1. Forms in which used:
(1) Whole or cracked grains—rice, cracked wheat, coarse oatmeal, etc.(2) Granular—corn meal, cream of wheat, fine oatmeal, etc.(3) Rolled or flaked grains—wheat, oats, corn, rice, etc.(4) Powdered—wheat flour, rice flour, etc.
(1) Whole or cracked grains—rice, cracked wheat, coarse oatmeal, etc.
(2) Granular—corn meal, cream of wheat, fine oatmeal, etc.
(3) Rolled or flaked grains—wheat, oats, corn, rice, etc.
(4) Powdered—wheat flour, rice flour, etc.
2. Cooking cereals for breakfast:
For 1 cup of water use 1/4 tsp. of salt and the following cereal—Whole or cracked—1/4 cup of cerealGranular—3 tbsp. of cerealRolled or flaked—1/2 cup of cereal.
For 1 cup of water use 1/4 tsp. of salt and the following cereal—
Whole or cracked—1/4 cup of cereal
Granular—3 tbsp. of cereal
Rolled or flaked—1/2 cup of cereal.
Put salt and water in the inner part of a double boiler, and set directly over the fire. When steaming hot, gradually stir in the dry cereal, and keep stirring until the starch has thickened and boiled. Stir carefully, so as not to break the flakes of rolled cereals. Then set the innerdish inside the outer part of the double boiler, in which there should be boiling water, and cook from two to four hours.
Note 1.—Rice has very tender cellulose and cooks in 3/4 hr.Note 2.—Rolled or flaked cereals have been steamed an hour or more to soften them for rolling, so require less cooking.Note 3.—Cereals may be cooked for breakfast the day before, butshould not be stirred while being re-heated.
Note 1.—Rice has very tender cellulose and cooks in 3/4 hr.
Note 2.—Rolled or flaked cereals have been steamed an hour or more to soften them for rolling, so require less cooking.
Note 3.—Cereals may be cooked for breakfast the day before, butshould not be stirred while being re-heated.
1. Forms in which used:
(1) Ripe seeds(2) Meals—pea meal, etc.
(1) Ripe seeds
(2) Meals—pea meal, etc.
2. Cooking of dried legumes:
(1) Soak in cold, soft water for twelve hours or more, and then drain and rinse. Hard water may be softened by boiling, or by the addition of soda (1/8 tsp. of soda to 1 pt. of water).(2) Cook bysimmeringin softened water until they are soft.(3) After simmering, the beans may be baked.
(1) Soak in cold, soft water for twelve hours or more, and then drain and rinse. Hard water may be softened by boiling, or by the addition of soda (1/8 tsp. of soda to 1 pt. of water).
(2) Cook bysimmeringin softened water until they are soft.
(3) After simmering, the beans may be baked.
Forms in which used:
1. Whole or broken nuts—used as dessert or in cakes, salads, etc.
2. Butters—ground and mixed with other ingredients to make a paste.
3. Meals—ground and used to thicken soups.
The series of lessons on vegetable foods being finished, it is a good time to take a salad lesson. All salads were originally made from fresh young plants or salad greens, and though any food material is now used for the purpose, the subject seems to follow naturally the lessons on plant food.
The pupils should derive unusual pleasure from this work. The dishes made are most attractive and appetizing, besides affording an opportunity for each member of the class to display individual artistic skill. None of the principles are new, so that the lesson will be really a review.
The outline of notes for the class will be:
1. Salad plantsproper, such as lettuce, water-cress, celery, cabbage
2. Cooked vegetables, such as peas, beans, asparagus, carrots, beets
3. Meat—cold, of any kind
4. Fish—cold, of any kind
5. Eggs—hard-boiled
6. Fruit
7. Combinations of the above in great variety.
This depends on the ingredients. If salad greens only are used, the food value is mainly the mineral matter, but the dish will be refreshing and appetizing, and the oil, butter, or egg used in the dressing adds nutriment.
Salads are prepared with little trouble and with no expense for fuel.
1. Have everything cold before combining.
2. Freshen the greens in cold water until crisp.
3. Meat, fish, and solid ingredients should be seasoned some time before using, so that they may absorb the flavours of the seasoning.
