EXPERIMENTS WITH CLOTH MADE OF WOOL FIBRE

1. That wool is an animal product. As such it tends to be shrunken and hardened by (1) heat, (2) alkalies.

2. That the surface of each wool fibre woven into woollen materials is seen under the microscope to be covered with notches, or scales. If these notches in any way become entangled, the material is thereby drawn up, or "shrunken".

3. That these notches may be entangled by:

(1) Wetting the woollen material and then rubbing or twisting it. When the fibres are wet, they expand somewhat and the projecting scales, or notches, are loosened. If the material is rubbed at this time, the notched edges interlock.

(2) The use of strong soaps or alkalies. These act chemically on the fibres and soften and expand them, causing the notched edges to become so prominent that they catch in one another.

Note.—The structure of woollen fibres may be sketched on the black-board and compared with those of cotton and linen.

To impress the foregoing principles, a few experiments will be found most useful.

1. Boil a piece of new woollen cloth for five minutes. Dry, and compare with an original piece.

2. Saturate a piece of new woollen cloth with a strong solution of washing soda. Dry, and compare with an original piece.

3. Wash a piece of new woollen cloth in each of the following ways:

(1) By rubbing soap directly on the cloth and then sousing the goods in the water.(2) By using a soap solution instead of the soap, as in (1).(3) By rubbing on a wash-board.

(1) By rubbing soap directly on the cloth and then sousing the goods in the water.

(2) By using a soap solution instead of the soap, as in (1).

(3) By rubbing on a wash-board.

In each case dry the cloth and compare with an original piece.

After the results of the experiments have been discussed, the pupils may formulate a series of "points" to be observed in the washing of woollen fabrics.

Cotton fibres magnifiedCotton fibres magnified

Linen fibres magnifiedLinen fibres magnified

Woollen fibres magnifiedWoollen fibres magnified

1. Use lukewarm, soft water.

2. Do not use strong soaps or alkalies.

3. Do not rub soap directly on the woollen material, but use soap solutions.

4. Do not rub or twist woollen cloth when it is wet.

5. Do not boil to sterilize.

6. Do not dry in extreme heat.

1. Shake or brush the clothing to free it from dust.

2. Put it into lukewarm, soapy water to soak for a few minutes.

3. Wash on both sides by squeezing and sousing in the water.

4. Rinse in clear, lukewarm water; use several waters, if necessary, to remove the soap.

5. Pass through a loosely set wringer or squeeze the water out by hand.

6. Shake, in order to raise the woolly fibres.

7. Dry in a moderate temperature, in a wind, if possible.

TheSenior Fourth class is the preparatory class for entrance into the high school, and for many girls it is the final school year. For this reason the Course of this year should cover as many of the remaining household operations as possible.

The training of the previous years should have formed good habits of work and have given experience in ordinary cleaning, and in the cooking and serving of the simple food materials. Through this training the pupils should also have been impressed with the value of food, and should have learned the sources of food and of all well-known household materials.

The training of this last year, while continuing the Junior work, should also emphasize the household processes that require greater mental development to understand and greater practical skill to carry out. It is the border year between the public school and the high school, and must necessarily anticipate the elementary science of the latter. In this year more responsibility should be given to the pupils and more originality should be expected of them. Where they have hitherto followed recipes and been given rules, they should now follow principles and deduce rules.

Of the several topics outlined in the Course for Form IV Senior, it is advisable to start with the preservation of food. Fruit and vegetables are most plentiful when theschool year opens, and September is the most opportune month to preserve these for winter use. Facts concerning food preservation may have been taken incidentally in previous lessons, but now the subject should be systematically taught, so that canning, preserving, and pickling may be intelligently practised.

The lesson may be introduced by referring to the unusual attention given to fruit at the time of ripening. The economical housekeeper takes certain foods when they are most plentiful and preserves them for use when they are not in season. Some foods require special care to keep them from decaying. The decay is caused by the action of microscopic plants called "bacteria", which get into the food.

