as possible by pasting thick paper all over the inside.
Pack it level with clean sawdust or excelsior (the latter preferably), until just enough height is left to set in a covered granite pail, which is to be used for holding thefood. Place the pail in the centre, so that its top edge is just about half an inch below the top of the box. Then pack in more excelsior very tightly around the pail, until level with it. This will shape the "nest" for the pail.
A home-made fireless cookerA home-made fireless cooker
Make a thick cushion, or mat, of excelsior to fit in the space between the level of the excelsior and the inside of the cover. Cover the cushion with cheesecloth or denim to keep it intact.
Note.—Only food cooked in a liquid can be prepared in a home-made cooker.
Note.—Only food cooked in a liquid can be prepared in a home-made cooker.
The pupilshave been working with some of the well-known foods in all of their recipes and should have a fair knowledge of how to prepare them in simple ways for the table. It is now time for them to learn what these foods contain for the use of their bodies. Much of this part of the work can be taught in rooms without special equipment. An earnest teacher, with a few articles from home, can make the study interesting and valuable.
A series of lessons will be necessary for this purpose. The amount of work to be taken at one time is suggested, but this should be judged by the teacher. As in other lessons on theory, the remaining time of the lesson period should be used in practical work. Suggestions for such practical work are given under the lesson on "The Kitchen Fire",page 92.
Practice lessons, to give variety and sustain interest, should be interspersed between these lessons as desired.
The lesson may be introduced by asking the class to think in what way the body of a healthy baby, who is fed regularly, will have changed at the end of six months. It will be larger; it will have more flesh, more bone, more hair, etc. We want to get a name that will apply to anypart of the body. No matter which part we examine through a microscope we find the same fine and beautiful texture, and to this we give a name similar to that given to fine, thin paper. We call ittissue—hair tissue, bone tissue, flesh tissue.
What has food done to the baby's tissues? It has enlarged its tissues; the child has grown larger. To the enlargement, or growth, of the tissues, we may apply the term,build, suggested by the building of a house. Then what may we say food does for the tissues of the body? We may say thatfood builds the tissues of the body.
Think of some persons who have taken food every day, and yet as long as you have known them they have not increased in size. What has food done for their tissues? The class must be told that the tissues of our bodies wear out through use, and that food has furnished the material to replace the worn-out parts. What do we say we are doing to clothes when we replace the worn parts? We are mending or repairing them. What does food do for our worn-out tissues?Food repairs the tissues of the body.
Do not think any more about the tissues of the body. Suppose you had not been able to get any food for several days. In what way would you be different from what you are now? You would not be as strong. Food gives strength or energy by being burned inside the body. There is a fire burning in our bodies all the time we are alive, the fuel being food. What do we require from the fire in our homes? We require heat. The fires in our bodies give us heat also. Any fire gives off both heat and energy. State another use of food to the body.Food produces heat and energy in the body.
But food does more for the body; it contains substances to keep our bodies in order. Suppose the clock getsout of order and does not keep good time, what does the watchmaker do to it? He regulates it. That is what certain kinds of food do for us. What then is another use of food?Food regulates the body.
Name the uses of food to the body.
1. It builds the tissues.
2. It repairs the tissues.
3. It produces heat and energy.
4. It regulates the body.
How then can we judge if a substance be a food? By deciding that it performs one of these duties in the body.
The names of the substances in food which supply the material for the different uses of the body should be taken next.
1.For building and repairing.—(1) Mineral matter—used largely in hard tissues. (2) Nitrogenous matter, or protein—used largely for flesh. (3) Water—used in all tissues.
2.For fuel.—Carbonaceous matter (starch, sugar, fat).
3.For regulating.—Mineral matter, water.
Note.—The teacher should call attention to the fact that few foods contain all these substances, some have nearly all, some have only one, some two or more. In order to get all, we must eat a variety of foods. The class is now ready to consider the well-known foods, in order to find out which of these necessary substances each food contains, and to obtain a general idea of their comparative food values.
Note.—The teacher should call attention to the fact that few foods contain all these substances, some have nearly all, some have only one, some two or more. In order to get all, we must eat a variety of foods. The class is now ready to consider the well-known foods, in order to find out which of these necessary substances each food contains, and to obtain a general idea of their comparative food values.