4. In most cases do not combine the ingredients with the dressing until just before serving.
(1) Salad greens.—Wash thoroughly, and put in cold water until crisp, drain on a towel, wrap in a damp cloth, and put in a cool place. Cabbage and lettuce may be finely shredded.(2) Fruit and cooked vegetables.—Cut into cubes or suitable pieces. Chill and mix with the dressing, to absorb it.(3) Meats.—Remove the fat, skin, and gristle. Cut in cubes and chill.(4) Fish.—Remove the bones, flake, chill, and pour dressing over; but do not mix.
(1) Salad greens.—Wash thoroughly, and put in cold water until crisp, drain on a towel, wrap in a damp cloth, and put in a cool place. Cabbage and lettuce may be finely shredded.
(2) Fruit and cooked vegetables.—Cut into cubes or suitable pieces. Chill and mix with the dressing, to absorb it.
(3) Meats.—Remove the fat, skin, and gristle. Cut in cubes and chill.
(4) Fish.—Remove the bones, flake, chill, and pour dressing over; but do not mix.
1. Cooked salad dressing:
2 tbsp. sugar1/4 cup vinegar1/2 tsp. mustard2 eggs1/2 tsp. salt2 tbsp. butter.
(1) Mix the first four ingredients in a saucepan and heat until dissolved.(2) Beat the eggs very light in a round-bottomed bowl, using a Dover egg beater.(3) Beat the vinegar mixture into the eggs.(4) Set the bowl, with its contents, over a dish of boiling water, then beat slowly and constantly until the mixture is thickened.(5) Lift the bowl from the heatat once.(6) Beat in the butter and set away to cool.(7) If desired, a half cup of whipped or plain cream may be added just before the dressing is used.
(1) Mix the first four ingredients in a saucepan and heat until dissolved.
(2) Beat the eggs very light in a round-bottomed bowl, using a Dover egg beater.
(3) Beat the vinegar mixture into the eggs.
(4) Set the bowl, with its contents, over a dish of boiling water, then beat slowly and constantly until the mixture is thickened.
(5) Lift the bowl from the heatat once.
(6) Beat in the butter and set away to cool.
(7) If desired, a half cup of whipped or plain cream may be added just before the dressing is used.
2. Uncooked salad dressing:
1/4 tsp. salt4 tbsp. olive oil1/8 tsp. pepper2 tbsp. vinegar.
(1) Stir the salt and pepper into the oil.(2) Add the vinegar slowly and stir vigorously until well blended and slightly thickened.(3) Serve with any salad made of salad greens.
(1) Stir the salt and pepper into the oil.
(2) Add the vinegar slowly and stir vigorously until well blended and slightly thickened.
(3) Serve with any salad made of salad greens.
As the study of mineral food involves a knowledge of chemistry, little more can be done in Junior classes than to teach that certain mineral compounds are required for the body, to point out their two main uses, and to lead the pupils to know the foods which generally supply these.
Their attention should be directed to the fact that all mineral matter is found, in the first place, in the earth's crust, but that, with the exception of salt, animals cannot use it in that form. Plants can use it, and they absorb it from the soil; then we eat the plants, and in that way obtain the mineral substance, or we may obtain it by eating the animals which have eaten the plants. Water also, in making its way through the earth, may dissolve certain minerals and, by drinking the water, we obtain these.
It will not be necessary to teach the names of the minerals which our food must supply, as most of these will mean nothing to the pupils. They might be asked to name one or two which are very familiar; for instance, the lime in bone and the iron in blood. They may be told that there are a few others which they will learn when they study chemistry in the high school.
The pupils have already learned that mineral matter serves two main functions in the body: that is,buildingandregulating, and it is a good plan to classify the well-known foods under these two headings. With a little guidance the pupils can do most of this for themselves. They know that milk serves all building purposes in a child's body, and must, therefore, contain mineral matter. Eggs build animal bodies, and must contain this substance also. Meat is the animal body that has been built, therefore meat has this substance; but we shall find in the meat lessons that there is no mineral matter in fat and that the cook cannot dissolve it out of bone, therefore muscle or lean meat must be eaten to obtain it. Seeds, too, contain building material for new plants; therefore, the building mineral matter must be stored in their cells. Hard water is known by the lime it contains, therefore this, if drunk, assists in the formation of bone.
