STEAMING

2. Rules for simmering:

(1) Use a double boiler to keep the temperature correct.(2) Put the food in liquid in the top dish, and proceed as in boiling.

3. Effects of simmering:

(1) It makes some foods soft and tender—fruit and vegetables.(2) It does not make the protein of animal food (milk, eggs, and meat) hard as boiling does.(3) It dissolves out a good deal of the food substance into the cooking liquid.(4) It causes very little loss of flavour.(5) It does not break up the food.

1. Definition:

Steaming is a method of cooking in the steam from boiling liquid.

2. Rules for steaming:

(1) Have the water boiling rapidly in the under part of the steamer.(2) Put the food in the upper part, cover closely, and place over the lower part.(3) Keep the water boiling rapidly during the entire cooking.(4) If extra water be needed, only boiling water should be added, as quickly and as gently as possible.(5) Continue the cooking according to the time required by the recipe, or test as in boiling, if the food permits.

3. Effects of steaming:

(1) It makes vegetable food tender.(2) It makes the protein of animal food harder than simmering, but not so hard as boiling does.(3) It does not break up the food.(4) It does not dissolve out the food substance.(5) It causes little loss of flavour if closely covered.

1. Definition:

Steeping is a method of cooking, by pouring boiling water over food, and letting it stand in a moderately warm place.

2. Rules for steeping:

(1) Heat the steeping dish.(2) Use water freshly boiled.(3) Put the food in the hot dish, pour water over, cover closely, and set in a warm place.(4) Let the food remain in the liquid until you have extracted what is desired.(5) Strain off the liquid and use as required.

3. Effects of steeping:

(1) To heat and soften the food(2) To extract the flavour and, sometimes, the substance of the food.

1. Definition:

Toasting is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food directly from the fire. It is used mainly for bread.

2. Rules for toasting:

(1) Have a clear, hot fire.(2) Cut bread in slices from one third to one half an inch thick.(3) Hold the food at some distance from the fire, in a gentle heat at first, to dry and heat the surfaces. This drying may be done in the oven.(4) Then hold the dried, hot surfaces in a strong heat, to brown and crisp them.(5) Serve so that the surfaces will not become steamed from the moisture still contained in the slices. Put the toast in a toast-rack or stack it on a hot plate. Buttered toast may be piled.

3. Effects of toasting:

(1) To heat and dry the surface of the food.(2) To brown and crisp the surface.(3) To change the flavour.(4) To change the starch of the surface into a brown substance, which is a form of sugar, and more digestible than starch.

1. Definition:

Broiling is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food directly. It is used mainly for meat and fish in slices or thin portions.

2. Rules for broiling:

(1) Have a clear, hot fire.(2) Grease the broiler and trim the food.(3) Lay the food in the broiler compactly.(4) Hold the broiler in a very strong heat to seal the tubes of the food which hold the juices, and turn frequently.(5) When the surface is seared, hold in a gentler heat to cook the food to the centre, and turn occasionally while doing this.(6) Time the cooking to the thickness of the food—one inch of thickness cooks rare in eight minutes.(7) Serve at once on a hot dish, and spread with butter, salt, and pepper.

3. Effects of broiling:

(1) To sear the surface.(2) To cook to the centre while browning the surface.(3) To change the flavour and develop a very delicious one in the browned surface.(4) To make the browned surface hard to digest.

1. Definition:

Pan-broiling is an imitation of broiling and is a method of cooking on a hissing-hot, metal surface.

2. Rules for pan-broiling:

(1) Have a hot fire.(2) Heat the pan or metal surface until it hisses when touched with water.(3) Lay the food in compactly, and turn constantly until the entire surface is seared.(4) Place the pan in a gentle heat and cook the food to the centre, turning occasionally.(5) Time the cooking to the thickness of the food—one inch cooks rare in ten minutes.(6) Serve at once, as in broiling.

3. Effects of pan-broiling:

The same as in broiling.

1. Definition:

Sautéing is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food through a smoking-hot, greased surface.

2. Rules for sautéing:

(1) Heat the pan enough to melt the fat.(2) Put in just enough fat to keep the food from sticking, and let it run over the surface of the pan, and get smoking hot.(3) Put in the food and let it brown on one side, then turn it and brown the other side.(4) Serve on a hot dish.