All nature supplies us with food. The three great divisions of nature are animal, vegetable, and mineral, and from each we obtain food, though most largely from the animal and vegetable kingdoms.
Animal food is some part of an animal's body or some product of an animal: examples—meat or fish, milk, eggs.
Vegetable food is some part of a plant: examples—vegetables, fruit, seeds.
Mineral food is some constituent of the earth's crust used as food. This mineral food is obtained by drinking water which in coursing through the earth has absorbed certain minerals, by eating plants which have absorbed the minerals from the soil, or by eating animal food which was built from plant food.
This preliminary survey of the sources of all our food gives the pupils a basis for classifying the foods with which they are familiar. They may be given exercises in doing this, and will not only find them interesting, but most useful as nature study.
In beginning the analysis of the common foods, it must be remembered that the pupils have no knowledge of chemistry, and that what is found in each food must be discovered through the senses (seeing, smelling, tasting, feeling), or through a process of reasoning.
The pupils should also feel quite sure of what they are setting out to do; they are going to examine some particular, well-known food, to find which of the necessaryfood substances it contains. The food substances for which they are looking are water, mineral matter, nitrogenous matter, and carbonaceous matter (sugar, starch, fat).
It is better to provide each pupil with a sample of the food to be studied, but where conditions make this difficult, the one used by the teacher will suffice.
Milk is the best food to examine first, because it contains all the food elements except starch and because these can be easily found.
The pupils may each be asked to bring a half cup of milk from home. It may be allowed to stand in glasses while other work is taken.
When ready for the lesson, ask the pupils to look at the contents of the glass, and they will observe a difference of colour where the cream has risen. Nature itself has divided the milk into two parts. Pour off the top part and feel it. It feels greasy. Butter is made from this part. We have foundfat—a carbonaceous food.
Move the milk around in the glass and let the pupils see that it is a liquid. Tell them that all liquid in a natural food is mostly water. We have, therefore, another food substance—water, a builder and regulator.
Let the pupils compare a glass of water with a glass of skimmed milk, and they see that something is dissolved in the water of the milk, giving it the white colour. Showthem a glass of sour milk, where the white substance is separate from the water. Get the names curd and whey. Tell them how the cheesemaker separates sweet milk into curd and whey. If advisable, let them do it, but in any case show them some sweet milk separated by rennet. Examine the sweet whey. It tastes sweet, denoting the presence ofsugar—another carbonaceous food.
Notice the greenish-yellow colour. Recall this same colour in water in which potatoes, cabbage, or other vegetables have been cooked. Tell the pupils that this colour is given bymineral matterbeing dissolved in the water.
There is still the curd of milk to examine. The use of the senses does not allow us to definitely decide what food substance the curd is. Tell the pupils it is protein, or find the name by a process of reasoning, thus: Recall the fact that babies live for several months on milk alone and during that time build all tissues of the body. Milk, therefore, must contain all tissue-building substances. Review the food substances which are necessary to build all body tissues—mineral matter, protein, and water. We have found the mineral matter and water in milk, but not the protein. Since curd is the only remaining part of milk, it must be largely protein.
Tell the pupils that the scum which comes on the top of milk, when it is boiled, is another kind of protein of which there is a small amount in solution in milk.
Lead the pupils to see that if starch were present, it would be in a raw form, and in this form is indigestible.
The analysis of milk gives a key to the food value of milk and each of its by-products (cream, butter, butter-milk, sour milk, skim milk, curd, whey, cheese, junket). These may now be briefly discussed as to composition, food value, and cost.
Milk readily absorbs odours, bacteria, etc., and should be kept in covered, sterilized dishes in a pure, cool atmosphere.
Experiments should be made to show the effect of simmering and boiling temperatures. To save time, a different experiment may be given to each pupil, and the results reported.
1. Simmer sweet milk and note the flavour.
2. Boil sweet milk and note the flavour.
3. Simmer the curd of milk. Examine its texture.
4. Boil the curd of milk. Examine its texture and compare it with the simmered curd.
5. Boil skim milk and note the scum.
6. Simmer skim milk and note the absence of scum.
Note.—From the above experiments deduce the effect of heat on protein.