It is difficult for any one to get a correct conception of bacteria; especially is it so for children. The teacher should be most careful not to attempt to give the class unimportant details, but the few necessary facts should be made very clear and real. The following points should be impressed:

1. Bacteria are plants. (This fact should be kept clearly in mind.)

2. They are microscopic in size and hence the more difficult to deal with.

3. They are found everywhere that there is life—in the air, in water, in the soil.

4. They multiply very rapidly under favourable conditions.

5. Some bacteria are useful to the housekeeper; many kinds are her enemies.

6. Some of these enemies get into food and, growing there, cause a change in it—then we say the food is spoiled.

All plants have the same requirements. Any well-known plant may be put before the class to help them to think of these. They must be told that microscopic plants differ from other plants in one respect; they do not need light. Hence bacterial requirements are as follows: (1) water, (2) food, (3) air (oxygen), (4) heat.

The class should be led to see that if any one of these conditions is removed, the remaining ones are insufficient for the plant's activity.

To the housekeeper, preserving food means overcoming bacteria. There are only two ways of doing this, either of which may be chosen:

1. Kill the bacteria in the food and exclude others.

2. Subject the food to conditions which are unfavourable for bacterial growth.

In the first way, extreme heat is used to kill the bacteria in the food, and then while hot, the food is sealed to keep out other bacteria: Example, canning.

In the second way, conditions are made unfavourable to the bacteria in the food, as follows:

1. The bacteria are deprived of water; the food is dried.

2. The bacteria are deprived of sufficient heat to be active; cold storage is used.

3. Large quantities of certain substances which are detrimental to the growth of bacteria are put into the food, and the bacteria become inactive. Examples: salt, sugar, spices, vinegar, smoke, or certain chemicals.

When the lesson is finished, the class is ready to practise the principles it involves. The lessons on the special preservation of fruit may follow at once.

Utensils used in canningUtensils used in canning

As canning is the method of preservation most commonly used, practice should be given in this method. In rural schools with a limited equipment, it may be that only one jar can be prepared. In other schools, it may be impossible to provide each pupil with material for work, on account of the expense. In the latter case, the materialsmay all be brought from home, or each pupil may bring her own jar and fruit, and the school supply the sugar.

Instruction on the care of jars and the preparation of fruit and syrup must precede the practical work.

1. See that the jars are air-tight; partly fill the jar with water; place rubbers, covers, and rims; screw tightly, and invert. If any water oozes out, the jar is not air-tight. Often an extra rubber will correct the trouble.

2. Wash the jars thoroughly with the aid of a small brush.

3. Sterilize the jars in every part; dip them in boiling water, or place them on a rest (folded paper or wooden slats) in a kettle, to prevent the jars from touching the bottom. Fill and surround them with tepid water, then place them over heat until the water boils. Keep them in the boiling water until ready to fill with fruit. Dip the rubber bands in boiling water, but do not allow them to remain in it. Use new rubbers each season.

4. When filling the jars, place them on a folded cloth wrung out of warm water, then seal, and invert until cool.

Use fresh, sound fruit, not too ripe.

1. Berries.—Pick over, wash in a strainer, and hull.

2. Currants, gooseberries.—Pick over, wash, remove ends and stems.

3. Cherries.—Pick over, wash, remove stones and stems.

4. Plums.—Pick over, wash, remove stems, and prick three or four times with a silver fork, in order to prevent the steam bursting the skin.

5. Pears, apples.—Pick over, wash, pare, and, to prevent discoloration, keep in cold water until used.

6. Peaches.—Pick over, plunge into boiling water a few seconds (using a wire basket), then into cold water; peel; drop into cold water to prevent discoloration.

Use about 1 cup of water for each pint can.

No. 1 Syrup.—Equal parts of sugar and water, or 1 cup of water and 1 cup of sugar.