3. Effects of sautéing:

(1) To sear the surface of the food.(2) To brown the surface and develop a delicious flavour, while cooking to the centre.(3) To make the surface slightly fat-soaked with fat which has been very highly heated.(4) To make the surface indigestible.

1. Definition:

Baking is a method of cooking in which the heat is brought to the food through the confined heat of an oven.

2. Kinds of ovens:

(1) Slow.(2) Moderate—white paper browns in ten minutes.(3) Hot—white paper browns in five minutes.(4) Very hot—white paper browns in one minute.

3. Rules for baking:

(1) Heat the oven according to the recipe.(2) Put the food in the oven, usually on the lower shelf, to get an under heat first, then toward the last of the cooking, set it on the top shelf to brown.(3) Watch carefully during the baking, but in opening the oven door, be gentle and quick.(4) If the oven gets too hot, set a pan of cold water in it, or leave the door slightly open. If browning too quickly, cover the surface with brown paper.(5) Cook the food according to the time required by the recipe, or until it is done, as shown by some test.

1. Definition:

Frying is a method of cooking in which the heat is brought to the food by immersing it in smoking-hot fat.

2. Temperature for frying:

(1) For cooked foods which have only to brown and warm through—about 400 degrees.(2) For raw foods which have to cook—about 350 degrees.

3. Rules for frying:

(1) Use a deep iron, steel, or granite kettle, which will hold the heat.(2) Put in sufficient fat to cover the food well, but never fill the kettle more than two-thirds full.(3) Heat the fat to the desired temperature.(4) Have the food as dry as possible and not very cold.(5) When the fat begins to give off a small quantity ofwhitevapour, test it for the required heat, as follows:

(a) For raw food, put in a small square of bread, and allow it sixty seconds to brown.(b) For cooked food, allow a square of bread forty seconds to brown.

(6) Put the food carefully into the hot fat, and only an amount which will not cool it too much.(7) When the food is nicely browned, lift it from the fat with an open spoon or lifter and drain over the pot until it stops dripping.(8) Lay the food on crumpled brown paper or blotting paper, to absorb any fat still clinging to the surface.(9) Strain the fat through cheesecloth and set it away to cool.

4. Effects of frying:

(1) To sear the surface and prevent it from absorbing fat.(2) To cook or heat the food to the centre.(3) To brown the surface of the food and make it crisp.(4) To develop a delicious flavour in the browned surface.(5) To make the browned surface indigestible, because it has absorbed highly-heated fat.

Note.—As frying requires the fat used to be at a very high temperature, it is dangerous to let young children take the responsibility in this method of cooking. For this reason, it may be wise to defer lessons on frying until the Fourth Form, or even later.

For practice in the methods of cooking, the following is suggestive:

Boiling.—Cooking of any vegetable or fruit in season or rice, macaroni, eggs, coffee

Simmering.—Dried fruit, such as prunes, peaches, apricots, apples; strong-smelling vegetables, such as cabbage, onions; porridge; stew

Steaming.—Potatoes, cauliflower, apples, peaches, cup-puddings, dumplings, fish

Steeping.—Tea, coffee, lemon rind for sauce

Toasting.—Bread, rolls

Broiling.—Steak, fish

Pan-broiling.—Steak

Sautéing.—Sliced potatoes, potato cakes, hash cakes, griddle-cakes (teacher prepares the batter)

Baking.—Apples, bananas, potatoes, scalloped potatoes, scalloped tomatoes, cheese crackers, drop biscuits, beef-loaf

Frying.—Potatoes, cod-fish balls, doughnuts (teacher prepares the dough).

The lessons which give practice in the methods of cooking will also afford excellent drills inmeasuring,manipulation, andcleaning. Throughout all these, the weak points of individual members of the class should receive careful attention. In the case of typical defects, much time may be saved by calling the attention of the class to these, instead of correcting them individually.

After the pupils have considered and practised the methods of cooking, they should be able to prepare any simple dish of one main ingredient, for which recipes should be given. If these cannot be used at school, they may be of service in the homes of the pupils.

Economy should be emphasized by suggesting simple ways of using left-overs, and definite recipes should be written for these. Fancy cooking should be discouraged. The teacher should aim to show how the necessary common foods may be prepared in a nutritious and attractive manner.