Note.—From the above experiments deduce the effect of heat on protein.
Practice lessons may now be given in preparing simple dishes in which milk is the main ingredient, or, at least, recipes may be given for these to be made at home. The following would be suitable: cream sauce, cream soups, custard, junket, cottage cheese, albuminized milk.
(1) Shell, (2) thick membrane, (3) white, (4) thin membrane, (5) yolk.
These parts are easily seen. Attention should be called to the pores in the shell, and it should be explained that these allow the entrance of bacteria which spoil the egg. Any means of closing these pores helps to preserve the egg.
Cover the holes in the shell as follows:
1. Pack in salt, bran, sawdust, brine, or water-glass.2. Coat the shells with fat or wax.3. Wrap the eggs in paper.
Testing eggs by floating: (1) slightly stale, (2) stale, (3) very staleTesting eggs by floating:(1) slightly stale, (2) stale, (3) very stale
1. In the shell:
After an egg is laid, the liquid which it contains begins to evaporate through the pores of the shell and, as this continues, a noticeable space is left inside.(1) Shake the egg, holding it near the ear. If the contents rattle, it is somewhat stale.(2) Drop the egg in cold water. If it sinks, it is fresh.(3) Hold the egg between your eye and the light. If clear, it is fresh.(4) A rough appearance of the shell denotes freshness.
After an egg is laid, the liquid which it contains begins to evaporate through the pores of the shell and, as this continues, a noticeable space is left inside.
(1) Shake the egg, holding it near the ear. If the contents rattle, it is somewhat stale.
(2) Drop the egg in cold water. If it sinks, it is fresh.
(3) Hold the egg between your eye and the light. If clear, it is fresh.
(4) A rough appearance of the shell denotes freshness.
2. Out of the shell:
White—this should be clear and cling to the yolk.Yolk—this should round up like a ball.
White—this should be clear and cling to the yolk.
Yolk—this should round up like a ball.
1. If eggs are to be used in the near future, they should be washed and put in a pure, cool atmosphere. The lower shelf of the refrigerator is best, as odours rise, and eggs readily absorb these.
2. If eggs are to be preserved, they should not be washed unless their condition compels it, as washing removes the natural covering of the pores. They should be stored in a clean, cool place, and packed as soon as possible.
It is wiser to develop the food substances in an egg by reasoning, rather than by examining the different parts. The shell is not used for food, so it is the contents that should be studied. The class should be guided in the following sequence of thought:
1. An egg is designed by nature to become a chicken, so it must contain all of the substances necessary to build a chicken.
2. A chicken is an animal, and all animal bodies are made of the same substances. These we have seen to be mineral matter, protein, and water.
3. An egg therefore contains these three substances.
4. An egg must also contain three weeks' food for the chicken, therefore must have fuel food as well. This fuel food is found in the yolk, in the form of fat.
5. The yolk therefore contains water, mineral matter, protein, and fat.
6. The white contains water, mineral matter, and protein.
The following experiments will show the effect on both yolk and white of the usual methods of applying heat to eggs:
1. Boil an egg for three minutes and note the effect.
2. Boil an egg for twenty minutes and note the effect.
3. Put an egg in boiling water, remove from the fire, and let it stand covered from eight to ten minutes.
4. Fry an egg and note the effect.
Note.—The eggs may be put to boil and simmer at the beginning of the lesson, and pupils designated to take them from the heat at proper times. The eggs will then be ready to examine when required.
Note.—The eggs may be put to boil and simmer at the beginning of the lesson, and pupils designated to take them from the heat at proper times. The eggs will then be ready to examine when required.
1. Boiling an egg for three minutes does not allow time for the heat to reach the yolk. The white is hard and tough just next the shell, but soft and liquid as it approaches the yolk.
2. Boiling an egg for twenty minutes hardens and toughens the white, so that it all becomes hard to dissolve or digest. It also gives the heat time to reach the centre and hardens the yolk, but does not toughen it or make it hard to dissolve or digest.