No. 2 Syrup.—1-1/2 cups of water and 1 cup of sugar.

1. Use No. 1 syrup for watery fruits and acid fruits.

2. Use No. 2 syrup for pears, peaches, sweet plums, sweet cherries, etc.

1. Fruit cooked in a steamer:

Fill the sterilized jars with prepared fruit, with or without syrup. Place the covers, but do not fasten them down. Stand the jars in a steamer over cold water. Cover the steamer and heat to the boiling point. Steam at least fifteen minutes, or until the fruit is tender. Remove from the steamer, fill to overflowing with boiling syrup, and seal at once. Invert.

2. Fruit cooked in a boiler:

Put a false bottom in the boiler, to prevent the jars from being broken. Fill the jars with fruit, and add syrup if desired. Cover and place the jars in the boiler without touching one another. Pour in tepid water to within an inch of the top of the jars and bring gradually to boiling heat. Cook and finish as directed in 1, above.

3. Fruit cooked in an oven:

Fill sterilized, hot jars with prepared raw fruit and cover with hot syrup. Place the jars in a moderate oven, in a baking dish containing about an inch or two of hot water. Cook and finish as in 1, above.

4. Fruit cooked in a kettle:

Make a syrup in a fairly deep kettle. Put the prepared fruit into it and cook gently until tender. When the fruit is cooked, lift carefully into hot, sterilized jars, and fill to overflowing with boiling syrup. Seal at once and invert.

Note.—By Methods 1, 2, and 3 the fruit is kept more perfect in shape and loses less flavour than by Method 4. Methods 2 and 4 are best to choose for class practice.

After the lesson in Canning, it may not be wise to take the school time for further practice in the preservation of fruit. When such is the case, the theory of jam and jelly making may be discussed in class for home practice. The notes of these lessons may appear as follows:

1. In this method sugar is the preservative, therefore the amount used must be large.

2. The quantity of sugar used is from three quarters to one pound of sugar to each pound of fruit. Little or no water is used.

3. The natural shape and appearance of the fruit is not kept.

4. The flavour of the fruit is not so natural, on account of the excessive sweetness.

5. The jar need not be sealed, but merely covered.

1. Jelly is made from certain fruit juices and sugar.

2. The fruit juice must contain a certain amount ofpectin, or jellying principle, and also a certain amount of acid.

(1) Skin, (2) core, (3) pits and seeds.

Utensils used in making jellyUtensils used in making jelly

1. Currants2. Crab-apples, apples3. Quinces4. Cranberries, blackberries, raspberries5. Grapes, if rather green.

1. Cut up the prepared fruit if necessary, and add barely enough water for cooking.

2. Set over the heat and simmer gently until the cellulose is very soft.

3. Turn into a jelly-bag, and drain for a number of hours or over night, in order to get rid of the cellulose.

4. Measure the drained juice and take the same quantity of sugar.

5. Heat the sugar in the oven.

6. Boil the juice gently and steadily for twenty minutes, skimming when required.

7. Add the hot sugar and boil very gently from three to five minutes, or until the mixture will jelly when tested.

8. Empty at once into hot glasses and set to cool.

9. When cold and firm, cover and set in a cool, dark place.

1. Melt paraffin and pour a layer on each glass, cover with a tin cover or paper pasted with egg-white.

2. Cut clean, white paper to fit the glass, and lay on the jelly when it is firm and cold. Place the cover or paper as in 1, above.

Where the teacher finds it desirable, a lesson should now be given on pickling, with or without class practice. At least one or two good recipes may be given for home use.

There are no new principles to teach. The use of vinegar, salt, and spices as preservatives should be reviewed.

The firstwork in cookery, for this Form, should consist of practice lessons, which will test the ability of the class in cooking the simple animal and vegetable foods. The recipes used for these should be such as to attract the interest of the pupils, and each may be a combination of several food materials. Cream soups, custards, scalloped dishes, and shepherd's pie, would be useful for this purpose.

