1.Scraping or rubbing away the foreign substance:
What would you use to remove the butter from the plate? A piece of paper or a knife. What are you doing with the knife or paper? Scraping or rubbing off the foreign substance. Then how was it removed? It was removed by scraping or rubbing.
Suppose some one has sharpened a pencil and let the pieces fall on the floor, what would you take to remove the foreign substance from the floor? A broom. Whatwould you say you are doing with the broom? Sweeping. How does the movement of the broom over the floor compare with the movement of the knife over the plate? It is similar. What would you take to remove the dust from the window-sill? A duster. What would you say you are doing? Dusting. How does the movement of the duster compare with the movement of the knife and the broom? It is similar. In all of these cases of dish, floor, and sill, how did we remove the foreign substance? We scraped or rubbed it off. Name one way of removing a foreign substance. Scraping or rubbing it away.
2.Dissolving the foreign substance and then scraping it away:
Show a much soiled towel and ask what is usually done to clean it. It is washed. Ask the pupils to tell just what they mean by that. The towel is put in water and soap used on it. What effect will the soap and water have on the foreign substance? They will soften or dissolve it. Then what must be done next? The towel must be rubbed on a board or with the hands. What effect has this operation on the foreign substance? It scrapes or rubs the foreign substance away. Then we have another way of cleaning: By first dissolving the foreign substance, and then scraping or rubbing it away.
A number of well-known cleaning operations may then be given, and the pupils asked in each case to decide the method used—such as, whisking a coat, scrubbing a table, cleaning the teeth, or washing dishes.
Next, get lists of the common cleansing agents found in an ordinary home, and arrange them in order of coarseness.
The black-board scheme, as the lesson develops, will appear as follows:
1.Meaning of Cleaning:
Cleaning is removing any foreign substance.
Cleaning is removing any foreign substance.
2.Methods of Cleaning:
(1) Scraping or rubbing away the foreign substance.(2) Dissolving the foreign substance and then scraping or rubbing it away.
(1) Scraping or rubbing away the foreign substance.
(2) Dissolving the foreign substance and then scraping or rubbing it away.
3.Household cleansing agents used in the first method:
(1) Duster(6) Whiting(2) Brush(7) Bathbrick(3) Broom(8) Coarse salt(4) Washboard(9) Sand(5) Knife(10) Ashes.
4.Household cleansing agents used in the second method:
(1) Water(7) Washing soda(2) Hot water(8) Coal-oil(3) Soap(9) Gasolene(4) Lux(10) Acids(5) Ammonia(11) Lye.(6) Borax
5.Combination cleansing agents:
(1) Bon Ami,(2) Dutch Cleanser,(3) Sapolio.
When the class have these ideas, they are ready to put them into practice, and the remainder of the lesson should be spent in practical work.
If the pupils have soiled no dishes, it may be wise to drill them first in table washing or towel washing, so as to get them ready for the next lesson when tables and towels will be used.
Gradually, in connection with the making of simple dishes, the pupils should be taught special methods of dish washing, sink cleaning, and dusting. Each day as they are appointed to different duties in cleaning, these methods should be strictly followed until they become well known.
While they are still new to the class, it will be a great help to have outlines of the kinds of cleaning which are necessary in every lesson posted conveniently in different parts of the room for reference.
These outlines may be as follows:
Preparation for washing:
1. Put away the food.2. Scrape and pile the dishes.3. Put the dishes that need it to soak.4. Place soap, pans, brushes, and towels.5. Put water in the pans.
(1) Fill the dish pan about half full of warm water, then soap it.
(2) Fill the rinsing pan nearly full of hot water.