3. Allowing the egg to stand in the hot water coagulates the white to a jelly-like consistency without toughening it; it also cooks the yolk.
To give practice in preparing eggs and to show their special uses the following dishes would be suitable:
1. White:
For food—poached eggs on toast, simmered eggsFor cohesive (sticky) property—potato balls, fish ballsFor clearing liquids—coffeeFor holding air—foamy omeletFor decoration—hard-boiled eggs cut in fancy shapes for garnishing, meringue on lemon pudding, etc.
For food—poached eggs on toast, simmered eggs
For cohesive (sticky) property—potato balls, fish balls
For clearing liquids—coffee
For holding air—foamy omelet
For decoration—hard-boiled eggs cut in fancy shapes for garnishing, meringue on lemon pudding, etc.
2. Yolk:
For food—egg-nog, scrambled eggsFor thickening liquids—custard, salad dressing, lemon puddingFor colouring foods—tapioca creamFor decoration—hard boiled and grated over salads.
For food—egg-nog, scrambled eggs
For thickening liquids—custard, salad dressing, lemon pudding
For colouring foods—tapioca cream
For decoration—hard boiled and grated over salads.
Before beginning this part of the work, it would be most helpful if the class had one or two nature study lessons on the structure and organs of plants. With the pupils in possession of some knowledge thus acquired, the Household Management teacher has only to lead up to ideas of the preparation and value of these parts as food. These ideas should, as far as possible, follow in such a natural order that the pupils may even anticipate the sequence.
The outline may be as follows:
All vegetable food is obtained from plants; it is some part of a plant used as food.
1. Root—carrot, radish
2. Tuber—potato, artichoke
3. Bulb—onion
4. Stem—rhubarb, asparagus
5. Leaf—spinach, cabbage
6. Flower—cauliflower
7. Fruit—apple, orange
8. Seed—(1) Of trees (nuts)—beechnut, almond(2) Of grasses (cereals)—wheat, corn, rice(3) Of vines (legumes)—peas, beans, lentils.
In asking for examples of the different parts, there will be more interest and value if the questions correlate othersubjects, for instance: For what fruit is Canada noted? What fruit does she import? Name a nut the squirrels gather.
From the foregoing, the pupils may infer that there are eight different foods to study. They should be led to see that in reality there is only one, as all parts of plants are, generally speaking, the same in structure. Referring to the animal body, they will know that a bone from the foot is of much the same structure as one from the face; that a piece of flesh from the leg is the same as a piece from any other part of the body. In the same way, if we study one part of a plant, it will be a type of all parts. In general the structure is as follows:
1. A framework, in cellular form, made of a substance calledcellulose.
2. Material filling the cells:
(1) A juice in the cells of all parts of plants except seeds(2) A solid in the cells of seeds.
(1) A juice in the cells of all parts of plants except seeds
(2) A solid in the cells of seeds.
To show the framework, some vegetable food having a white colour should be chosen, such as potato, parsnip, or apple.
It must be explained that all plants are made of a framework of numerous cells, something like a honey-comb. The cells in plants are of many different shapes, according to the plant, or the part of the plant, in which they are found. They are usually so small that they cannot be distinguished without a microscope; but occasionallythey are large enough to be seen without one. Pass sections of orange or lemon, where the cells are visible. Make a drawing on the black-board of the cellular formation of a potato. Lead the class to understand that, in every case, the cell walls must be broken to get out the cell contents. To illustrate this, they may use potatoes, and break the cell walls by grating the potatoes. After they have broken up the framework, the cell contents should be strained through cheesecloth into a glass. They have now two parts to examine—cell walls and cell contents.
Cellular structure of a potatoCellular structure of a potato
Wash the framework to free it of any cell juice and study it first. Give its name, and note its colour and texture. Compare the framework of potatoes, strawberries, lettuce, trees, etc. Tell the class that in some cases part of the cellulose is so fibrous that it is used to make thread, cloth, or twine; for instance,flaxandhemp.
Cellulose is most difficult to dissolve, so that practically little of it is digested. It serves a mechanical purpose in the digestive tract by helping to fill the organs and dilute the real food. If fibrous, it acts as an irritant and overcomes sluggishness of the intestines known as constipation. The outer coats of cereals are an example of coarse cellulose, as used in brown bread and some kinds of porridge.