The class must be told that the mineral in the juices of plants is mainly for regulating purposes; that is, to keep our bodies in order, or as we say, healthy. When they get out of order, we usually go to a doctor to be regulated or made well. The medicine which he prescribes often contains some mineral in solution, perhaps iron. The mineral matter which is in the juices of plants, being a more natural form than the mineral matter in the medicine, is more easily made use of in the bodilyprocesses. This is one reason why people should eat plenty of vegetables and fruit.
Many springs also furnish water with large quantities of mineral matter in solution, which is used mainly for medicinal purposes. The pupils may know some places where we find such springs, and these should be mentioned, such as Preston Springs, Banff, and Mount Clemens, which have become health resorts through the presence of these waters. When the springs are in a distant country and their waters are known to contain a certain mineral which our bodies need, the water is bottled and shipped to us, and may be obtained from a druggist. Hunyadi Janos, Apenta, Vichy, and Apollinaris are well-known medicinal waters shipped from European springs.
1. Building mineral matter.—Milk, eggs, lean meat, seeds, hard water
2. Regulating mineral matter.—Fruit, vegetables, mineral waters, salt.
Note.—This classification will be most useful to the pupils in preparing well-balanced meals in their diet lessons.
Note.—This classification will be most useful to the pupils in preparing well-balanced meals in their diet lessons.
After studying in this elementary way the composition of the animal and vegetable foods, the pupils will be ready for simple lessons on diet. The class may now be said to have a working knowledge of the well-known foods, and they should be given a chance to use this knowledge, by combining and serving these foods for simple meals.
It will be helpful in this work, to guide the pupils in making out a reference table of the food constituents. This will give lists of food in which each constituent predominates, as follows:
1. Water:
Beverages (water, milk, tea, coffee, cocoa), fruit, vegetables.
2. Mineral matter:
(1) For building—milk, eggs (yolk and white), lean meat or fish, seeds, hard water(2) For regulating—fruit, vegetables, mineral waters.
(1) For building—milk, eggs (yolk and white), lean meat or fish, seeds, hard water
(2) For regulating—fruit, vegetables, mineral waters.
3. Protein:
Milk (curd), eggs (yolk and white), lean meat or fish, seeds.
Milk (curd), eggs (yolk and white), lean meat or fish, seeds.
4. Sugar:
Fruit (juice), non-starchy vegetables (juice), milk (whey), commercial sugar.
Fruit (juice), non-starchy vegetables (juice), milk (whey), commercial sugar.
5. Starch:
Parts of plants which serve as storehouses:Tubers—potatoes, artichokesRoots—parsnip, tapioca, arrowrootStem—sagoSeeds—cereals, legumes, some nuts (peanuts, chestnuts).
Parts of plants which serve as storehouses:
Tubers—potatoes, artichokes
Roots—parsnip, tapioca, arrowroot
Stem—sago
Seeds—cereals, legumes, some nuts (peanuts, chestnuts).
6. Fat:
Milk (cream), egg-yolk, meat or fish (fat), fruit, as the olive (oil), most nuts (walnut, butternut, pecan, peanut, etc.).
Milk (cream), egg-yolk, meat or fish (fat), fruit, as the olive (oil), most nuts (walnut, butternut, pecan, peanut, etc.).
Besides the necessary substances in food, the pupils must be told that there are other points for the housekeeper to consider when preparing the meals, namely:
1. The amount of each food substance required daily.
2. Special requirements of individuals according to: (1) age, (2) occupation, (3) climate, (4) season.
Under 1, above, it may be explained, that when a meal is prepared which gives the body a correct proportion of each food substance, it is said to be well balanced. From numerous experiments the "Dietary Standard" for one day for a grown person has been calculated to be:
Water—about 5 pints, two of which are taken in solid foodMineral matter—1 ounceProtein—3 to 4-1/2 ouncesFat—2 ouncesSugar and starch (together)—14 to 18 ounces.
Although the pupils cannot be expected to follow this table accurately, from lack of sufficient knowledge, it will be of some assistance to them in choosing a combination of food for the home meals.
Under 2, above, some of the variations of food are obvious, but some must be taught. Children require simple, nourishing food, which will contain plenty of protein and mineral matter for tissue building as well as much fuel food. Their diet should be varied and abundant.
In old age the diet should also be simple, because of the lack of vigour in the digestive organs, but the amount of building material should be decreased. The food ofold people should contain proportionately more carbonaceous material.