Order of washing:
1. Glass5. Granite ware2. Silver6. Tins3. China7. Pots4. Crockery8. Steel knives and forks.
Finishing after washing:
1. Soap a dish cloth and wash the sides and bottom of the dish pan, before emptying it.
2. Empty the dish pan, rinse at the sink, and half fill with clear, warm water, to rinse the towels.
3. Wash the towels in the rinsing pan, rinse them in the dish pan, shake them straight, fold, and hang.
4. Soap the dish cloth, wash the inside of the rinsing pan, empty, rinse, and wipe with the dish cloth.
5. Wash and wipe the soap dish.
6. Empty the dish pan and wipe with the dish cloth.
7. Pile the pans, place the brushes and soap, and set away.
8. Fold the dish cloth and hang it to dry.
1. If necessary, scrape or brush off the table stoves.
2. Get a scrub cloth, a wash-basin of warm water, and a scrub-brush.
3. Wash the part of the table used by your group, doing the part not occupied by the dish washing first; then get the dish washers to move along, so that you can finish it, proceeding as follows:
(1) Wet the table all over.(2) Rub the soap cake over it.(3) Scrub with the wet brush with the grain of the wood.(4) Rinse the soap off with the clear water.(5) Wipe with the cloth wrung dry.
4. Get clear water. Rinse the brush and put it away. Rinse the scrub cloth and wring it dry.
5. Take the basin and cloth to the sink. Empty, rinse the basin, and dry it with the cloth. Rinse the cloth under the tap and wring it dry.
6. Fold and hang the cloth to dry. Bring back a dry cloth and thoroughly dry the aluminium strip.
7. Put away the dry cloth and basin.
1. Let the other housekeepers get the water they need.
2. Get a sink pan, a scrub cloth, and a brush. Put warm water in the pan.
3. Scrub the drain board if there be one, as follows:
(1) Wet the board all over.(2) Rub the soap cake over it.(3) Scrub with a wet brush with the grain of wood.(4) Rinse the soap off with clear water.(5) Wipe with the cloth wrung dry.
4. Wash the nickel part of the sink (tap and stand) with soap. Wipe with the cloth wrung dry.
5. Wash the outside of the basin of the sink.
6. When the other housekeepers have emptied their water, wash the inside of the sink basin and wipe with the cloth wrung dry.
7. Wash the scrub cloth and pan, rinse the brush, and put all away.
8. Polish the nickel with a dry duster.
1. Get a cheesecloth duster.
2. Dust the chairs and put them in place.
3. Dust the table legs and drawer handles.
4. Dust the cupboard and refrigerator.
5. Dust the wood-work, window-sills, ledges, etc.
6. Wash the duster and hang it up to dry.
Another preliminary part of the work will be teaching the pupils to measure and follow a recipe.
The measures used in kitchen work are teaspoon, tablespoon, pint, quart, and gallon, of which a table should be developed as follows:
3teaspoonfuls (tsp.)1 tablespoonful (tbsp.)16tbsp.1 cup2cups1 pint (pt.)2pt.1 quart (qt.)4qt.1 gallon (gal.)
In connection with this table the following points should be brought out:
1. That all measurements are made level.
2. That in measuring liquids, the measure should be set on a level surface.
3. That to halve the contents of a spoon, the division should be made lengthwise.
4. That to quarter the contents of a spoon, the half should be divided crosswise.
5. That in measuring flour, it should not be shaken down to level it.
6. That in using one measure for both dry and liquid ingredients, the dry should be measured first.
7. That in measuring a cupful of dry ingredients, the cup should be filled by using a spoon or scoop.
(a) Dividing the contents of a spoon(a) Dividing the contents of a spoon
(b) Dividing a spoonful in halves(b) Dividing a spoonful in halves
(c) Filling a cup(c) Filling a cup
(d) Levelling a cupful(d) Levelling a cupful
A table of equivalent measures and weights of some staple foods will also be useful and may be given to the class:
2 cups butter (packed solidly)1pound2 c. granulated sugar1"2 c. rice(about) 1"2 c. finely chopped meat1"2 2/3 c. brown sugar1"2 2/3 c. powdered sugar1"2 2/3 c. oatmeal1"2 2/3 c. cornmeal1"4 c. white flour1"
One and one-half hours to be divided approximately as follows—one-half hour for teaching the theory, one-half hour for the practical application of the theory, and one-half hour for housekeeping (washing of dishes, tables, sinks, etc., and putting the kitchen in order).
1. Place a set of measures at hand.
2. Place a large bowl of flour on the teacher's table.
3. Place flour and sugar in the boxes of the supply drawers.
4. Place cans of cocoa and jugs of milk on the centre table.
1. Introduction.—What do we take for a guide when cooking? How can we be sure that we use the exactquantities the recipes require? Name some measures that you have learned in arithmetic. In this lesson we are going to learn the measures we require in cooking, also the proper ways of using them.
2. Names of measures.—Show and name the measures, beginning at the smallest: teaspoon, tablespoon, cup, pint, quart, gallon. As the measures are named, place them on the table in order of size.
3. Methods of using measures.—Ask two or three pupils, in turn, to measure a teaspoonful of flour from the bowl on the teacher's table. They will not agree in their measurements, and the necessity for levelling will be shown. What can we use for levelling measures? How can we level liquids?If we need less than a spoonful, how can we measure it? Which part of the spoon is deeper? How shall we divide the spoonful to make both halves equal? How must we divide a spoonful into quarters? Into eighths? Examine and explain the divisions of the cup. To use one measure for both liquid and dry ingredients, which should be measured first? (As these points are obtained, they should be written on the black-board.)
4. Table of measures.—In the tables of measures which you have learned, you state the number of times one measure is contained in the next higher. We shall form a table of the measures learned to-day. By measuring flour from their boxes, let each pupil find how many teaspoonfuls fill a tablespoon. How many tablespoonfuls fill a cup, a half cup, a quarter of a cup. They will state the remainder of the table from memory. Write the table on the black-board and teach the abbreviations.
Note.—After the lesson on measuring is developed, the class should be given individual work which will put these ideas into practice. A simple recipe may be dictated by the teacher, step by step. Cocoa makes a good recipe for this lesson, as it affords practice in measuring liquids as well as dry ingredients, both powdered and granular. If each girl makes half a cupful of cocoa, it will give practice in dividing the contents of a spoon.
Note.—After the lesson on measuring is developed, the class should be given individual work which will put these ideas into practice. A simple recipe may be dictated by the teacher, step by step. Cocoa makes a good recipe for this lesson, as it affords practice in measuring liquids as well as dry ingredients, both powdered and granular. If each girl makes half a cupful of cocoa, it will give practice in dividing the contents of a spoon.
Have each pupil make half a cupful of cocoa by carrying out each step as it is dictated by the teacher, as follows:
1. Numbers one put two cups of water in the tea kettle; numbers two light a fire and put the water to boil; numbers three get cocoa from the centre table; numbers four get milk.
2. Set out sugar boxes and open them.
3. Each take a small saucepan, a measuring cup, a teaspoon, a paring-knife, and a small cup.
4. Measure half a teaspoonful of sugar into the saucepan.
5. Measure half a teaspoonful of cocoa into the saucepan.
6. Mix the sugar and cocoa by shaking the saucepan.
7. Measure half of a third of a cupful of boiling water and stir it into the sugar and cocoa.
8. Set the mixture over a gentle fire and stir until it bubbles. Cook for three minutes.
9. Measure half of a third of a cupful of milk.
10. Stir the milk into the mixture and heat it until it is steaming hot, but do not boil it.
11. Serve the cocoa in the small cups.
12. Turn out the fires and put the saucepans to soak.
Each pupil puts her table in order by moving all cooking utensils to the metal part of the table and wiping off any soiled spots on the wooden part; she then sits to drink the cocoa she has made.
Notes are copied from the black-board in pencil in the ordinary class note-books. The desk boards under the table tops are pulled out for this purpose. In this lesson the notes consist of:
1. Table of measures, with abbreviations
2. Points in measuring
3. Recipe for cocoa (if there are recipe cards, these should be distributed).
This will be done in groups of fours, according to their previous lessons in cleaning. If necessary, some special cleaning, as dish washing or sink cleaning, may be taught at this point of the lesson:
1. Number one will wash dishes for her group.
2. Number two will wipe dishes for her group.
3. Number three will clean the entire table belonging to her group.
4. Number four will do work outside of her group as appointed, such as dusting, cleaning a sink or the centre table.
1 tsp. sugar1/3 c. boiling water1 tsp. cocoa1/3 c. milk.
1. Mix the sugar and cocoa in a saucepan.
2. Stir the boiling water into the mixture, then set it over a gentle heat.
3. Keep stirring until the mixture bubbles, then boil gently for about three minutes.
4. Stir in the milk and heat it until it steams, but do not boil it.
5. Serve the cocoa hot or ice-cold.
In connection with a recipe, the pupils should be taught to look for three parts:
1. The name
2. The list and amount of ingredients
3. The method.
In carrying out a recipe, they should, from the first, be taught to work in the following systematic order:
1. To attend to the fire if necessary
2. To collect the necessary utensils
3. To collect the necessary ingredients
4. To obey the method.
For this lesson, some simple recipe which will review measuring should be clearly written on the black-board—the recipe for apple sauce or cranberry sauce would be suitable. While the pupils are learning obedience in following a recipe, it is better to keep them together in carrying out their work. The method should be written in definite, numbered steps, which may be checked off as each step is accomplished.
When the class has had instruction in cleaning, measuring, and recipes, they are ready for a series of lessons involving the use of simple recipes which will put into practice the ideas they have learned. For this practice, such recipes as the following are suggested:
Boiled potatoes, mashed potatoes; boiled parsnips; boiled celery; boiled carrots, asparagus, green peas; cranberry sauce; rhubarb sauce; preparing and combining ingredients for salads (fruit salad, potato salad, cabbage and nut salad, Waldorf salad)—the dressing being supplied; stuffed eggs; sandwiches.
The carrying out of these lessons will develop in the pupils accuracy and obedience, and make them familiar with the use and care of their utensils, as well as give opportunity for the cleaning of these and other parts of the equipment.
During these first lessons, careful supervision should be given each pupil, so that only correct habits may be formed in regard to neatness, thoroughness, quietness, and natural use of muscles.
The pupils should be encouraged to begin a book of recipes to contain neatly written copies of all they have used in school. The Art teacher might correlate the work here by assisting them to design a suitable cover for this book.
LESSON I
Aftera number of practice lessons have developed in the pupils a certain ability and self-confidence in working, formal cookery may be introduced, and the following ideas should be brought out:
1. The meaning of cooking:
Cooking is the application of sufficient heat to make a change in the food.
Cooking is the application of sufficient heat to make a change in the food.
2. Reasons for cooking food:
(1) To make some food digestible.(2) To change flavours and make some food more appetizing.(3) To preserve food.(4) To kill harmful germs in food.
(1) To make some food digestible.
(2) To change flavours and make some food more appetizing.
(3) To preserve food.
(4) To kill harmful germs in food.
3. Kinds of heat used:
(1) Dry heat—heat, only, is conveyed to the food.(2) Moist heat—heat and moisture are conveyed to the food.
(1) Dry heat—heat, only, is conveyed to the food.
(2) Moist heat—heat and moisture are conveyed to the food.
4. Different ways of applyingdry heat:
Toasting, broiling, pan-broiling, sautéing, frying, baking.
Toasting, broiling, pan-broiling, sautéing, frying, baking.
5. Different ways of applyingmoist heat:
Boiling, simmering, steaming, steeping.
Boiling, simmering, steaming, steeping.
Note.—If the class cannot name these methods, the teacher may name and write them with only a word of comment regarding each, or they may not be given until the methods are studied.
Note.—If the class cannot name these methods, the teacher may name and write them with only a word of comment regarding each, or they may not be given until the methods are studied.
As the moist heat methods are simpler and better known, they should be studied first. The class should be led to see that some liquid must be used to supply the moisture and should account for the common use of water for this purpose. Experiments should then be performed in heating water, and its appearance and temperature should be noted.
Note.—A preliminary lesson on the use of the thermometer may be necessary to show how to read it, and to develop the idea that it is an instrument for measuring heat. This may be taught in the regular class work, previous to the Household Management lesson.
Note.—A preliminary lesson on the use of the thermometer may be necessary to show how to read it, and to develop the idea that it is an instrument for measuring heat. This may be taught in the regular class work, previous to the Household Management lesson.
1. Development of the idea of "measuring":
What would you use to measure the length of the table? A foot measure. What to measure the water in a tub? A pint, quart, or gallon measure. What to measure the amount of gas burned? A gas-meter.