In this first year of practical work,the main point is the formation of correct habits of work. Cleanliness, neatness, and accuracy should be insisted on in every lesson, and deftness should be encouraged.

1. Toast for garnishing stews and hash

2. Croutons for soup

3. Bread crumbs to use for croquettes and scalloped dishes, or for stuffing meat and fish

4. Pudding (chocolate bread pudding, cabinet pudding, plain bread pudding, brown betty)

5. Pancakes.

1. Pudding (steamed until just re-heated and served with a sauce)

2. Pudding (baked in a custard mixture)

3. Trifle.

1. Meat pie or potato and meat pie

2. Meat loaf

3. Stew with dumplings

4. Hash

5. Scalloped meat

6. Croquettes

7. Meat moulded in gelatine

8. Salad (light meats only)

9. Sandwiches.

1. Scalloped fish

2. Salad.

1. Stuffed eggs

2. Hard-boiled for salad

3. Garnish for salad

4. Sandwiches.

1. Cheese crackers

2. Cheese straws

3. Cheese cream toast

4. Cheese omelet

5. Cheese salad

6. Welsh rarebit

7. Macaroni and cheese

8. Sandwiches.

1. Scalloped vegetable

2. Cream of vegetable soup (water in which vegetable is cooked should be kept for this)

3. Sautéd vegetables

4. Salad.

1. Cup pudding or roly poly

2. Steamed or baked batter pudding

3. Pudding sauce (strain juice and thicken)

4. Trifle

5. Fruit salad

6. Gelatine mould.

After the moist heat methods of cooking are learned, a special lesson on beverages may be taken, if the teacher thinks it desirable. If the subject be not taken as a whole, each beverage may be taught incidentally, when a recipe requiring little time is useful. The following will suggest an outline of facts for a formal lesson:

A beverage is a liquid suitable for drinking. Water is the natural beverage; other beverages are water with ingredients added to supply food, flavour, stimulant, or colour. Since water is tasteless in itself and also an excellent solvent, it is especially useful in making beverages.

1. Refreshing.—Pure cold water, all cold fruit drinks

2. Stimulating.—All hot drinks, tea, coffee, beef-tea, alcoholic drinks

3. Nutritious.—Milk, cocoa, chocolate, oatmeal and barley water, tea and coffee with sugar and cream.

Note.—As tea, coffee, and cocoa are ordinary household beverages, they should be specially studied. Their sources and manufacture will have been learned in Form III Junior, but their use as beverages may now be discussed and practised. It is desirable that the pupils be led to reason out correct methods of cooking each.

1. Description.—The leaves contain, beside a stimulant and flavour, an undesirable substance known as tannin, which is injurious to the delicate lining of the stomach. If the tea be properly made, the tannin is not extracted.

2. Method of cooking.—Steep the tea from three to five minutes, then separate the leaves from the liquid (suggest ways of doing this). Boiling is not a correct method to use for making tea, as it extracts the tannin and causes loss of flavour in the steam.

Note.—Because of the stimulant, young people should not drink tea or coffee.

1. Description.—The beans, or seeds, of coffee also contain tannin as well as a stimulant and flavour. This beverage is more expensive than tea, since a muchlarger amount must be used for one cup of liquid. After the beans are broken by grinding, the air causes the flavour to deteriorate, so that the housekeeper should grind the beans as required, or buy in small quantities and keep in tightly covered cans.

2. Method of cooking.—Coffee may be cooked in different ways, according to the size of the pieces into which the roasted beans are broken. These pieces are much harder than the leaves of tea, hence coffee may be given a higher temperature and a longer time in cooking than tea. Small pieces of beans are apt to float in the liquid, making it cloudy; this may be overcome by the use of egg-white or by careful handling.Coarsely ground coffee must be boiled gently. Finely ground coffee may be boiled gently or steeped. Very finely ground, or powdered coffee should be steeped or filtered with boiling water.

1. Description.—This contains a stimulant, but differs from tea and coffee in being nutritious. It makes a desirable drink for children.

2. Method of cooking.—Cocoa contains starch and should be simmered or gently boiled.

This substance is the same as cocoa, except that it contains a much larger amount of fat.