Brain workers require less food than those engaged in active muscular work, and it should be less stimulating and less bulky. Their diet should be in a form that is easily digested.
With the foregoing general ideas in mind, the pupils may be asked to prepare menus for simple home meals. These should be assigned as home work, so that plenty of time can be given to their consideration, and then they may be brought to the class for criticism. The best of these should be chosen for actual practice in school work.
Note.—It is intended that this part of the work shall be presented in a very rudimentary way. The teacher should feel satisfied if she succeeds in implanting ideas of the importance of these food considerations, so that the pupils will be ready for more specific instruction to be gained in higher schools or from their own reading. Cheap bulletins onHuman Nutrition, published by Cornell University, will be excellent reading on this subject.
Note.—It is intended that this part of the work shall be presented in a very rudimentary way. The teacher should feel satisfied if she succeeds in implanting ideas of the importance of these food considerations, so that the pupils will be ready for more specific instruction to be gained in higher schools or from their own reading. Cheap bulletins onHuman Nutrition, published by Cornell University, will be excellent reading on this subject.
Before the pupils are given a meal to prepare and serve, table setting should be reviewed, and the rules of table service taught as follows:
1. The hostess serves the soup, salad, dessert, tea, and coffee; the host serves the meat and fish.
2. Vegetables and side dishes may be served by some one at the table or passed by the waitress.
3. Dishes are served at the left of each person, commencing with the chief guest.
4. Guests are served first; ladies before gentlemen.
5. In each course, remove the dishes containing the food before removing the soiled plates.
6. When one course is finished, take the tray in the left hand, stand on the left side of the person, and remove the individual soiled dishes with the right hand, never piling them.
7. Before dessert is served, if necessary, remove the crumbs from the cloth with a brush, crumb knife, or napkin.
8. Tea or coffee may be poured at table or served from a side table by the waitress.
Note.—Extra cutlery and napkins should be conveniently placed on a side table, in case of accident.
Note.—Extra cutlery and napkins should be conveniently placed on a side table, in case of accident.
Where the class consists of twelve or more pupils, it must be divided for the preparation and serving of a meal. Each section should prepare and serve a meal for the others, until all have had experience. As breakfast and luncheon are the simpler meals, they should be taken first in the order of lessons. The duties of the cooking and serving should be definitely settled, and each girl given entire responsibility for a certain part of the work.
Those who are served should represent a family. Members should be chosen to act as father, mother, lady guest, gentleman guest, and children of varying ages, so that the duties and serving of each may be typified.
The pupilsof Form IV Junior should be urged to take entire care of their own bed-rooms. The Household Management teacher can do much to encourage them in this. She may include such work as part of the week's practice.
The order of work should be discussed and planned by the pupils, the teacher guiding the class by her questioning. In lessons of this kind, the main work of the teacher is to ascertain what the pupil knows and to systematize her knowledge.
A typewritten sheet of directions may be given each pupil to hang in her room, and may serve as an incentive to her to perform the duties outlined.
1. Open the window, if it has been closed during dressing.
2. Throw the bed-clothing over the foot of the bed, using a chair to hold it from the floor, or place it over two chairs near the window.
3. Put night clothing to air.
4. Put away any other clothing in drawers and closet.
5. Tidy and dust the top of the dressing-table.
6. Make the bed, after it has been aired at least half an hour.
Once a week the following work should be added:
1. The blankets and comforter should be hung outside to air.
2. The mattress should be turned, and fresh bed-linen placed on the bed.
3. The room should be thoroughly swept and dusted.
After the pupils have had training in the care of their bed-rooms, this experience, together with their lessons in cleaning, should enable them to keep any of the other rooms in the house in good order.
It should be pointed out that, in these days of sanitary building and furnishing, there is no necessity for the semi-annual "housecleaning" of former times. Each week the house can be thoroughly gone over, with the exception of laundering curtains and washing wood-work, and these duties might be taken in turn, a room at a time every week, so that the work will not accumulate.
The class should be taught to consider the economy of time and energy and encouraged to provide themselves with all the latest aids they can afford.
The cleaning methods which are necessary for this work and which have not been formally taught, should now be definitely outlined. These are the weekly sweeping, weekly dusting, and cleaning special metals.
1. Dust and put away all small articles.
2. Lift the small rugs, sweep them on both sides, out-of-doors if possible, and leave them to air. Rugs too large to take out should be brushed and folded over to allow of sweeping the under side and wiping the floor beneath.