2. Development of the name "thermometer":
What do we call the instrument
For measuring gas? A gas-meterFor measuring electricity? An electrometerFor measuring speed of a motor? A speedometer (speed-meter)For measuring the distance a bicycle travels? A cyclometer (cycle-meter).
In each case what does "meter" mean? It means an instrument for measuring. What name may I give to an instrument for measuring heat? You may call it a heat-meter.
Tell the pupils that, in science, many Greek words are used, and that you will put a Greek word in place of the English word "heat", namely "thermos", as in thermos bottle. What will the name become? Thermosmeter, orthermometer.
3. Practice in using thermometers:
The unit of measurement (degree) should be given, and the scale taught from the black-board. Thermometers may then be given to the class to examine and use.
Saucepans having white inner surfaces are best to use for the experiments, as changes made by the heat are more plainly seen.
Observations of water under heat:
Observations of water under heat:
(1) At a temperature of about 100 degrees, very small bubbles form at the bottom and sides of the dish and rise slowly to the surface of the water. These bubbles are a film of water containing the air that was in solution, which, when expanded, rises to the top of the water.
(2) At a temperature of about 180 degrees, a few larger bubbles form at the bottom of the dish and rise slowly to the surface of the water, making a slight movement in it. In these bubbles air is replaced by steam which is formed from the water by the heat.
(3) At a temperature of 212 degrees, a great number of large bubbles form and rise quickly to the surface, making much movement in the water. The water is then said to boil.
(4) The water will take no higher temperature than 212 degrees.
(5) After water once boils, it requires little heat to keep it at this point, therefore the heat may be reduced.
(6) An increase of heat increases the number, size, and rate of the bubbles and the volume of steam, but makes the liquid no hotter.
Application of these observations:
Application of these observations:
(1) If food be cooked in a liquid at its greatest heat, where many bubbles are making much movement in it, the process is calledboiling.
(2) If cooked in a liquid heated to 180-200, where there is scarcely any movement in the liquid, the process is calledsimmering.
(3) If cooked in the steam rising from a boiling liquid, the process is calledsteaming.
(4) If boiling liquid be poured over food and no further heat applied, the process is calledsteeping.
Practice should then be given in each of the moist heat methods of cooking. The common foods, such as vegetables, fruit, eggs, and milk should be used for this purpose.
After the class has carried out a method for the first time, they should be led to consider the order of work required for it. The necessary steps should be arranged to form a set of rules for reference. The effects of the method in each case should also be noted.
When the moist heat methods are well known, the dry heat methods should be taught and practised. The outlines onpages 73-81will suggest the development under each method.
To apply the principles of boiling, as taught in a previous lesson, to the cooking of food.
One and one-half hours to be used approximately as follows: twenty-five minutes for preparation for practical work and the first part of the practical work, twenty-five minutes for the development of ideas of boiling as a method of cooking, fifteen minutes for the serving of food, twenty-five minutes for housekeeping.
1. Review.—Question the pupils as follows: What kind of heat is used in cooking food by boiling? At what temperature is the food cooked by this method? Name the kinds of boiling. How much hotter is rapid boiling? How is water made to boil rapidly? When is rapid boiling useful?
2. Discussion of recipe.—Have the recipe written on the black-board and read by one of the pupils, while the others follow the reading carefully.
(1) Have the class decide:(a) When the fires should be lighted(b) The dishes required for the work(c) The kind of boiling to use.(2) Demonstrate the scrubbing, scraping, and dicing of a carrot, also the draining of a food cooked in liquid.(3) State the quantity of ingredients each will use.(4) Caution the pupils as to accuracy, neatness, and quietness while working.
(1) Have the class decide:
(a) When the fires should be lighted(b) The dishes required for the work(c) The kind of boiling to use.
(a) When the fires should be lighted
(b) The dishes required for the work
(c) The kind of boiling to use.
(2) Demonstrate the scrubbing, scraping, and dicing of a carrot, also the draining of a food cooked in liquid.
(3) State the quantity of ingredients each will use.
(4) Caution the pupils as to accuracy, neatness, and quietness while working.
Have each pupil prepare the food according to the recipe and put it on to cook within a certain time. While the class works, carefully observe each pupil and give individual help to those who require it.
This will be done while the carrots are cooking. The ideas brought out from review and the class work, by questioning, will be those which are given on boiling under the methods of cooking.
1. Definition of boiling
2. Kinds of boiling
3. Uses of rapid boiling
4. Rules for boiling
5. Effects of boiling.
As these ideas are obtained from the class, they should be written by the teacher on the black-board and by the pupils in their note-books.
The pupils will drain, season, and serve the food. Each girl will set one place on the wooden part of the table and serve herself. While the food is being eaten, the table manners of each girl should be observed, and, if necessary, corrected in a tactful manner.
The work of putting the kitchen in order may be done in groups of twos or fours.
CarrotsSalt and pepperBoiling waterButter.
1. Scrub, scrape, and rinse the carrots.
2. Cut them into pieces by dicing them.
3. Put the pieces in a saucepan, set over the fire, and pour in boiling water until the food is covered.
4. Cook the carrots until the pieces are soft at the centre when pierced with a fork.
5. Drain off the liquid, then season the food with salt, pepper, and butter.
6. Serve in a hot vegetable dish.
1. Review:
(1) Appearance and temperature of a boiling liquid.(2) Appearance and temperature of a simmering liquid.
2. State the difficulty of keeping a liquid at simmering temperature; show the double boiler and explain its use for this purpose.
3. Compare boiling and simmering as to length of time required and difficulty.
4. Tell the pupils they are going to study simmering by making Coddled Apples.
1. Read recipe.
2. Question regarding:
(1) Kind of heat used(2) Whether to prepare apples or syrup first, and why(3) Management in measuring so as to use only one cup(4) Why one quantity of syrup is sufficient for so many apples.
3. Decide on the dishes required for the work.
Assign work in groups of twos—numbers one and three prepare syrup; numbers two and four prepare apples; all attend to the cooking.
(To be dealt with while food is cooking)
1. Definition.—Obtain this by comparing simmering with boiling.
2. Effects:
(1) Compare a raw and simmered apple to get the idea of "soft and tender".(2) Tell the pupils simmering temperature will not harden and toughen meat and eggs as much as boiling does.(3) Lying longer in the liquid to cook dissolves out more of the food substance.(4) Less water going off as vapour does not carry away as much flavour.(5) Less motion in the liquid does not break up the food.
When the apples are tender, let each girl serve herself with what she has cooked. While the fruit is being eaten, direct attention to the flavour of apple in the syrup.
Assign the work which is necessary to put the kitchen in order, and allow the pupils to carry it out in groups of twos or fours.
1 apple1/4 c. sugar1/2 c. water.
1. Put the sugar and water in the inside part of a double boiler, set over the fire, and boil gently for about five minutes.
2. Wash and pare the apple, cut it into halves, and remove the core.
3. Put the prepared fruit into the syrup, cover the dish closely, and set in the under part of the double boiler.
4. Simmer the pieces of apple until tender, turning them occasionally.
5. Lift the fruit carefully into a serving dish, then pour the syrup over it.
6. Serve hot or cold.
Note.—One cup of sugar will make sufficient syrup for six or seven apples.
Note.—One cup of sugar will make sufficient syrup for six or seven apples.
1. Definition:
Boiling is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food through a boiling liquid.
2. Kinds of boiling:
(1) Gentle boiling—temperature of 212 degrees.(2) Rapid boiling—temperature of 212 degrees.
3. Uses of rapid boiling:
(1) To make much steam(2) To break up food(3) To keep small particles of food in motion.
4. Rules for boiling:
(1) Put the food in a cooking dish, set over the heat, and pour in the boiling liquid to cover the food well.(2) Regulate the heat to the kind of boiling required.(3) Keep the food boiling during the entire cooking.(4) Continue the cooking until the food is tender at the centre when it is tested, or for the time required by the recipe.(5) When the food is cooked, lift it from the liquid or drain the liquid from the food.
5. Effects of boiling:
(1) It makes some food soft and tender—fruit, vegetables.(2) It makes some food hard and tough—eggs, etc.(3) It breaks up food.(4) It dissolves out some of the food substance.(5) It causes some loss of flavour (in the steam).(6) It kills germs.
1. Definition:
Simmering is a method of cooking in a liquid at a temperature of about 180 degrees.