Examine next the juice which was contained in the cells of the potato. The liquid shows much water; the colour indicates mineral matter in solution; the odour suggests a flavour; the white sediment is starch.
Water, mineral matter, flavouring matter, starch.
Draw attention to the fact that the potato is the part of the plant which acts as a storehouse. In such parts, starch is always found as the stored form of sugar; but, in parts which are not storehouses, sugar will be found in its stead. In rare cases both are found, as in the parsnip.
Note.—This is a good time to impress the fact that plants are the source of starch for manufacturing purposes. In England, potatoes are largely used; in Canada, corn. It will be interesting to state that the early settlers obtained their starch for laundry purposes at home from potatoes, by chopping or grinding them.
Note.—This is a good time to impress the fact that plants are the source of starch for manufacturing purposes. In England, potatoes are largely used; in Canada, corn. It will be interesting to state that the early settlers obtained their starch for laundry purposes at home from potatoes, by chopping or grinding them.
The insolubility of starch in cold liquids may be effectively reviewed at this part of the lesson. The starch has been lying in the water of the potato cells for several months, yet has not dissolved. Let two or three of the class gradually heat the potato juice with its starch sediment, stirring all the time to distribute the sediment evenly.They will find that a little less than boiling temperature dissolves the starch. This will show them that heat is necessary for the solution of starch, and a heat much greater than that in the body, hence raw starch is indigestible. Recall the milk lesson and the uselessness of starch as a component of milk, unless the milk be cooked.
Squeeze the juice from a sour apple or lemon, and note the taste. Explain that all fruit juices contain more or less acid. The effects of this acid in the body are similar to those of mineral matter.
Protein is also found in plant juices; but in such small quantities that it may be disregarded as a source of food supply.
Water; mineral matter; flavouring matter; starch or sugar, or both; acid (in fruit juice).
COMPOSITION OF SOLID MATERIAL IN CELLS OF SEEDS
This part of the lesson may be developed as follows:
1. Seeds contain the building material for new plants, as well as their food for a short time.
2. Plants and animals require much the same material to build and feed them.
3. Animals require water, mineral matter, protein, sugar, starch, and fat.
4. Plants require the same; but the seed being a storehouse part of the plant, it will not have sugar, and water has to be supplied when the new plant is to be formed.
5. Seeds contain, therefore, mineral matter, protein, starch, and fat.
Note 1.—Seeds will grow in water until their stored food is used: they must then be planted in soil, to get further nourishment.Note 2.—The two fuel foods, starch and fat, are not found together in abundance in seeds; one or the other will be much in excess. For instance, in walnuts there is a great deal of fat, while in peas and beans there is scarcely a trace of fat, but the starch is abundant.
Note 1.—Seeds will grow in water until their stored food is used: they must then be planted in soil, to get further nourishment.
Note 2.—The two fuel foods, starch and fat, are not found together in abundance in seeds; one or the other will be much in excess. For instance, in walnuts there is a great deal of fat, while in peas and beans there is scarcely a trace of fat, but the starch is abundant.
Only a very general idea of this should be attempted. The food value of any part of a plant can be roughly estimated by considering the office of that particular part in plant structure. Nature study will assist in this. The root collects the food to send it to the parts above; the stem is a hallway through which the food is carried in a more diluted form. The leaves serve the purpose of lungs and will not contain much food, though they naturally have a good deal of flavour; parsley, sage, and tea are examples of this. The fruit is a house to protect the seeds, and is made most attractive and delicious, so that animals will be tempted to eat this part, and thus assist in the dispersal of the seeds. The fruit has comparatively little food value as building material. The seed contains the stored material to build new plants, and therefore is the most nutritive part of all. It is the only part of the plant which contains an appreciable supply of building food, that is, which can take the place of eggs or meat in the diet. Baked beans are sometimes called "nuggets of nourishment" or "the poor man's beef".
After discussing the food value of the different parts in this broad way, the pupils may be asked to consider the plant foods used in their diet and to compare their nutritive value.
The facts concerning these may be summed up as follows:
1. Green vegetables:
These generally contain much water, hardly any protein or fat, and a small amount of sugar. They are valuable mainly for their mineral matter and cellulose.
These generally contain much water, hardly any protein or fat, and a small amount of sugar. They are valuable mainly for their mineral matter and cellulose.
2. Root vegetables and tubers:
These are more nutritious than green vegetables, because they contain much more sugar and starch.
These are more nutritious than green vegetables, because they contain much more sugar and starch.
3. Ripe seeds (cereals, legumes, and nuts):
These are highly nutritious, because of the large amount of protein and building mineral matter they contain, and also the amount of fuel food.
These are highly nutritious, because of the large amount of protein and building mineral matter they contain, and also the amount of fuel food.
It is important that the value of these be pointed out. Dried foods contain all of the constituents of fresh food excepting water and a little flavour lost in evaporation, yet they are often much cheaper. Attention should be directed to the best means of restoring the water and, if necessary, of giving an additional flavour by the use of cloves, cinnamon, etc.
Canning is a better means of preserving food for export or for use when out of season, but where the expense prohibits this method, drying is a good substitute. In districts where fruit and vegetables cannot be grown or in seasons when they cannot be obtained fresh, the dried forms are cheap and have excellent food value.
As vegetable food is eaten both raw and cooked, the pupils should be asked to decide when cooking is necessary and what they wish it to accomplish.
There are only two substances in vegetable food which will require cooking, and these are:
1. Cellulose, if it be hard or tough
2. Starch, if it be present.
The pupils have found in their experiment with the potato water, that starch cooks quickly, hence the time of cooking will depend altogether on the texture of the cellulose. When the cellulose is softened at the centre, the last part which the heat reaches, the vegetable or fruit will be cooked.
If the food is cooked in water by boiling or simmering, much of the substance will pass into the cooking water. As the cell walls become softened, they allow the cell contents to partially pass out and the cooking water to pass in to fill the space. If the food is long in cooking, the water may have more value than the vegetable, and it should not be thrown away. It may be used in two ways—as a basis for a sauce or a soup.
Note.—As the principles in the general rules have been taught, these rules may be dictated to the class.
Note.—As the principles in the general rules have been taught, these rules may be dictated to the class.
1. Wash, pare, peel, or scrape the vegetable, and cut it into convenient sizes.
2. Unless green vegetables are freshly gathered, soak them in cold water for an hour before cooking.
3. Soak dried vegetables at least twelve hours.
1. Put all vegetables on to cook in boiling water, except dried vegetables, which should be put on in cold water.
2. Strong-smelling vegetables should be cooked at simmering point, the others may boil gently.
3. For vegetables that grow above ground (including onions), salt the water (one tsp. to a quart).
4. For underground vegetables, do not salt the water.
Prepare and cook the vegetables until tender, according to the rules given above. Drain off and measure the vegetable water. For each 1/2 cup of vegetable, take 1/4 cup of the water and make into a sauce. Re-heat the vegetable in the sauce and serve in a hot dish.
Note 1.—For potatoes and tomatoes do not follow this recipe.Note 2.—The sauce is made by thickening each cup of vegetable water with two tablespoonfuls of flour, and seasoning as desired with salt, pepper, and butter.Note 3.—Another method of saving and using the valuable vegetable water is to make it into a soup.
Note 1.—For potatoes and tomatoes do not follow this recipe.
Note 2.—The sauce is made by thickening each cup of vegetable water with two tablespoonfuls of flour, and seasoning as desired with salt, pepper, and butter.
Note 3.—Another method of saving and using the valuable vegetable water is to make it into a soup.
1. Stewed.—Put the prepared fruit in a saucepan with enough water to keep it from burning. Cover closely, and stew until tender, stirring often. Add the sugar and let the mixture boil a minute more.
2. Cooked in syrup.—Make a syrup of one part sugar to two or three parts water. Put the prepared fruit in the hot syrup, cover closely, and simmer until tender.
Wash the fruit thoroughly. Cover with cold water and soak twenty-four hours. Put on to cook in the same water in which it has soaked. Add spices if desired. Cover closely and simmer until tender. Add the sugar and simmer ten minutes longer. Take out the fruit, and, if necessary, boil down the syrup, then pour it over the fruit.