3. Cover the furniture with dust sheets.
4. Shut the doors and open a window.
5. Begin at the side of the room farthest from the door and sweep toward the centre; sweep from the other side toward the centre; gather the dust in a dust-pan and empty it into the garbage pail or fire.
6. Put away the broom and dust-pan.
7. Leave the room shut up for a few minutes, in order to allow the dust to settle.
8. Use a "dustless" mop to dust the floor.
1. Use a soft cotton or cheesecloth duster very slightly dampened.
2. Roll up the covers that are over the furniture and carry them outside, in order to shake off the dust.
3. Wipe the dust from the furniture, pictures, window-sills, ledges, doors, and baseboard, being careful not to scatter it in the air.
4. Change the duster when necessary.
5. Replace the small articles.
6. Wash and dry the dusters.
Utensils made of these are heavy, but strong and durable, and hold the heat well.
1. Care:
They must be kept dry and smooth. Moisture causes rust, roughens the surfaces of theutensils, and makes them more difficult to clean. If they are not to be used for some time, the surfaces should be greased or coated with paraffin.
They must be kept dry and smooth. Moisture causes rust, roughens the surfaces of theutensils, and makes them more difficult to clean. If they are not to be used for some time, the surfaces should be greased or coated with paraffin.
2. Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds, rinse in hot water, and dry thoroughly.(2) If food is burned on, scour with some gritty material or boil in a solution of washing soda, rinse in hot water, and dry thoroughly.
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds, rinse in hot water, and dry thoroughly.
(2) If food is burned on, scour with some gritty material or boil in a solution of washing soda, rinse in hot water, and dry thoroughly.
Utensils made of this are light and inexpensive; they are good conductors of heat, but they are also good radiators and lose heat quickly.
1. Care:
As tinware is steel or iron coated with liquid tin, the grades vary according to the "base-metal" used and the thickness of the coating. Utensils made of this metal must be carefully kept from scratches, since deep scratches expose the base-metal and allow the formation of rust.
As tinware is steel or iron coated with liquid tin, the grades vary according to the "base-metal" used and the thickness of the coating. Utensils made of this metal must be carefully kept from scratches, since deep scratches expose the base-metal and allow the formation of rust.
2. Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds, rinse, and dry thoroughly.(2) If food is burned on, boil in a weak solution of washing soda, rinse in hot water, and dry thoroughly.
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds, rinse, and dry thoroughly.
(2) If food is burned on, boil in a weak solution of washing soda, rinse in hot water, and dry thoroughly.
Note.—Whiting may be used to brighten the tin, but scouring is not recommended, as it wears off the coating.
Note.—Whiting may be used to brighten the tin, but scouring is not recommended, as it wears off the coating.
Utensils made of this are attractive, not heavy, and they do not tarnish or rust.
1. Care:
These wares are made by coating steel or sheet-iron with a specially prepared glassy substance called enamel or glaze. Two or three coats are applied. The durability depends on the ingredients used in the glaze and on the number of coats applied.Such utensils should be heated gradually, scraped carefully, and handled without knocking, to avoid "chipping".
These wares are made by coating steel or sheet-iron with a specially prepared glassy substance called enamel or glaze. Two or three coats are applied. The durability depends on the ingredients used in the glaze and on the number of coats applied.
Such utensils should be heated gradually, scraped carefully, and handled without knocking, to avoid "chipping".
2. Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds.(2) If stained, use some scouring powder; wash and dry.(3) If food is burned on, boil in a solution of washing soda and then scour; wash and dry.
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds.
(2) If stained, use some scouring powder; wash and dry.
(3) If food is burned on, boil in a solution of washing soda and then scour; wash and dry.
Utensils made of this are very light in weight and, as they have no crevices, are easily cleaned. They are also good conductors of heat.
1. Care:
This metal warps under a high temperature, and should, therefore, be used with care. Do not turn the gas on full, or, if used over wood or coal fires, be sure to leave the stove lid on.Some foods injure the metal, if they are allowed to remain in it very long.
This metal warps under a high temperature, and should, therefore, be used with care. Do not turn the gas on full, or, if used over wood or coal fires, be sure to leave the stove lid on.
Some foods injure the metal, if they are allowed to remain in it very long.
2. Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot water, with mild soap. Alkalies should not be used, as they darken the surface.(2) If food is burned on, the dish should be soaked in water and then scoured with bathbrick or emery powder.(3) Whiting may be used to brighten it.
(1) Wash in hot water, with mild soap. Alkalies should not be used, as they darken the surface.
(2) If food is burned on, the dish should be soaked in water and then scoured with bathbrick or emery powder.
(3) Whiting may be used to brighten it.
This is not used for utensils, but for table tops and for placing under stoves, etc.
Cleaning:
(1) Use hot water and mild soap. Alkalies and acids affect zinc and should be used with care.(2) If stained, rub with coal-oil or a paste made of coal-oil and soda, and then wash in hot water.
(1) Use hot water and mild soap. Alkalies and acids affect zinc and should be used with care.
(2) If stained, rub with coal-oil or a paste made of coal-oil and soda, and then wash in hot water.
This is used for garbage pails, ash pans, stove pipes, etc. It is made by dipping sheet-iron into melted zinc.
Cleaning:
The same as for zinc.
The same as for zinc.
Utensils made of these are heavy but durable and are good conductors of heat. They are dangerous, if not properly cleaned.
Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot water, using a little washing soda to remove any grease, rinse well, and dry.(2) If stained or tarnished, scour with salt and vinegar, then rinse thoroughly, and dry.
(1) Wash in hot water, using a little washing soda to remove any grease, rinse well, and dry.
(2) If stained or tarnished, scour with salt and vinegar, then rinse thoroughly, and dry.
This is used for spoons, knives, forks, and serving dishes, but never for cooking utensils, on account of its cost. It is the best conductor of heat among the house metals.
Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds.(2) If stained or tarnished, use whiting or silver polish, wash, and dry.
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds.
(2) If stained or tarnished, use whiting or silver polish, wash, and dry.
2 tbsp. borax1/2 cup alcohol1 cup boiling waterwhiting.
1. Dissolve the borax in the water.
2. When cold, add the alcohol and enough whiting to make a thin cream.
3. Bottle, and shake when used.
Note.—The care and cleaning of the metals out of which ordinary utensils are made, such as granite ware, tin, and steel, may be taught incidentally as the utensils are used.
Note.—The care and cleaning of the metals out of which ordinary utensils are made, such as granite ware, tin, and steel, may be taught incidentally as the utensils are used.
This workis but a continuation of the lessons on cleaning. It is the process of removing foreign matter from cotton, linen, woollen, or silk fabrics by the use of water and additional cleansing agents. It also includes the finishing of these materials by the use of blueing, starch, and heated irons, to restore as far as possible their original appearance.
The principles of laundry work have been taught in the washing of dish cloths and towels, and now these principles have only to be extended to white cotton and linen clothes of any kind.
The pupils may be asked to bring soiled articles of white linen or cotton from home for use at school in exemplifying the necessary processes. In schools which lack an equipment, these processes may be discussed in class and then practised at home. The teacher should choose from the following outline what is most suitable to the class:
Lesson I
1. Water:
(1) Use:
(a) To soften and dissolve certain foreign substances in the clothes.(b) To carry away all the foreign matter that has been dissolved or rubbed out of the clothes.
(2) Kinds:
(a)Hard water(b)Soft water
For laundry purposes, the water should be soft. The quality known as hardness, which some water has, is due to the lime which it has dissolved in making its way through the earth.Water is said to be temporarily or permanently hard according to the kind of lime it has in solution. Temporarily hard water may be softened by boiling; the lime will be deposited, as may be seen in the "furring" of tea-kettles. Boiling has no effect in softening permanently hard water, so a substance known as analkaliis used for this purpose.
For laundry purposes, the water should be soft. The quality known as hardness, which some water has, is due to the lime which it has dissolved in making its way through the earth.
Water is said to be temporarily or permanently hard according to the kind of lime it has in solution. Temporarily hard water may be softened by boiling; the lime will be deposited, as may be seen in the "furring" of tea-kettles. Boiling has no effect in softening permanently hard water, so a substance known as analkaliis used for this purpose.
(3) Methods of softening water by alkalies.—For each gallon of water use one of the following:
(a) One tablespoonful of borax or ammonia dissolved in one cup of water.(b) Two tablespoonfuls of a solution made by dissolving one pound of washing soda in one quart of boiling water.(c) One fourth tablespoonful of lye dissolved in one cup of water.