The serving of food is incidentally a necessary part of nearly every lesson in cookery, as the pupils usually eat what they prepare. In regular class work the bare work table is used, and each pupil prepares a place for herself only. The dishes soiled during the lesson should be placed on the section covered with metal or glass at the back of the table, and the front, or wooden part, cleared to be used as a dining table. The teacher should insist on this part being clean and neatly arranged. The few dishes used should be the most suitable selected from the individual equipments, and they should be as carefully placed as for a meal. From the very first, the pupils should be trained to habits of neatness in setting the table, and in serving the food; and, what is most important, they should be trained to eat in a refined manner. Lack of time is sometimes given as an excuse for neglecting this training in the usual cookery lessons; but if the teacher insists upon neatness in work and good table manners, the pupils will soon learn to comply without loss of time.

Laying a table may be formally taught at any stage of the work of Form III, but it is most suitable after the class is capable of preparing the food for a simple home meal. The topics of the lesson may be presented as follows:

1. See that the dining-room is well aired and in order.

2. See that the linen is clean and carefully laundered.

3. See that the glass, silver, and steel are polished.

4. Decide on the number to be served.

1. Place a silence cloth of felt, woollen, or thick cotton:

(1) To prevent the dishes from making a noise(2) To give the table a better appearance(3) To preserve the table top.

2. Lay the cloth, placing the centre of the cloth in the centre of the table and spreading it smoothly, having its folds parallel with the edges of the table.

3. Arrange a centre-piece, using a vase or basket of flowers, a small plant or a dish of fruit.

4. Put a plate at each person's place and lay the cutlery and silver beside it about one inch from the edge of the table, in the order of use, those used first on the outside, or farthest from the plate. At dinner these plates are usually placed before the one who serves.

(1) Place the knives at the right side, with the sharp edges toward the plate.(2) Place the forks at the left side, with the tines up.(3) Place the soup spoons at the right of the knife, bowl up.(4) Place the dessert spoons in front of the plates, the handle to the right, the bowl up.(5) Place the dessert forks with the other forks, or in front of the plates with the dessert spoons.

5. Place the water glasses at the end of the knife blades, top up.

6. Place the bread and butter plates at the left of the forks. (These are not necessary at dinner.)

7. Place the napkins at the left, neatly folded; discourage fancy folding.

Table laid for a home dinnerTable laid for a home dinner

8. Place the salt and pepper so that they are convenient to every one.

9. Place the dishes that are to be served at table directly in front of the one who is to serve them.

10. Place the carving set in front of the host, and the tablespoons as onpage 89, or where food is to be served.

11. Place a chair for each person.

Individual section of table laid for dinnerIndividual section of table laid for dinner

In Form III, the children are too young to serve at table, so the lesson on Preparing and Serving Meals,page 136, has been reserved for the work of Form IV, Junior Grade. The class should, however, be carefully trained in table manners from the first. In their usual class work this will be incidentally taught. A regular lesson should include the following:

These are based upon the accepted customs of well-bred people, and have in view the convenience and comfort of all who are at the table.

They may be stated as follows:

1. Stand behind the seat assigned you.

2. Wait until the hostess is seated, before taking a seat.

3. Sit naturally erect, without any support from the elbows, placing the feet on the floor.

4. Do not begin to eat until others are served.

5. Eat and drink quietly, taking small mouthfuls; keep the mouth closed while eating.

6. Do not drink with food in the mouth.

7. Do not talk with food in the mouth.

8. Use a fork preferably, whenever it will serve the purpose; and never put a knife into the mouth.

9. Take soup from the side of the spoon.

10. Wipe the mouth before drinking from a glass.

11. Be attentive to the needs of others.

12. If it be necessary to leave the table, ask the hostess to excuse you.

13. If a guest for one meal only, leave the napkin unfolded beside the plate.

14. Never use a toothpick at the table, or in any company.

15. Wait for the hostess to rise, then stand, and replace the chair in position.

At thebeginning of the year's work in Form IV, several lessons should be spent in reviewing the methods of cooking and cleaning taught in the previous year. This may be done by reviewing former recipes and by using new ones which require a knowledge of these methods. As the pupils work, they should be closely observed, and, without the teacher giving undue assistance, their weak points should be carefully strengthened. The length of time spent on the review will vary according to the ability of the class. This can be plainly judged by their habits of work. The new recipes given them should be such as they are likely to use at home, so as to encourage home practice. These recipes will also enlarge their collection in their special recipe books. Some of the following may be useful: creamed potatoes, potato omelet, stuffed potatoes, stuffed onions, corn oysters, baked tomatoes, spaghetti with tomato sauce, macaroni and cheese, scalloped apples, plain rice pudding, ginger pudding, sago pudding, tapioca cream.

Up to this time the pupils have been allowed to manage their individual table stoves or a gas range. They should now be taught to understand and to use an ordinary coal or wood range. Two lessons will be necessary for this purpose. After each lesson has been taught, the remainderof the period should be spent in some kind of practical work which can be accomplished in the time. Some cookery which requires only a few minutes may be reviewed, such as tea, cocoa, coffee, toast, bacon, apple sauce; drawers and cupboards may be cleaned; silver and steel may be polished; designs for wall-paper, dishes, curtains, and dress materials may be drawn; household accounts may be computed; sewing may be finished.

In introducing a lesson on the kitchen fire, ask the pupils to imagine that they have built a new house, which the workmen have just vacated. Before they can move in it must be cleaned. What kind of water is best for cleaning? Hot water. What is necessary to provide hot water? A fire.

Find out from the pupils and then write on the black-board what is necessary for a fire. What is the first requisite? Something to burn. What do we call such a substance?Fuel.Where shall we put the fuel? In astove. Why is a stove necessary? To confine the fire.

Using a candle as fuel and a lamp chimney as a stove, light the candle and place it in the chimney. It burns only a short time and then dies out. Why? Because the oxygen of the air in the chimney is all exhausted. Then what is another requisite for a fire?Oxygen.

Imagine the room to be a stove and the chairs, books, tables, etc., to be fuel. The air in the room also contains much oxygen, so that in this room we have three requisites for a fire. It is very fortunate for us that something else is needed. We shall try to find out what it is.

Watch while I hold these strips of paper over this lighted gas stove high enough to be out of reach of the flame. What happened to them? They burst into a flame. What did the paper that I held receive that it did not get when it was lying on the table? Heat. We shall try a match in the same way, also some thin shavings. They also burn when they receive heat from the fire. Then what is another requisite for a fire?Heat.Name all of the requisites for a kitchen fire.Fuel,stove,oxygen, andheat.

Note.—Just here it is a good thing to impress the care that is necessary in regard to gasolene, coal-oil, benzine, etc., or any substance that burns at a low temperature. Bring out the fact very clearly that it is the heat that makes fuel burn, that a flame is not necessary.

Experiments to show on what the amount of heat required depends:

1. Heat together two strips of paper of the same size but of different thicknesses and observe which burns first.

2. Heat together a strip of very thin paper and a match which is much thicker than the paper, and observe which burns first.

3. Rub a match vigorously on some surface and observe the result.

Conclusions.—1. The amount of heat required to make fuel burn depends on:

(1) The thickness of the fuel.(2) The substance composing the fuel.

(1) The thickness of the fuel.

(2) The substance composing the fuel.

2. Some substances burn at a very low temperature.

Note.—This will explain the order of laying the fuel for a fire and the use of a match in lighting it.

Experiments to show the means of obtaining oxygen:

1. Light a candle, set the lamp chimney over it and observe the result.

2. Raise the chimney by supporting it on two small pieces of wood. Note the result.

3. Cover the raised chimney with a piece of cardboard. Note the result.

Experiments to show the necessity for oxygenExperiments to show the necessity for oxygen

Conclusions.—1. A fresh supply of oxygen is constantly required.

2. Two openings are required to ensure a constant supply of oxygen, one below the fuel and one above it.

3. Oxygen is obtained from the surrounding air.

4. The passage of air through these openings creates a draught.

It will be necessary next to lead the class to see that the supply of oxygen can be controlled:

1. By the relation of the openings:

(1) Openings directly opposite each other cause a rapid circulation of air or a "direct draught".(2) Indirect openings cause a slower circulation of air or an "indirect draught".

(1) Openings directly opposite each other cause a rapid circulation of air or a "direct draught".

(2) Indirect openings cause a slower circulation of air or an "indirect draught".

2. By a cross current of air which tends to check the draught.

A discussion of the fuels may next be taken. With pupils of Form IV it will not be wise to go into too many details regarding these. Besides the classification of the commonest ones, they may be compared from the standpoints of cost, and of the time and labour required in their use.

Classes of Fuels:

Liquid—coal-oil, gasolene, alcoholSolid—coal (coke), wood (charcoal)Gaseous—natural gas, coal gas.

Liquid—coal-oil, gasolene, alcohol

Solid—coal (coke), wood (charcoal)

Gaseous—natural gas, coal gas.

Note.—Electricity is a means of producing heat, but cannot be called a fuel.

In developing the construction of a practical coal or wood range, it is a good idea to use the black-board and make a rough drawing to illustrate the details, as they aregiven by the pupils. These details should be evolved from the knowledge gained in the preceding lessons, and the drawing should not be an illustration of any particular stove.

After the best practical stove, according to the pupils' ideas, has been thought out and represented on the black-board, they should examine and criticise the school range and the stoves at home. They are then ready to be given the responsibility of managing any ordinary range.

The following are the necessary details to be considered regarding a kitchen stove:

Material.—(1) Iron, (2) steel

Shape.—Rectangular.

Compartments.—(1) Fire-box, (2) ash-box, (3) oven, (4) passage for hot air, (5) other compartments if desired, such as water tank, warming closet, etc.

Dampers.—(1) Front damper—below the fuel, to control the entrance of oxygen to the fuel. (2) Oven damper—above the fuel at the entrance to the pipe, to control the heat for the oven, and also to control the draught. (3) Check damper—at the front of the stove above the fuel, to admit a cross current of air to check the draught.

Management of the stove.—(1) Lighting the fire, (2) heating the oven, (3) arranging for over night, (4) cleaning and care.

Note.—Openings below the level of the fire increase the draught, and those above the level check it.

A kitchen coal or wood range, showing, (a) oven damper openA kitchen coal or wood range, showing, (a) oven damper open

A kitchen coal or wood range, showing, (b) oven damper closedA kitchen coal or wood range, showing, (b) oven damper closed

Throughout the training given in Household Management, the teacher should emphasize the value of labour-saving devices and aids in the home. How to economize time and energy should be a prominent feature of every practical lesson. If time permit, a lesson may be taken to consider specially such aids as are readily procurable, together with their average cost. In this lesson the fireless cooker is considered.

A fireless cookerA fireless cooker

The principles of the fireless cooker are based on a knowledge of the laws governing the conduction and radiation of heat. For this reason, an elementary science lesson relating to these laws should precede this lesson. Such a science lesson is part of the regular grade work of Form IV, so if a specialist teaches the Household Management of that grade, she and the regular teacher should arrange to co-ordinate their lessons.

1. It furnishes no heat, but conserves the heat which is in the food when it is put into the cooker.

2. It conserves the heat in the food, by surrounding it with substances which are poor conductors of heat.

3. Extra heat may be given the food, after it is put in the cooker, by placing heated stone plates above and below the dish that contains the food. The stone used for this purpose must be a good absorbent of heat.

1. It saves fuel and is therefore economical.

2. It saves time, because it requires no watching.

3. It conserves the flavour of the food.

4. It obviates all danger of burning the food.

5. It does not heat the room.

1. Food cooked in liquid:

In all cookers where stone plates are not used, only such foods as are cooked in liquids can be prepared. Examples of foods cooked in this way are, meat soup, beef-tea, meat stews, vegetables, fruit, porridge, cereal, puddings, etc.

The prepared food is put into one of the food receptacles belonging to the cooker and is placed over a fire, until it has boiled for a few minutes. The cover is then tightly adjusted, and the dish quickly locked in the cooker, to conserve the heat that the food and liquid have absorbed.

2. Food cooked in dry heat by the use of stone plates:

In this method the food is cold when it is placed in the cooker, and all the heat is supplied by stone platesplaced above and below the utensil containing the food. These plates are heated for about twenty minutes over a fire, before they are used in the cooker.

Examples of food cooked in this way are, roasts of meat; baked fruit, such as apples; baked vegetables, such as potatoes or beans; cakes, such as plain cake or fruit cake; quick bread, such as corn-bread and biscuits.

3. Food cooked in liquid, aided by the heat of one stone plate:

In cases where the original heat absorbed by the food is not sufficient to complete the cooking as desired, a heated stone plate may be placed in the cooker below the utensil containing the hot food. The stone may be necessary for one of the following reasons—

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