While studying vegetable food, practice will be given in nearly every lesson in the preparation and cooking of vegetables or fruit, but after the completion of this series of lessons, these foods should be prepared and cooked with more intelligence and interest. For this reason, there may be, at the last, one general practical lesson devoted to vegetables and fruit, to review and impress the facts that have been taught. As potatoes, on account of their large amount of starch, require special care, an extra lesson may be given to this vegetable.
In the lesson on potatoes the attention of the class should be directed to the following:
1. Be sure to soften the cellulose thoroughly.
2. After the potatoes are cooked, get rid of all possible moisture, that they may be white and mealy.
(1) If potatoes are cooked in water, drain them thoroughly, remove the cover, and shake over the heat to dry out the starch.(2) If potatoes are baked, break the skins and allow the moisture to escape as steam.
3. When serving mashed potatoes, pile them lightly without smoothing.
A lesson on the use of starch for thickening purposes should be given before lessons on the making of a sauce or a soup from the water in which vegetables have been cooked. The necessity of separating the starch grains should be shown by experiments.
(Any powdered starch may be used)
1. Boil 1/4 cup of water in a small saucepan. While boiling, stir into it 1/2 tsp. of cornstarch and let it boil one minute. Observe the result. Break open a lump and examine it.
2. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of cold water, and stir into 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result.
3. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of sugar and stir into 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result.
4. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of melted fat in a small saucepan and stir into it 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result.
1. Starch granules must be separated before being used to thicken a liquid:
(1) By adding a double quantity of cold liquid(2) By adding a double quantity of sugar(3) By adding a double quantity of melted fat.
(1) By adding a double quantity of cold liquid
(2) By adding a double quantity of sugar
(3) By adding a double quantity of melted fat.
2. The liquid which is being thickened must be constantly stirred, to distribute evenly the starch grains until they are cooked.
MilkFlourButterThin cream sauce1 cup1 tbsp.1 tbsp.Thick cream sauce1 cup2 tbsp.2 tbsp.
Note.—Use thick cream sauce to pour over a food. Use thin cream sauce when solid food substance is mixed with the sauce.
Note.—Use thick cream sauce to pour over a food. Use thin cream sauce when solid food substance is mixed with the sauce.
1. Tomato sauce.—Use strained tomato juice instead of milk.
2. Vegetable sauce.—Use vegetable water in place of the milk.
3. Cheese sauce.—Use 1/3 to 1/2 cup of grated cheese in 1 cup of thick cream sauce.
At least one practice lesson should be given on the making of these soups. The value of the vegetable water should be impressed upon the pupils, and it may be pointed out that these soups are an excellent way of using the cooking water and any left-over vegetable.
The difference between tomatoes and other vegetables should be noted. Tomatoes are a fruit and, as such, contain an acid. The acid would curdle milk and must be neutralized by the use of soda, before milk can be added.
Utensils used for cream soupsUtensils used for cream soups
1. The liquid may be all milk, part vegetable water and milk, or all vegetable water.
2. The amount of flour used for thickening depends on the vegetable. Starchy vegetables need only 1/2 tbsp. to one cup of liquid; non-starchy vegetables need 1 tbsp. to a cup.
3. The ingredients are combined as follows:
(1) The liquid is heated and thickened with flour.(2) The seasonings of butter, salt, and pepper are added.(3) The vegetable pulp is added in any desired quantity, usually about two tbsp. to one cup of liquid.
(1) The liquid is heated and thickened with flour.
(2) The seasonings of butter, salt, and pepper are added.
(3) The vegetable pulp is added in any desired quantity, usually about two tbsp. to one cup of liquid.
A special recipe should be given for cream of tomato soup, so that the proportion of soda may be correct.
Note.—If flavours of onion, bay-leaf, parsley, etc., are desired, these should be cooked with the vegetables, so as to be extracted in the vegetable water.
Note.—If flavours of onion, bay-leaf, parsley, etc., are desired, these should be cooked with the vegetables, so as to be extracted in the vegetable water.