Footnote a:Now collected on sides.
FALLS NEAR KILLARNEYFALLS NEAR KILLARNEY
FALLS NEAR KILLARNEY
ABORIGINAL TREE CLIMBERSABORIGINAL TREE CLIMBERS
ABORIGINAL TREE CLIMBERS
The water supply problem is of importance so momentous, and the official information collected by the Hydraulic Engineer being scattered through reports covering about twenty-five years—from 1883 until 1908—it is thought desirable to present the main official facts in a convenient digest for the general reader.
Up to 1883, when the McIlwraith Government created the Hydraulic Engineer's Department by appointing Mr. J. B. Henderson to organise it, little had been done by the State for the improvement of the water supply of the country except in cities and towns. At that time no artesian water was known to exist in Queensland, but there was a popular belief that there were great underground supplies, especially in Western Queensland. Many station-owners had been active, and the diamond drill had been brought into use, but deep drilling had not then been undertaken. In October, 1884, the Hydraulic Engineer reported that he had just visited Widgeegoara Station, where the owners, Messrs. E. and J. Bignell, partly by sinking shafts and partly by boring, had obtained an underground pumped supply aggregating 94,000 gallons every twenty-four hours. This resulted from sinking four 5 ft. × 2½ ft. shafts an average depth of 102 ft. each, and thence boring and tubing below the bottom of each shaft to the average depth of 161 ft. Of the total quantity 20,000 gallons a day was obtained from the Four-mile well, a shaft sunk to a depth of 150 ft. below the natural surface. Besides this there was a homestead well 33 ft. deep. Analyses of the water showed that, in the opinion of the Government Analyst, only in one bore was it useful for watering sheep, it being brackish; but according to the station reports the supply from the Four-mile well and Nos. 1 and 2 shaft-bores was good stock water. Mr. Henderson warmly commended the Messrs. Bignell's enterprise.
During the same month the late Hon. George King, of Gowrie, brought under the notice of the department a report by Mr. Darley, C.E., to the Government of New South Wales respecting certain American well-boring machinery by the use of which in Mr. King's opinion three-fourths of the cost of £6,000 incurred by his firm in sinking shafts in the Warrego district might have been saved. Besides which much greater depths could be reached, a machine costing £600 in America being capable ofboring 2,000 ft. The matter being referred to the Hydraulic Engineer, that officer made inquiries which induced him heartily to endorse Mr. King's suggestion that the Government should secure from America a machine with two men experienced in working it and capable of themselves making any ordinary repairs. Mr. Henderson also recommended that a staff should be trained by the Americans after arrival, and expressed the opinion that this course would save both money and time, and prove a large gain to the colony. But he reminded the Minister that until there had been an abundant rainfall extensive operations in bore-sinking in the West could not be carried on, though he advised the introduction of a sufficient number of machines and enough tubing in order that during the next season, if rain fell, work should be vigorously commenced.
On 4th September, 1885, the Hydraulic Engineer replied in unequivocal terms to a minute of his Minister requesting him to comply with the wish expressed that he should purchase a Victorian diamond drill, then under offer, for coal-prospecting purposes. Mr. Henderson strongly recommended that no drill be purchased unless capable of boring holes at least from 5 in. to 2 in. in diameter. He also pointed out that where drifts and loose gravels were met with, and tubed, a deep bore must be commenced of large diameter to ensure success. Although the proposed drills were not ostensibly to be used for water-finding, it is evident that the Hydraulic Engineer, in reporting upon them, had that kind of work in view.
On 2nd December following the Hydraulic Engineer addressed the Minister touching water-boring operations, and pointed out that, while there would be no difficulty in importing the machinery and appliances requisite for deep bores, he was convinced that men must be introduced from America to start and teach others here to work them. He recommended that an efficient plant should be ordered capable of boring up to 12 in. in diameter to a depth of 2,500 ft., for (say) £1,000, delivery at the works, and four good drillers under a two years' engagement brought out to work them at 21s. to 23s. per day, apparently of twelve hours; board, lodging, and travelling expenses to be defrayed by the Government.
On 20th February, 1886, the Hydraulic Engineer wrote that, understanding from conversations with the Minister that "the policy of the Government is to carry on water conservation works and boring for underground water with increased energy, he recommends the purchase of three Wright and Edwards' boring machines, capable of reaching a depth of 1,000 ft., for delivery within four months from the date of order." Three days later Mr. Henderson wrote:—"Unfortunately it can be said with much truth that, ever since the department's existence, the seasons have been unfavourable in the extreme for carrying out its plans." After mentioning the specific difficulties encountered, he added:—"I do not share in the idea that the late rains broke up the drought, as I cannot disguise from myself the fact that they have not been general, or even yet of sufficient quantity."
Although the Hydraulic Engineer, so long before as December, 1884, had recommended the Minister to import American boring machinery with men trained to work it, it was not until 19th October, 1886, nearly two years later, that he was able to announce that his advice had been so far followed that Mr. Arnold, an American borer from Honolulu, had gone to Blackall with a Pennsylvania Walking Beam Oil Rig boring machine which had been constructed in Brisbane. It seems that so long previously as July, 1885, two tenders for boring by Americans—one being from Mr. Arnold—were submitted by the Hydraulic Engineer to the Minister, with the intimation that they were both too vague for acceptance, and expressing the hope that Mr. Arnold, "who seemed a man of considerable experience, would submit a more liberal and definite offer." The same report mentions that on the 30th June previously the Blackall bore had been carried to a depth of 775 ft., and that at 127 ft. good water had been struck that rose to a height of 60 ft. below the surface, but was deemed insufficient for the requirements of the town. Up to that time nine bores had been completed, chiefly by the ineffective Tiffin auger, but not one had reached artesian water, the deepest being that at Blackall, and the average depth 371 ft.
In his report of 12th November, 1887, the Hydraulic Engineer states that it is essential that only the best quality of tubing, or "casing," should be used in bores. In April he had visited, by direction of the Treasurer, Thurulgoona Station, on the New South Wales border, and there carefully inspected boring operations. He found that one bore had, by means of the Canadian Pole Tool boring machine, been sunk to 1,079 ft., a supply of excellent water having been struck at a depth of 1,009 ft., "the water overflowing in my presence to a height of about 20 in. above the surface of the ground." This was apparently the first artesian water Mr. Henderson had seen in Queensland, though he had years previously seen the artesian well at Sale, in Victoria; and he naturally pronounced the opinion that the result at Thurulgoona was "very satisfactory." During this year boring had been carried on in Queensland without success so far as the formation of flowing wells was concerned. Mr. Arnold, having sunk to 1,039 ft. at Blackall, resigned, but it was decided to continue sinking, all the tubing being recovered with the exception of a few feet, and being capable of use several times over if need be. During this year also tenders had been received from Mr. Loughead, of Thurulgoona, to put down three bores of 2,500 ft. in Queensland, and Mr. Henderson reported that there was every prospect of a tender being received from a company recently formed in Brisbane at a slightly lower price than Mr. Loughead had named.
It was at this time, after three years' fighting with difficulties arising from drought, the want of knowledge of deep-boring machinery, and the indisposition of the Government to spend much money in so speculative an undertaking, that the firstgleam of daylight appeared. On 6th October, 1888, the Hydraulic Engineer reported that four contracts had been entered into for deep boring, with as many different persons or companies, in the aggregate over 20,000 ft. Included among these was the contract with the Canadian Pole Tool Company (of which the late Mr. Percy Ricardo was then the financial head, and Mr. William Woodley, who had been induced to come over from Canada, was the head driller) for completing the Blackall bore to a depth of 2,000 ft. if necessary. In this bore, on 26th April, 1888, after many vexatious stoppages, "an abundant supply of overflowing, sparkling, fresh artesian water, excellently adapted for domestic purposes, was tapped at a depth of 1,645 ft." The rate of flow, as measured from 3 in. piping attached to a screw plug and valve to control the flow, was found to be 210,000 gallons per diem, with a temperature of 119 degrees. This had been an expensive bore, for it cost £5,748. It was not the first artesian water officially utilised in Queensland, for four months earlier than water rose to the surface in the Blackall bore the Barcaldine bore was yielding 175,416 gallons of water a day, at a temperature of 101 degrees, obtained from a depth of 691 ft., and at a cost of only £1,220.
These results were so encouraging that the Hydraulic Engineer recommended the sinking of thirteen additional bores, and the recommendation was approved. As early as possible tenders were advertised, and there then seemed some difficulty in getting eligible applications, partly, it may be assumed, because of the activity of private enterprise in bore-sinking. To those engaged in this undertaking Mr. Henderson in his 1889 report pays a graceful tribute, congratulating them on their successes, and expressing regret at their failures, in which they only met the same luck as the Government had encountered. It was in this report also that the Hydraulic Engineer suggested that a map be prepared showing the position, altitude, and other useful particulars of all Government and private bores and wells in Queensland, and he invited information from all persons capable of giving it. Mr. Henderson mentioned the successful sinking of the Cunnamulla bore, having a flow of 22,500 gallons per hour of "excellent fresh water," with a pressure of 186 lb. to the square inch, a temperature of 106 degrees, and a depth of 1,402 ft. The total cost of this bore was £1,928. The success of the Tambo bore was also reported at the same time, 8,333 gallons per hour having been obtained at a depth of 1,002 ft., with a temperature of 98 degrees, and for a cost of £1,515.
The Hydraulic Engineer's report dated 11th September, 1890, supplies evidence of the importance of the discoveries made up to that date of artesian water in Queensland. The striking of a supply of 3,000,000 gallons a day of "water clear, colourless, soft, and potable" in the Charleville bore is noted with satisfaction. In the text of the report this was said to be, so far as the writer knew, the "best wellin Australia," but a footnote added that soon afterwards a bore in the Cunnamulla district was reported to have been tapped with a daily supply of 3½ million gallons. The depth of the Charleville bore was only 1,370 ft., and its cost £2,389. The striking of a supply of 1,095,000,000 gallons per annum at so small a cost was naturally a subject for both official and general congratulation.
In the same year is reported the striking of water in the Muckadilla bore, which yielded about 10,000 gallons a day from a depth of over 3,000 ft., and was then believed to be the deepest bore in Australia. The cost was £2,673. A somewhat better supply was afterwards struck at 3,262 ft. In this report the Hydraulic Engineer expresses regret that through the absence of barometrical measurements, owing to scarcity of money, the height above sea level of proposed sites for bores was not known, but sites were selected from surface indications and the results achieved by sinking in the neighbourhood. The wells sunk by the Government had been of much use in assisting private enterprise to select likely sites, but it would have been more satisfactory had better information been obtained by the use of the spirit level. Acknowledgments were made to those who had responded to the circular invitation sent out for information, and regret was expressed that in some cases there had been no response. The effort made, however, had enabled several new features to be embodied in the report, among which was a table containing a list of both public and private bores, and a large map locating, so far as possible, the position of each. Another map showed the rainfall in different parts of the colony, while a handsome diagram of the Brisbane rainfall was furnished for the first time. Both of these remained features of the Hydraulic Engineer's annual reports until 1901, when revenue considerations compelled their suspension.
During 1890 excessive rains and bad roads hindered work in bore-sinking, instead of the dry periods which had been the cause of embarrassment for the preceding seven years. The only newly completed bore during this year was that at McKinlay, which at 1,002 ft. gave a supply of 224,000 gallons a day. Water was struck in two other bores, but of insufficient quantity, and work was still proceeding. The obstacles encountered in boring, often from the breaking of machinery, but more frequently from the want of thoroughly skilled drillers, must have been disheartening, especially in cases where the sinking was done without useful scientific information, and bores had to be abandoned after months—even years in cases—of labour and worry.
In his report of 20th January, 1893, the Hydraulic Engineer discusses at length the question of artesian water supply. The country is, he holds, now in a much improved position to encounter long droughts. Valuable information has been and is still being obtained by exploration as to the prospects of artesian water beingfound, and also as to the conservation of surface water by artificial means. He says that fifteen bores, averaging 1,571 ft. each, have been sunk by the department, and that although the work has been of a pioneering character only one sunk to the contract depth has proved a failure. He estimates that about 88,000 square miles in the western country have been proved to be water-bearing, and he urges that as large areas still remain to be explored the present is a favourable time for inviting tenders for the work.
In this report the Hydraulic Engineer directs attention to the necessity of acquiring information as to the extent of our surface-water resources. In three of the southern colonies, he mentions, a systematic practice of gauging streams has for some time been in force. The work will be useless unless it is carried on for a number of years. The essential thing to be ascertained is not the maximum flow of a stream, but the minimum; or rather, perhaps, the maximum that can be expected from a stream in a season of maximum aridity. "Without such data," he continues, "no fair distribution of water, no scheme of water supply, or irrigation, or drainage can be well considered; nor can storage and distribution or drainage works be economically designed, or their permanency and efficiency ensured." He therefore urges the matter of stream-gauging upon the favourable consideration of the Government, adding that the paramount necessity of active administration in respect of water conservation generally has been recognised by Parliament by legislation already placed upon the Statute-book.
Two official pages of the 1893 report are devoted to the "misuse of water," a member of Parliament having already objected to the application of the word "waste" to water allowed to flow unchecked from bores. The aggregate capacity of the ten Government bores then flowing was 5,000,000 gallons daily, all measured; while of the 137 private wells the flow was estimated at 100,000,000 gallons daily. This total of 105,000,000 gallons would be equivalent to a rainfall of 29 in. on 91 square miles of country. This was the rate of average rainfall on the assumed outcrop of water-bearing country that supplied the artesian area. And it had to be remembered that a part of this rainfall of 29 in. had to be carried off by streams as well as by evaporation, and therefore did not sink into the water-bearing strata of the arid west. As to the extent of the outcrop, it was estimated not to exceed one-eighth of a mile, with a total length of 1,600 miles, which meant a total supply of 200 square miles of water-bearing outcrop area.aArguing on these and other grounds, the report contends that the falling off of the yield of many bores affords proof that, wherever the supply comes from, the outflow already exceeds the inflow. The Engineercan only regard as wasted two-thirds of the water that now flows from the artesian bores in Queensland; indeed, adopting the language of an American, "the waste is a crime against the well-owner and against the State."
Footnote a:For fuller particulars see Hydraulic Engineer's Report for 1893, pages 5 and 6.
The Hydraulic Engineer adds that while he cannot assert that the artesian flow is being exhausted, he yet holds that the flow ought to be controlled by legislative action.a
Footnote a:On this passage the Hydraulic Engineer notes that, in 1891, a bill was introduced into Parliament by Sir Thomas McIlwraith for controlling the artesian water supply, and passed through the Assembly, but was rejected by the Council. Since then no action in that direction has been taken.
The same report contains an interesting article on irrigation. It points out that at the beginning of 1892 there were only 200 irrigators among the land cultivators of the colony, and that the area irrigated was only 5,000 acres. It was believed that in the last year the amount of land so fertilised had largely increased. Many of the plants and distributing apparatus were of a most primitive kind. "Some are expensive, others badly erected, and not a few are of a type ill-adapted to the object in view."
The report goes on to discuss the probability or otherwise of water in sufficient quantities for irrigation being obtainable by conservation. In summarising his argument the Hydraulic Engineer says, "Looking at the question broadly, I am much disposed to regard the possibilities of a sufficiently abundant supply of water being obtained for irrigation, especially for land in small areas devoted to intense culture, as of considerable promise." He then urges the inadequacy of artesian wells for the irrigation of large areas, pointing out, among other things, that the entire discharge of the wells then flowing in Queensland would suffice to irrigate only 219 square miles to a depth of 1 ft. He thinks that in Queensland we shall have to depend upon "natural" water for irrigation purposes.
A new feature in the 1893 report was the map giving information as to (1) artesian bores applied for, (2) under contract, (3) in progress, and (4) completed. It showed that out of a total of 668,497 square miles of the "Rolling Downs Formation" (Lower Cretaceous) no less than 376,832 square miles, chiefly in the arid west, was likely to be water-bearing. This estimate, it may be noted, has been very slightly reduced of late, but the scope for exploration in water-finding seems still great in Western Queensland. The report alludes to the success attained in the Queensland manufacture of well-boring machinery. All the plant used, the wire rope alone excepted, was manufactured in the colony, where improvements hadbeen made in the originally imported article. Yet it is admitted that the apparatus used was "not a perfectly scientific one, because it does not produce a core by means of which the nature of the strata and the angle and direction of the dip can be fully ascertained." Queensland yellow-wood (Flindersia Oxleyana) had quite replaced American timber in the manufacture of drilling poles.