It is desirable that this test shall be made in as few lessons as possible, because nearly all the time in cookery for this year will be required for the new work, namely, a series of lessons on flour mixtures.

Flour is a food substance ground into a powder.

1. Sources of flour:

(1) Certain cereals—wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, rice(2) Potatoes.

(1) Certain cereals—wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, rice

(2) Potatoes.

2. Kinds of flour made from wheat:

(1) Graham flour—the entire wheat seed is ground.(2) Whole wheat flour—the first outer coat of cellulose with its valuable mineral contents is removed before the seed is ground.(3) White flour—only the central white part of the seed is ground.

(1) Graham flour—the entire wheat seed is ground.

(2) Whole wheat flour—the first outer coat of cellulose with its valuable mineral contents is removed before the seed is ground.

(3) White flour—only the central white part of the seed is ground.

Note.—The pupils should be given specimens of fall wheat to examine, so as to compare the outer coat of cellulose with the central white part of the grain.

3. Composition of white flour:

(1) Starch—a fine, granular, white substance(2) Gluten—a sticky, yellowish, elastic substance (a protein food).

(1) Starch—a fine, granular, white substance

(2) Gluten—a sticky, yellowish, elastic substance (a protein food).

To find the substances in white flour, each pupil should mix half a cup of bread flour with enough cold water to make a dough. She must then be taught to knead it. This knowledge will be of use later in the bread lessons. After it is thoroughly kneaded until it is smooth and well blended, the dough should be washed in several waters. The first washing water should be poured into a glass and allowed to settle, to show the starch. After all the starch is washed away, the gluten will remain.

The gluten may then be put into a greased pan and baked, to demonstrate that it admits of distention, and also to show that it may be stiffened permanently by heat into any distended shape. The baked gluten should be reserved to be used as a specimen in succeeding lessons.

4. Kinds of wheat flour:

(1) Bread flour—contains much gluten.(2) Pastry flour—contains little gluten.

(1) Bread flour—contains much gluten.

(2) Pastry flour—contains little gluten.

Note.—Macaroni is a paste made from wheat flour which contains much gluten.

5. Tests for bread flour:

(1) The colour is a deeper cream than pastry flour, on account of the larger amount of gluten which it contains.(2) When squeezed, it will not hold the impress of the hand.(3) When the flour is made into a dough and washed, about one fourth of the original quantity remains as gluten.

(1) The colour is a deeper cream than pastry flour, on account of the larger amount of gluten which it contains.

(2) When squeezed, it will not hold the impress of the hand.

(3) When the flour is made into a dough and washed, about one fourth of the original quantity remains as gluten.

1. Meaning of flour mixtures:

A lightened mixture of flour and liquid, with or without other ingredients, is called a flour mixture.

2. Kinds of flour mixtures:

(1) Batters.—(a) Pour batters—pancakes, popovers(b) Drop batters—cake(2) Doughs.— (a) Soft dough—cookies, baking-powder biscuits, doughnuts(b) Stiff dough—pastry.

3. Methods of mixing flour mixtures:

(1) Stirring.—A roundabout movement which simply mixes the ingredients.(2) Beating.—An upright, circular movement, which incorporates air into the ingredients while being mixed.(3) Folding.—A slow, careful beating, which blends the ingredients without loss of the air they contain.(4) Kneading.—A movement of the hands to blend the ingredients and also to incorporate air.(5) Cutting.—A hacking movement of a knife to mix fat through flour.

(1) Stirring.—A roundabout movement which simply mixes the ingredients.

(2) Beating.—An upright, circular movement, which incorporates air into the ingredients while being mixed.

(3) Folding.—A slow, careful beating, which blends the ingredients without loss of the air they contain.

(4) Kneading.—A movement of the hands to blend the ingredients and also to incorporate air.

(5) Cutting.—A hacking movement of a knife to mix fat through flour.

4. Framework of flour mixtures:

(1) Gluten(2) Gluten and egg-white.

(1) Gluten

(2) Gluten and egg-white.

To show the framework, the gluten baked in the flour lessons should be used. It should be pointed out as the skeleton of the mixture which upholds the entire structure and on which the other ingredients depend. To have light mixtures, this framework must admit of being expanded and also of being stiffened permanently into the stretched shape. Since egg-white has both of these necessary qualities, it may be used for a framework either alone or in combination with gluten.

It should also be observed that a mixture of ingredients light in weight does not prevent the framework from rising as much as heavy ones do.

The pupils will see that the framework of a mixture must increase in size in order to make the mixture light, but it must be made very clear that, while heat stiffens any framework, it will not distend it. Some other agency is required for this.

5. Lightening agents used in flour mixtures:

(1) Air.—Incorporated by beating, kneading, and sifting.(2) Steam.—Incorporated in the form of a liquid which, when heated, changes to steam.(3) Carbonic acid gas.—Formed in the mixture by the chemical union of soda with some acid. Examples: soda and sour milk; soda, cream of tartar and water; soda and molasses.

(1) Air.—Incorporated by beating, kneading, and sifting.

(2) Steam.—Incorporated in the form of a liquid which, when heated, changes to steam.

(3) Carbonic acid gas.—Formed in the mixture by the chemical union of soda with some acid. Examples: soda and sour milk; soda, cream of tartar and water; soda and molasses.

The lightening agents, air and steam, may be taught from the samples of baked gluten. Experiments will show how to produce the carbonic acid gas.

Experiments:

1. Put into a thick glass 1/8 tsp. of soda and 1/4 tsp. of cream of tartar. Mix, and note the result. Stir in 1/8 cup of cold water, and note the result.

2. In No. 1, use hot water in place of cold, and note the result.

3. Put 1/4 cup of sour milk in a glass. Stir into the milk 1/4 tsp. of soda, and note the result.

4. Put 1 tbsp. of molasses in a glass. Stir into the molasses a pinch of soda, and note the result.

Baking-powder:

It may now be explained that, for the sake of convenience, soda and cream of tartar may be obtained already mixed, in accurate proportions of two parts of acid to one of the soda. This mixture is known as baking-powder. As very little moisture is necessary to start the action of the powder, a little cornstarch is added to it to keep it dry. For the same reason, it should always be kept tightly covered.

Soda is made from common salt and is cheap, but the source of cream of tartar makes it expensive, so that good baking-powder cannot be low priced. If such be advertised, it is usually adulterated.

As soon as the foregoing principles of flour mixtures are understood, they should be put into practice. The lessons on cake, bread, and pastry should follow in the order named, with as much practical work in connection with each as the time will allow.

1. Classes of cake:

(1) Cakes without butter.—These mixtures contain no heavy ingredients and have little weight depending on the framework. They are lightened by air and steam only. Examples: sponge cake, angel cake.(2) Cakes with butter.—These are mixtures having ingredients of greater weight; and the three lightening agents—air, steam, and carbonic acid gas are used to raise them. Examples: pound cake, chocolate cake, nut cake, etc.

(1) Cakes without butter.—These mixtures contain no heavy ingredients and have little weight depending on the framework. They are lightened by air and steam only. Examples: sponge cake, angel cake.

(2) Cakes with butter.—These are mixtures having ingredients of greater weight; and the three lightening agents—air, steam, and carbonic acid gas are used to raise them. Examples: pound cake, chocolate cake, nut cake, etc.

Note.—Practice should be given in making at least one of each kind of cake, to demonstrate the method of mixing employed.

2. General directions for making cake:

(1) Attend to the fire, so as to have the oven at a proper heat.(2) Grease the pans thoroughly; greased paper may be used to line the bottom of the tin, but, in the case of fruit cake, the whole tin should be lined.(3) Have everything ready, so that the mixing may be quickly done.(4) Use pastry flour.(5) Use fine granulated sugar to ensure its being dissolved.(6) Blend the ingredients thoroughly, and at the same time incorporate as large an amount of air as possible.(7) Fill the pan about two-thirds full, pushing the mixture well to the corners and sides, so as to leave a depression in the centre.(8) Attend carefully to the baking.

(1) Attend to the fire, so as to have the oven at a proper heat.

(2) Grease the pans thoroughly; greased paper may be used to line the bottom of the tin, but, in the case of fruit cake, the whole tin should be lined.

(3) Have everything ready, so that the mixing may be quickly done.

(4) Use pastry flour.

(5) Use fine granulated sugar to ensure its being dissolved.

(6) Blend the ingredients thoroughly, and at the same time incorporate as large an amount of air as possible.

(7) Fill the pan about two-thirds full, pushing the mixture well to the corners and sides, so as to leave a depression in the centre.

(8) Attend carefully to the baking.

3. General rules for mixing cake:

(1) Cake without butter—

(a) Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs.(b) Beat the yolks until thick and lemon-coloured.(c) Add sugar to the yolks gradually and continue beating; add the flavouring.(d) Beat the whites until stiff and dry, thenfoldthem into the first mixture.(e) Gradually sift and fold in the flour until well mixed.

(a) Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs.

(b) Beat the yolks until thick and lemon-coloured.

(d) Beat the whites until stiff and dry, thenfoldthem into the first mixture.

(e) Gradually sift and fold in the flour until well mixed.

(2) Cake with butter—

(a) Cream the butter by working it with a wooden spoon.(b) Add the sugar gradually by stirring it in.(c) Beat the eggs until light, and add to the first mixture. (The eggs may be separated and the whites added later.)(d) Add the liquid and beat until the sugar is thoroughly dissolved.(e) Mix the flour and baking-powder in a sifter and gradually sift and beat it into the mixture until it is thoroughly blended.(Liquid and flour may be added alternately.)(f) Fold in the stiffly beaten whites, if the eggs have been separated.(g) If fruit, peel, nuts, etc., are used, they should be floured out of the quantity allowed for the cake and added last.

(a) Cream the butter by working it with a wooden spoon.

(b) Add the sugar gradually by stirring it in.

(d) Add the liquid and beat until the sugar is thoroughly dissolved.

(e) Mix the flour and baking-powder in a sifter and gradually sift and beat it into the mixture until it is thoroughly blended.

(Liquid and flour may be added alternately.)

(f) Fold in the stiffly beaten whites, if the eggs have been separated.

(g) If fruit, peel, nuts, etc., are used, they should be floured out of the quantity allowed for the cake and added last.

4. General directions for baking cake:

(1) Small, thin cakes should be baked in a hot oven.Examples: cookies, layer cake.(2) All loaf cakes require a moderate oven.(3) In baking cakes, divide the time stated in the recipe into quarters as follows:First quarter—mixture should begin to rise.Second quarter—mixture should continue rising.Third quarter—mixture should begin to brown and to stiffen into shape.Fourth quarter—mixture should finish browning and stiffening and shrink slightly from the sides of the pan.(4) Mixture is cooked when a slight pressure leaves no dent, or when a small skewer or fine knitting-needle put into the centre comes out clean and dry.

(1) Small, thin cakes should be baked in a hot oven.

Examples: cookies, layer cake.

(2) All loaf cakes require a moderate oven.

(3) In baking cakes, divide the time stated in the recipe into quarters as follows:

First quarter—mixture should begin to rise.

Second quarter—mixture should continue rising.

Third quarter—mixture should begin to brown and to stiffen into shape.

Fourth quarter—mixture should finish browning and stiffening and shrink slightly from the sides of the pan.

(4) Mixture is cooked when a slight pressure leaves no dent, or when a small skewer or fine knitting-needle put into the centre comes out clean and dry.

To the inexperienced minds of the girls in the Fourth Form, to whom the study of flour mixtures is new, the number and variety of these seems very large. All cook books give an almost endless collection of recipes for cakes, cookies, muffins, etc., and to the pupils each of these seems an entirely new mixture. In reality, many of them are but slight variations of the same type. A certain mixture of materials is used for a foundation, and numerous varieties are made from this by addition, subtraction, or substitution of ingredients. The original mixture is calledabasic recipe. Instead of teaching isolated mixtures, it will be found an excellent idea to give the class the basic ingredients for a recipe and encourage them to suggest variations, either original or from memory.

Typical basic recipes for cake and biscuits are given below:

1/4 cup butter1 1/2 cup flour3/4 cup sugar1/4 tsp. salt2 eggs2 tsp. baking-powder1/2 cup milk1/2 tsp. vanilla.

1. Spice cake:

To the basic recipe add 1 tbsp. of spice. Sift in the spice with the flour.

2. Nut cake:

Add 1/2 cup of chopped nuts. Increase the baking-powder by one third. Put a little of the flour on the nuts and beat them in at the last.

3. Fruit cake:

Add 3/4 cup of currants, raisins, figs, or dates, or a mixture of all. Increase the baking-powder by one third. Flour the fruit and add it last.

4. Chocolate cake:

Add 1/2 cup grated chocolate. Increase the milk by 2 tbsp. Heat the chocolate in the milk just enough to dissolve it. Cool the mixture and use in place of milk.

2 cups flour1/2 tsp. salt4 tsp. baking-powder2 tbsp. fat (butter, lard, or dripping)About 2/3 cup milk.

1. Sweet biscuit:

Add 2 tbsp. of sugar after the fat is added.

2. Fruit biscuit:

Add 2 tbsp. of sugar and 1/2 cup of fruit, (currants, raisins, peel, or a mixture of all) after the fat is added.

3. Scones:

Add 2 tbsp. of sugar, and use one egg and only 1/2 cup of milk. Beat the egg until light, add to milk, and use this for liquid. Form into round cakes about eight inches in diameter, and cut into quarters.

4. Fruit scones:

Add 1/2 cup of fruit to the scone recipe.

5. Short cake for fruit:

Same as scones, but double the amount of fat.

6. Dumplings for stews:

Use the basic recipe, leaving out the fat.

7. Steamed fruit pudding:

Use the basic recipe to make the dough that incases the fruit.

In beginning the bread lessons, it will be found that there are no new principles to teach. It will, however, be necessary to explain the new means of producing gas which is used in this particular mixture, namely, yeast.

From their lessons on the "Preservation of Food" and "Canning", the pupils are already acquainted with one class of microscopic plants. The little plants, in that case, were a source of great inconvenience to the housekeeper. Yeast may be introduced as another family of one-celled plants, but one which is most useful. Under good conditions these tiny plants will produce a large amount of carbon dioxide gas, provided they are given sufficient time. If, however, the gas be required quickly, soda and acid must be used. For this reason, plain flour mixtures, in which the carbon dioxide is quickly made, are called quick breads, to distinguish them from breads in which yeast is used. Examples of these are baking-powder biscuits, gems, corn-bread, etc.

The use of yeast is the simplest and cheapest way of obtaining carbonic acid gas, and mixtures so made remain moist longer than those in which baking-powder is used.

Throughout the introductory lesson, this fact must be kept prominently before the class, that yeast is a plant and, as such, requires plant conditions. The necessary conditions will be known from the lesson on "Bacteria", so that they have only to be reviewed. The pupils may be told that although they cannot see the plants, they can very plainly see the bubbles of gas which the plants give off when the latter are made active under favourable conditions.

1. Description of yeast:

Yeast is a one-celled plant which can be seen only with a microscope. Under good conditions it becomes very active and multiplies rapidly by a process calledbudding. It is used by the housekeeper for the carbonic acid gas it gives off.

Yeast plants magnifiedYeast plants magnified

2. Conditions necessary for the activity of yeast:

(1) Oxygen(2) Water(3) Food.—This must be sugar, or starch which it will change into sugar. Potato starch is more easily used by yeast than flour starch. It uses also some nitrogenous food and mineral matter.(4) Heat.—The yeast plant thrives in a heat of about the same temperature as our bodies. A little extra heat will only make it grow faster; but excessive heat will kill it.Freezing will not kill the plant, though cold makes yeast inactive.

(1) Oxygen

(2) Water

(3) Food.—This must be sugar, or starch which it will change into sugar. Potato starch is more easily used by yeast than flour starch. It uses also some nitrogenous food and mineral matter.

(4) Heat.—The yeast plant thrives in a heat of about the same temperature as our bodies. A little extra heat will only make it grow faster; but excessive heat will kill it.

Freezing will not kill the plant, though cold makes yeast inactive.

3. Sources of yeast:

Yeast was first found aswild yeastin the air, but now it may be obtained at grocery stores, in three forms:

(1) Liquid yeast.—The plants are put into a starchy liquid. This will keep only a few days, as the starch sours.(2) Dry yeast.—The plants are put into a starchy paste and the mixture is dried. This form will keep for months, because it is perfectly dry but, for the same reason, it takes the plants a long time to become active when used.(3) Compressed yeast.—The plants are put into cakes of a starchy mixture and left moist. They will keep only a few days. Good compressed yeast is a pale fawn colour, smells sweet, breaks clean, and crumbles easily.

(1) Liquid yeast.—The plants are put into a starchy liquid. This will keep only a few days, as the starch sours.

(2) Dry yeast.—The plants are put into a starchy paste and the mixture is dried. This form will keep for months, because it is perfectly dry but, for the same reason, it takes the plants a long time to become active when used.

(3) Compressed yeast.—The plants are put into cakes of a starchy mixture and left moist. They will keep only a few days. Good compressed yeast is a pale fawn colour, smells sweet, breaks clean, and crumbles easily.

4. Experiments with yeast:

Make ayeast gardenby using the plants obtained at the grocery store as follows:

Take half a cup of lukewarm water to give the plants moisture, a teaspoonful of sugar for immediate food, and the same of wheat starch (flour) for a reserve food. Beat the mixture to infold oxygen, and then put in one-quarter cake of yeast plants.

Divide the mixture among a number of test-tubes, so that each group of four pupils has three.

(1) Place one test-tube in warm water and heat to boiling.(2) Place one test-tube in water which feels warm to the hand.(3) Place one test-tube in cracked ice and freeze the mixture. Afterwards thaw, and place the same test-tube in lukewarm water.

(1) Place one test-tube in warm water and heat to boiling.

(2) Place one test-tube in water which feels warm to the hand.

(3) Place one test-tube in cracked ice and freeze the mixture. Afterwards thaw, and place the same test-tube in lukewarm water.

Observe the results, and compare the amount of gas formed under the different conditions.

Ingredients of plain bread:

1. Liquid.—(1) It wets the mixture and causes the ingredients to adhere.(2) It furnishes steam for a lightening gent.(3) It allows the gluten to become sticky and elastic.(4) It furnishes moisture for yeast plants.2. Yeast.—It gives off carbonic acid gas, which lightens the mixture.3. Salt.—(1) It gives a flavour.(2) It retards the growth of the yeast plant.4. Flour.—(1) It thickens the mixture.(2) It supplies food for the yeast plant.(3) It supplies gluten for a framework for the mixture.

Amount of ingredients for one small loaf:

Liquid—1 cup or 1/2 pt.Salt—1/2 tsp.Flour—About three times the amount of liquidYeast—Amount depends on the time given the bread to rise, as follows:

12 hr. to rise5 hr. to rise3 hr. to rise1/4 yeast cake1/2 yeast cake1 yeast cake

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