2. Alkalies (borax, ammonia, washing soda, lye):
(1) Use:
(a) To soften hard water(b) To assist in dissolving greasy substances.
(2) Kinds:
(a)Borax.—This alkali is one of the mildest, and for this reason is less harmful to the clothing. It is useful when an alkali is required to soften water for coloured clothes or woollens. It also has a tendency to keep white clothes a good colour.(b)Ammonia.—This also is a mild alkali, but is apt to "yellow" white materials. As it is very volatile, it should not be used unless the washing can be done quickly.(c)Washing soda.—This is a cheap substance and stronger than borax or ammonia. It should be made into a solution before it is used, for fear of too great strength.(d)Lye, or caustic soda.—This alkali is very strong and should be employed with great care. It must not be used except in weak solutions, otherwise it would entirely dissolve fabrics. It is not advisable for home laundry work.
3. Soap:
(1) Use.—To act on greasy matter.
Soap-suds penetrate fabrics more completely than water alone, and when the soap comes in contact with fatty material, itemulsifiesit, that is, very finely divides it into minute particles, so that it can be easily removed. If a soap is used thatcontains free alkali, this substance unites with the greasy impurities to form new soap which has cleansing value.
(2) Kinds.—(a) Neutral, (b) medium, (c) strong.
All soap is a compound of an alkali and fat, and according as one or the other of these substances predominates, the kind of soap is determined.
When just enough alkali is used to completelysaponifythe amount of fat, the product is called a neutral, or mild, soap. When an excess of alkali is present, the soap is termed medium or strong, according to the amount of free alkali it contains.
A mild soap should be used when free alkali would be injurious, as in washing woollens or fabrics that have delicate colours.
4. Soap substitutes, or adjuncts:
(1) Use.—To act alone or with soap in exerting a solvent action on greasy impurities, so that the cleansing process may be facilitated.(2) Kinds:
(a)Alkalies.—These must be used in excess of the amount needed for softening the water.
(b)Harmless solvents, such as turpentine, paraffin, coal-oil, gasolene.—The clothing must be well rinsed to get rid of any odour.
(c)Washing powders.—These are prepared mixtures of soap and some other solvent of greasy matter.
5. Blueing:
(1) Use.—To make clothes which have a yellow tinge appear whiter in colour.(2) Kinds.—There are several kinds on the market, but the names of these will be of no value to the class.
Note.—Sufficient blueing should be used to make the blueing water a pale sky-blue colour when a little of it is lifted in the hand.
Note.—Sufficient blueing should be used to make the blueing water a pale sky-blue colour when a little of it is lifted in the hand.
6. Starch:
(1) Use:
(a) To stiffen fabrics and thus improve their appearance.
(b) To give fabrics a glazed surface, so that they will shed dust and other impurities.
(2) Kinds.—(a) Cold starch, (b) boiled starch.
Raw starch does not give as durable a finish as cooked starch, but it does give greater stiffness. A fabric will take up more starch in the raw form, and the heat of the iron cooks the starch, thus producing the stiffness. The "body", or stiffness, produced by cooked starch is usually preferable, though on account of its preparation, it is not so convenient to use.
(3) Recipes for starch—
(a) Cold Starch
2 tbsp. laundry starch1/2 tsp. borax2 cups cold water.
Dissolve the borax in a little boiling water. Add the cold water gradually to the starch and mix thoroughly. Add the dissolved borax and stir well before using.
(b) Boiled Starch
2 tbsp. starch1/2 tsp. lard, butter, or paraffin4 tbsp. cold water1 qt. boiling water.
Mix the starch with the cold water until free from lumps. Add the lard, then gradually stir in the boiling water, and keep stirring until thickened. Cook fifteen minutes and use hot.
Note.—Borax in starch gives greater gloss and increases the stiffness. It also gives more lasting stiffness. Lard, butter, or wax is used to give a smoother finish and to prevent the starch from sticking to the iron.
Note.—Borax in starch gives greater gloss and increases the stiffness. It also gives more lasting stiffness. Lard, butter, or wax is used to give a smoother finish and to prevent the starch from sticking to the iron.
1. Sort the clothes: (1) Table linen and clean towels(2) Bed and body linen(3) Handkerchiefs(4) Soiled towels and cloths.2. Mend the clothes.3. Remove stains.4. Look after necessary materials.
StepsMethod
1. Soaking:
Wet the clothes; rub the soiled parts with soap and roll each article separately; pack in a tub, placing the clothing most soiled at the bottom; cover with warm soapy water and soak from one hour to over night.The soaking softens and loosens the fibres of fabrics, so that the foreign matter in them can be more easily separated. It also dissolves the soluble impurities in the fabrics.
Wet the clothes; rub the soiled parts with soap and roll each article separately; pack in a tub, placing the clothing most soiled at the bottom; cover with warm soapy water and soak from one hour to over night.
The soaking softens and loosens the fibres of fabrics, so that the foreign matter in them can be more easily separated. It also dissolves the soluble impurities in the fabrics.
2. Rubbing:
Wring the clothes out of the soaking water, and place them in a tub of clean warm water or soap-suds; rub the soiled parts first on one side and then on the other, using the knuckles, a washboard, or a washing-machine. When each piece is clean, wring it tightly.The rubbing scrapes or rubs out the foreign matter which has been loosened by the soaking.
Wring the clothes out of the soaking water, and place them in a tub of clean warm water or soap-suds; rub the soiled parts first on one side and then on the other, using the knuckles, a washboard, or a washing-machine. When each piece is clean, wring it tightly.
The rubbing scrapes or rubs out the foreign matter which has been loosened by the soaking.
3. Rinsing:
Shake out each piece and put it into a tub of clear water; rub, and move about in the water to get rid of any soiled water that the clothes may contain; wring tightly.
Shake out each piece and put it into a tub of clear water; rub, and move about in the water to get rid of any soiled water that the clothes may contain; wring tightly.
4. Boiling:
Shake out each piece and place it in a boiler of cold water with or without soap; bring to boiling heat, and boil briskly for twenty minutes.The boiling kills any germs and assists in whitening the clothes.
Shake out each piece and place it in a boiler of cold water with or without soap; bring to boiling heat, and boil briskly for twenty minutes.
The boiling kills any germs and assists in whitening the clothes.
5. Rinsing:
Lift the clothes from the boiling water by means of a clothes stick and place them in a tub of clear, cold water; proceed as in the first rinsing.
Lift the clothes from the boiling water by means of a clothes stick and place them in a tub of clear, cold water; proceed as in the first rinsing.
6. Blueing:
Open out each piece and place one or two at a time in a tub of blueing water for just a moment; wring tightly, and shake out each piece.The blueing tends to counteract any yellow tinge in the clothes, making them appear whiter.
Open out each piece and place one or two at a time in a tub of blueing water for just a moment; wring tightly, and shake out each piece.
The blueing tends to counteract any yellow tinge in the clothes, making them appear whiter.
7. Starching:
Dip one piece at a time into the starch mixture until well saturated; then wring.Only certain articles or parts of articles will require this part of the process, to give them body or stiffness and, it may be, glossiness.
Dip one piece at a time into the starch mixture until well saturated; then wring.
Only certain articles or parts of articles will require this part of the process, to give them body or stiffness and, it may be, glossiness.
8. Hanging:
Shake out each piece thoroughly; fasten to a clothes-line or hang on a rack to allow the moisture to evaporate. This should be out-of-doors in the sunlight if possible.
Shake out each piece thoroughly; fasten to a clothes-line or hang on a rack to allow the moisture to evaporate. This should be out-of-doors in the sunlight if possible.
Foreign matter which is difficult or impossible to remove by the ordinary washing process is called astain. Such matter is not dissolved by the usual cleansing agents used in laundry work, such as water and soap, but requires some special solvent to act on it. The choice of the agent to be used will depend on the nature of the foreign matter to be removed. In some cases it is difficult to findan agent which will not act also on the colour of the fabric; in other cases to find one which does not injure the fibre of the goods.
The pupils should be asked to give instances from their own experience where special solvents were used to remove stains, and be required to make a list of these. If necessary, the teacher should supplement this list with the names of other agents and the methods of using them.
The washing of woollen materials is part of the Course for the work of the Senior Grade of Form IV, but, for the sake of convenience, the laundry lessons of both Grades of Form IV are outlined in one section of this Manual.
Before allowing the class any practice in this branch of laundry work, it will be necessary for the teacher to make certain principles very clear: