THE VERTEBRATA.

FIG. 23.—HONEY-LAPPING APPARATUS OF WILD SEA-BEE (Halictus), (a, magnified;a b, more highly magnified).

FIG. 24.—WHITE ANTS (1, Winged Female; 2, Female, distended with eggs).

FIG. 25.—NESTS OF WHITE ANTS.

With respect to the Ants, Kirby and Spence give the following account of the building of their habitations.

"The nest ofFormica brunneais composed wholly of earth, and consists of a great number of stories, sometimes not fewer than forty, twenty below the level of the soil, and as many above, which last, following the slope of the ant-hill, are concentric. Each story, separately examined, exhibits cavities in the shape of saloons, narrower apartments, and long galleries which preserve the communication between both. The arched roofs of the most spacious rooms are supported by very thin walls, or occasionally by small pillars and true buttresses; some having only one entrance from above, others a second, communicating with the lower story; the main galleries, of which, in some places, several meet in one large saloon, communicate with other subterranean passages, which are often carried to the distance of several feet from the hill. These insects work chiefly after sunset. In building their nest they employ soft clay only, scraped from its bottom when sufficiently moistened by a shower, which, far from injuring, consolidates and strengthens their architecture. Different labourers convey small masses of this ductile material between their mandibles, and with the same instrument they spread and mould it to their will, the antennæ accompanying every movement. They render all firm by pressing the surface lightly with their fore feet; and however numerous the distinct masses of clay composing these walls, and though connected by no glutinous material, they appear when finished, one single layer, well united, consolidated and smoothed. Having traced the plan of their structure, by placing here and there the foundations of the pillars and partition-walls, they add successively new portions; and when the walls of a gallery or apartment, which are half a line thick, are elevated about half an inch in height, they join them by springing a flattish arch or roof from one side to the other. Nothing can be a more interesting spectacle than one of these cities while building. Inone place vertical walls form the outline, which communicate with different corridors by openings made in the masonry; in another we see a true saloon, whose vaults are supported by numerous pillars; and further on are the cross-ways or squares where several streets meet, and whose roofs, though often more than two inches across, the Ants are under no difficulty in constructing, beginning the sides of the arch in the angle formed by two walls, and extending them by successive layers of clay till they meet; while crowds of masons arrive from all parts with their particles of mortar, and work with a regularity, harmony, and activity, which can never enough be admired. So assiduous are they in their operations, that they will complete a storywith all its saloons, vaulted roofs, partitions and galleries, in seven or eight hours. If they begin a story, and for want of moisture are unable to finish it, they pull down again all the crumbling apartments that are not covered in."

Every one has heard of the destructive as well as constructive qualities of the "White Ant;" another quotation from Kirby and Spence will illustrate both.

"When they find their way into houses or warehouses nothing less hard than metal or glass escapes their ravages; their favourite food, however, is wood of all kinds, except the Teak, and Ironwood, which are the only sorts known, that they will not touch; and so infinite are the multitudes of the assailants, and such is the excellence of their tools, that all the timber-work of a spacious apartment is often destroyed by them in a few nights. Exteriorly, however, everything appears as if untouched; for these wary depredators (and this is what constitutes the greatest singularity of their history) carry on all their operations by sap and mine, destroying utterly the inside of solid substances, and scarcely ever attacking their outside until they have first concealed it and their operations with a coating of clay. A general similarity runs through the proceedings of the whole tribe, but the large African species, called by Smeathman Termes bellicosus, is the most formidable. These insects live in large clay nests, from whence they excavate tunnels all round, often to the extent of several hundred feet; from these they will descend a considerable depth below the foundation of a house, and rise again through the floors; or, boring through the posts and supports of the building, enter the roof and construct their galleries in various directions.

"If a post be a convenient path to the roof, or has any weight to support, (how they discover it is not easily conjectured), they will fill it with their mortar, leaving only a track-way for themselves, and thus, as it were, convert it from wood into stone as hard as many kinds of freestone. In this manner they soondestroy houses, and sometimes whole villages, when deserted by their inhabitants, so that in two or three years not a vestige of them will remain. These insidious insects are not less expeditious in destroying the wainscoating, shelves, and other fixtures of a house, than the house itself; with the most consummate art and skill they eat away the inside of what they attack, except a few fibres here and there, which exactly suffice to keep the two sides, or top and bottom, connected, so as to retain the appearance of solidity after the reality is gone; and all the while they carefully avoid perforating the surface, unless a book or any other thing that tempts them should be standing upon it.

"Kœmpfer, speaking of the White Ants of Japan, gives a remarkable instance of the rapidity with which these miners proceed. Upon rising one morning he observed that one of their galleries of the thickness of his little finger had been formed across his table; and upon a further examination he found that they had bored a passage of that thickness up one foot of the table, formed a gallery across it, and then pierced down another foot into the floor; all this was done in the few hours that intervened between his retiring to rest and his rising."

Most of this order are armed with some weapon of defence. The Bee and Wasp have each a most formidable sting, with which they are able to inflict a wound fatal to most insects. The Ants have a peculiar secretion, consisting of formic acid, which they eject with great force, and which has a very disagreeable smell. The eggs of Ants when hatched produce a small grub, which spins itself a sort of cocoon, and in this state it so much resembles a grain of corn, that it has been mistaken for it; this error has given rise to the supposition that Ants store up corn for winter, whereas they never eat corn, but the care they take of these larvæ, removing them from place to place, taking them up in their mandibles and running along with them, has been mistaken for the act of storing away grains of corn.

5.Strepsiptera(Twisted-winged).

This order includes but a few species; Dr. Baird in his Cyclopædia, gives the following account of them:—

"Certain insects were discovered by Kirby, living parasitic in the abdomen of some Andrenæ, which at that time were nondescript, and could not be referred to any existing order. They were afterwards placed in an order by themselves, which he called Strepsiptera. The larvæ live in the bodies of Bees, Wasps &c., and the males only undergo a perfect metamorphosis; the females, even when adult, have neither legs, wings, nor eyes, but resemble larvæ, and continue to live parasitic in the bodies of the Hymenopterous insects within which they were born. The characters are thus taken from the male and consist chiefly in the structure of the wings. The anterior pair are quite rudimentary, being transformed into a pair of short, slender, contorted appendages resembling narrow balancers or halters. The posterior pair are large and membraneous, their nervures are only longitudinal, so that they are able to fold them like a fan. They have large globular eyes, with the facets few, but of comparatively large size."

FIG. 26.—STYLOPS ANDRENÆ.

"About ten or twelve species are known, forming a small family, "Stylopidæ." The genus Stylops may be taken as the type, and contain such species as have the tarsi with four points and the antennæ with six."

6.Lepidoptera(Scaly-winged).

This order includes the Butterflies and Moths, they have four wings, which are large and covered with minute scales, which are for the most part of a heart or battledore shape, as in fig. 27. The wings of these insects are many of them beautifully marked and tinged. There are about 12,000 species, by some divided into "diurnal" (or those which fly by day), "crepuscular" (or those which fly in the evening), and "nocturnal" (or those flying by night). The Moths are mostly crepuscular and nocturnal, while the Butterflies are chiefly diurnal, but the most usual distinction between the Moth and Butterfly consists in the form of the antennæ, those of the Moth being feather-shaped, while those of the Butterfly have a small knob at the end, or, as it is called, "club-shaped." The Lepidoptera feed upon the nectar of flowers, for which purpose they are furnished with a long proboscis or "Haustellium," which is curled up under the head, it consists of two semi-cylindrical pieces which when placed side by side form a tube, up whichthe nectar is drawn by capillary attraction. The metamorphosis of these insects is complete.

FIG. 27.—SCALES FROM MOTH'S WING(Magnified).

The Silkworm (Bombyx mori) belongs to this order. It is the most important of all insects to man, as from it alone all the silk of commerce is obtained. Its cocoon is of a beautiful yellow colour, varying in shade from orange to pale straw-colour; the silk of one cocoon weighs somewhere about three grains; it would therefore, at this calculation, take 1920 worms to spin one pound. The annual import of silk into this country alone is about 7,000,000 pounds, it must therefore take 13,440,000,000 Silkworms to supply us with silk yearly! The Silkworm feeds almost exclusively on the leaves of the mulberry.

FIG. 28.—THE SILKWORM (Bombyx mori).1, the Eggs; 2, the young Silkworms; 3, the full-grown Silkworm; 4, the Cocoon; 5, the Chrysalis; 6, the Moth.

7.Hemiptera(Half-winged).

The Hemiptera have two pairs of wings, the hindermost small, and the foremost pair half horny and half membraneous, the base being horny, and the apex membraneous. They include the Bugs, some of which are aquatic, as the Water Scorpion (Nepa), and the Water Boatman (Natonecta), which swims on its back, rowing itself by means of a pair of long legs, which look like oars; the common bed Bug is also of this order, although wingless, as are also the Plant Lice (Aphides), which, however, obtain wings in their perfect state.

8.Diptera(Two-winged).

PART OF GNAT'S WINGFIG. 29.—PART OF GNAT'S WING, MAGNIFIED.

FIG. 29.—PART OF GNAT'S WING, MAGNIFIED.

The Diptera include the common House Fly (fig. 16), Bluebottle Fly, Gnat, and many others; their wings are like the Neuroptera, but they have but one pair, the other pair being undeveloped, form little knobs called "balancers." The wings of Flies are generally covered with short stout hairs, as seen in fig. 29; the common Fly feeds upon almost anything, but some of the Diptera feed exclusively on the blood of other animals; the Gnat (Culex pipiens), of which the Mosquito is a variety, depositsits egg in the water on any floating substance, the larva which comes from the egg is aquatic, living with its head downwards, the end of the abdomen only being above the water, in this there is a spiracle or breathing orifice, which enables it to take in the air; the Gnat, when it comes from this larva, stands on its shell for a moment, and then flies off, for it is not suited to live in the water; this history of the early stages of its life, accounts for Gnats being always found in such numbers near pools of water. The Tsetse, which Dr. Livingstone describes as being so fatal to cattle, is of this order; he says, "It is well known that the bite of this poisonous insect is certain death to ox, horse, or dog.... A most remarkable feature in the bite of the Tsetse is its perfect harmlessness to man and wild animals, and even calves, so long as they continue to suck the cows."

9.Aptera(Wingless).

FIG. 30.—FLEA (Pulex irritans) MAGNIFIED.

To this order belongs the Flea (Pulex irritans), which is furnished with lancet-shaped weapons, through which it sucks the blood of other animals, for it is entirely parasitic, and also the "Chigeo" (Pulex penetrans), which is a troublesome and even dangerous pest in the West Indies; it penetrates the skin of the feet, and deposits its young beneath it.

FIG. 31.—ARACHNIDA. 1, Spider (Epeira Diadema); 2, Scorpion (Scorpio).

FIG. 32.—LONG-LEGGED HOUSE-SPIDER (Aranæ domestica).

The last class of the Articulata, the Arachnida, includesthe Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Millipedes. The Arachnida differ from insects, in having eight or more legs, more than two eyes, no wings, and no head; the Spiders have four pairs of legs, and six, eight, or more, simple eyes, which appear as minute spots on the upper part of the thorax. Spiders nearly all live by preying upon small insects, which they catch in several ways, but by far the most general mode is by constructing a web or net to entangle them; the threads of this web are made of a fluid glutinous substance, which is secreted within the abdomen, and which they project from extremely minute orifices, several of which exist on the point of little projections called "spinnarets," this liquid dries into a solid thread immediately it comes into contact with the air; it is extremely strong, and so fine that several thousand of the single fibres will only make the size of a human hair. The Garden Spider (Epeira diadema) is often called the Geometrical Spider, from the regularity of its web. TheseSpiders will often place a thread from one spot to another, where it would seem impossible that they could attach it, such as from the branch of a tree to the corner of a house twenty feet or more from the ground; it has never been accurately determined how the Spider does this, and it is the more difficult to observe, as it is always done in the night, but it has been supposed that a fine thread is spun, and that the wind carries it across, when it is strengthened and afterwards made tight. The Spider (Araneæ domestica) that makes "cobwebs" in the corners of rooms, is called the Weaving Spider. Some Spiders are called Hunting Spiders, they do not construct webs, but pounce upon their prey with a leap; the Mygale avicularis of South America is one of this kind; it is said that some grow so large that their feet spread out a foot wide. The Long-legged Spider, often found in our houses, and of which fig. 32 is an exact copy, measures 3½ inches, and is the largest species we have. There are also aquatic Spiders, which feed upon insects in the water and dive down for them; their surface being hairy and unctuous, retains sufficient air to bring them up and prevent them being wetted. The eyesof Spiders are different from those of other insects; they appear as simple, shining spots, or "ocelli," and not compound eyes, having a great many "ocelli" compounded into one. These "ocelli" are arranged in a group of eight or more, and placed on the upper part of the thorax, for Spiders have no head, although generally represented with one. The eggs of Spiders are generally deposited in some sheltered place, fastened together and partly covered with a net-work of a sort of yellow silk, very much resembling the cocoon of the Silkworm. The Scorpion, so terrible in appearance, and in its sting so deadly, and which is sometimes a foot in length, belongs to this order. It has eight legs, and a pair of claws like a lobster, the body is lengthened into a sort of tail, at the end of which is a claw or sting, like the poison fang of a serpent, with a poison bag at its root; its effects are often fatal to man, and always so to the insects and other small animals upon which the Scorpion feeds, its usual mode of killing which, is to catch them with its claws and then to sting them to death. The Centipede is a scarcely less frightful creature; in South America and the West Indies it is sometimes found to grow to eight or ten inches in length, it is of a long jointed form, with generally twenty-one pairs of legs, although some have double this number; its bite is much to be dreaded, as it is poisonous, especially the "Scolopendræ," which have a poison gland, like the snake; in this country they are very small indeed, and are generally found in moist places.

The Centipedes and Millipedes are, by some, placed in the class Arachnida, but by others in a separate class called "Myriopoda," divided into two orders, the Chilognatha, which have rounded cylindrical bodies, and generally more than one pair of legs to each segment of the body, and the Chilopoda, which have a distinct flattened head and but one pair of legs to each segment.

FIG. 33.—MOLLUSCA.1, Nautilus (Argonauta); 2, Clio Borealis; 3, Mussel (Mytilus edule).

The last of the three great divisions of the Invertebrata is formed by the Mollusca; it is divided into six classes, (seepage 218). The Mollusca are characterised by having no internal skeleton, nor external horny case, as in the Articulata; they are rather soft, and either void of solid covering, or possessed of "shells" composed chiefly of earthy matter (chalk), and in one or two pieces, called valves, hence the names, uni-valve and bi-valve; all shells of this description belong to the Mollusca, some of which have no means of locomotion, as Oysters; others have a "foot" covered with a muscular expansion, called the "mantle," by which they glide onwards, as the Snail.

1. The Tunicata have no shell or hard covering, but are of a pretty firm consistence; they are either fixed to rocks and sea-weeds, or float about freely, and are either solitary, social, or compound. The "Ascidians" are united in groups, and are all connectedby a common stalk or "Stolon," from which they grow by buds.2. The Brachiopoda. These Molluscs are furnished with a pair of shells, within which the animal lives; one of these shells (the ventral one) has a small hole in it, close to the hinge, and through this a long tendinous cord passes, which fixes the creature to some stone or rock, hence the name Brachiopodous, which means arm-footed. The young of this Mollusc are not fixed, but float about. The Lingula has horny shells, and the foot passes out between them; these creatures were some of the first created, if not the very first; the shells of Terebratula are found in vast quantities in the oldest fossiliferous strata.FIG. 34.—COCKLE (Cardium edule).3. The Lamellibranchiata include a great many of our most ordinary Mollusca, commonly known as "shell fish." They have a pair of shells, and are thence called "bivalve." The Oyster (Ostrea edulis), Mussel (Mytilus edulis), Cockle (Cardium edule), Scallop (Pecten), belong to this class. Oysters form a considerable article of commerce, thirty or forty thousand bushels are brought each season to London; they are dredged up from "beds," where they are found in great quantities. They spawn in May and June, and are not then good. There is an old and a well-known saying, that "Oysters are not fit to eat, unless there is an R in the month," all the names of the months containing an R but May, June, July, and August. The spawn is collected and placed in artificial beds, consisting of shallow places or hollows in the sea, where the tide will not wash them away, and whence they can be easily removed when sufficiently grown, which is in five or six years; these creatures have no powers of locomotion, but remain where the tidewashes them; but Scallops, Cockles (fig. 34), and Mussels (fig. 33), have the power of fixing themselves to any substance they wish, by means of the "byssus" or beard, which is a tuft of fibres passing out from between the shells; and it is said, the Scallops have the power of progression, by suddenly opening and shutting the shells.4. The Pteropoda are Mollusca which have no shell, or a very thin one; the Clio borealis (fig. 33), which forms the chief food of the Whale, is found in great multitudes in the Arctic seas, it swims about by means of two extensions, similar to wings. The Hyalœa has a small round transparent shell.

2. The Brachiopoda. These Molluscs are furnished with a pair of shells, within which the animal lives; one of these shells (the ventral one) has a small hole in it, close to the hinge, and through this a long tendinous cord passes, which fixes the creature to some stone or rock, hence the name Brachiopodous, which means arm-footed. The young of this Mollusc are not fixed, but float about. The Lingula has horny shells, and the foot passes out between them; these creatures were some of the first created, if not the very first; the shells of Terebratula are found in vast quantities in the oldest fossiliferous strata.

FIG. 34.—COCKLE (Cardium edule).

3. The Lamellibranchiata include a great many of our most ordinary Mollusca, commonly known as "shell fish." They have a pair of shells, and are thence called "bivalve." The Oyster (Ostrea edulis), Mussel (Mytilus edulis), Cockle (Cardium edule), Scallop (Pecten), belong to this class. Oysters form a considerable article of commerce, thirty or forty thousand bushels are brought each season to London; they are dredged up from "beds," where they are found in great quantities. They spawn in May and June, and are not then good. There is an old and a well-known saying, that "Oysters are not fit to eat, unless there is an R in the month," all the names of the months containing an R but May, June, July, and August. The spawn is collected and placed in artificial beds, consisting of shallow places or hollows in the sea, where the tide will not wash them away, and whence they can be easily removed when sufficiently grown, which is in five or six years; these creatures have no powers of locomotion, but remain where the tidewashes them; but Scallops, Cockles (fig. 34), and Mussels (fig. 33), have the power of fixing themselves to any substance they wish, by means of the "byssus" or beard, which is a tuft of fibres passing out from between the shells; and it is said, the Scallops have the power of progression, by suddenly opening and shutting the shells.

4. The Pteropoda are Mollusca which have no shell, or a very thin one; the Clio borealis (fig. 33), which forms the chief food of the Whale, is found in great multitudes in the Arctic seas, it swims about by means of two extensions, similar to wings. The Hyalœa has a small round transparent shell.

FIG. 35.—SNAIL (Helix aspersa),AND SLUG(Limax cinerius).

FIG. 36.—WENTLE-TRAP SHELL(Scalaria).

5. The Gasteropoda are extremely numerous; most of them have univalve shells, but many of them have none, as the Garden Slug (Limax, fig. 35). The Whelk (Buccinum undatum), Perriwinkle (Littorina littoria), Garden Snail (Helix aspersa, fig. 35), and the Wentle-trap (Scalaria, fig. 36), are the most familiar examples of this class. These Mollusca walk by means of themantle, which is muscular, and capable of alternate contraction and expansion; they breathe by means of lungs on their back beneath the shell, and to which there is an opening in their side. What are usually called the horns are four in number, two short and two long; they are tentaculæ, but what is peculiar in them is the circumstance of having the eyes placed at their ends. These Mollusca have a sort of valve, which, when they retire into the shell, closes it like a lid; it is called the "Operculum;" in some cases it is horny, as in the Perriwinkle, and in others, resembles shell; the shells of these mollusca are coiled into a spiral, this is caused by the shell always growing by additions to the edges of the mouth, and in nearly every case this spiral turns in the same direction that a screw does, but in a very few it turns in the opposite direction, as in the "Fusus contrarius."

6. The Cephalopoda include the "Cuttle-Fish," and Nautilus (fig. 33). They are furnished with eight or ten tentacula or arms, which spring from the head, and which are covered with suckers; the mouth is in the centre, and these tentacula are used to lay hold of their prey and convey it to the mouth; they have two perfect eyes, and they breathe by gills. The Nautilus has a univalve shell, which is of a very graceful and elegant form; its interior is divided into chambers, with a syphon running through them, by which the air is exhausted or compressed so as to cause them to sink or swim; the animal occupies only the outer chamber; the extinct Ammonite belonged to this class. It is from the Cuttle-Fish (Sepiæ) that the beautiful dark brown pigment, known as "sepia," is obtained, and also the material of which Indian-ink is made.

The Vertebrate animals are those which have a brain and spinal cord inclosed within a bony case, an internal skeleton, to which are affixed the muscles, and which is moved by them; they all possess four extremities, more or less modified in form, with the exception of the Serpents. They are divided into four classes, Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals.

The Fishes live in water, and are unable to live in the air; they receive oxygen from the water, but this is received much more slowly than by air-breathing animals, and as the combination of oxygen with the carbon of the system gives the elevated temperature of animals, so in Fishes, the oxygen being received slowly, their temperature rises but little above the temperature of the water they inhabit; they have thence received the name of "cold-blooded." Fishes live upon the marine animals which they capture, the various sea-weeds which grow in the water, and insects which fall into, or breed there. They have fins instead of legs, but the two pairs of fins known as "Pectoral" and "Ventral" are analogues of them, and in a pectoral fin may be found bones analogous to all the bones of the arm and hand of Man, or the fore-feet of the other Vertebrata. Fishes urge themselves through the water chiefly by the action of the tail from side to side, and in those members which have more extended forms (as Eels), by a wavey motion of the body itself; and the rapidity with which they swim is such, that Sharks have been known to go round the ship they are following many times in a very short space, although it may be sailing at a great speed before the wind. Fishes are covered with scales, and the head is united to the body without any constriction which can be considered as a neck; they are mostly of a form such as can easily pass through the water, without offering much resistance, and their specific gravity is so nearly that of water, that, by the compression of a small vessel filled with air, called theswimming bladder or "sound," they can rise and sink with little effort. Many tribes of the human family, such as the Esquimaux and Polynesians, almost live upon Fish, and even in Great Britain, in fishing districts, it forms a great part of the food of the inhabitants, and their capture gives employment to thousands.

Fish inhabit all kinds of water, the sea, rivers, and ponds, and many which live habitually in the sea come into rivers at certain seasons; and with respect to those which dwell always in the sea, some inhabit certain tracts only, and confine themselves to them, just as quadrupeds do to certain localities on the land. It has been a matter of wonder how the Fish get into ponds formed by the drainage of lands; but most ponds are supplied by springs which run underground from adjacent lakes or rivers, or by rills running on the surface, these bring the ova or eggs, which in favourable situations become hatched. Fish are exceedingly prolific, the eggs in the roe of a Codfish were estimated by Lewenhoec, to be upwards of 9,000,000, but not one in a thousand comes to maturity; there are enemies on all sides to devour them before they are hatched, and others to attack them afterwards. Some of the rivers of France have lately been artificially stocked with Fish by causing the fecundated spawn to be preserved till they are of a bulk and strength to protect themselves. This was effected by confining them in tanks floating in the water and perforated with holes, and afterwards placing them in a part of the river, inclosed both above and below by means of nets, so as to keep away their enemies—the larger Fishes.

Fishes were the first of the Vertebrated animals created, and as a proof of the incorrectness of the doctrine of development, these first-created Fish were of a class corresponding to the most highly organised Fishes of the present day.

Fishes are divided into two families: 1, Osseous Fishes (with a bony skeleton); 2, Cartilaginous Fishes (with a cartilaginious skeleton).

The Osseous Fishes are divided into six Orders:—

1.Acanthopterygii(Thorny-fin).

FIG. 37.—1, PERCH (Perca fluviatilis). 2, MACKEREL (Scomber vulgaris). 3, GURNARD (Trigla Gurnhardus).

The Acanthopterygii include a great number of our ordinary useful Fishes, as Mackerel, Perch, Tunny, Gurnard, &c. (fig. 37). The Perch is a good example of this order, the sharp spines on its dorsal fin being well developed, and dangerous for anglers to handle.

2.Malacopterygii abdominales(Abdominal soft-fin).

The abdominal Malacopterygii include the Pilchard, Herring, Pike (fig. 38), Salmon (fig. 39), Anchovy, Trout, Roach, Chub, Tench, and many more of the Fish which inhabit our streams and the sea.

PILCHARDFIG. 38.—PILCHARD (Clupea pilchardis); 2. HERRING (Clupea Harengus); 3, PIKE (Esox Lucius).

FIG. 38.—PILCHARD (Clupea pilchardis); 2. HERRING (Clupea Harengus); 3, PIKE (Esox Lucius).

The following account of the Salmon, is extracted from Dr. Baird's Cyclopædia of the Natural Sciences:—"The Salmon is exceedingly abundant in all the northern oceans. It is found in France, England, Germany, Bohemia, Switzerland, Scandinavia, Iceland, and Greenland. It exists also in Labrador and Canada, and down the American coast to the Connecticut river, in latitude 41½ deg., and either it, or a species so closely allied as not to be distinguished except by close comparison, abounds in the Arctic seas washing the northern shores of the American continent. It does not frequent the rivers falling into the Mediterranean, and, though it has been stated to be the case, it does not occur in the Persian Gulf, or the Caspian Sea. In entering the mouths of rivers in order to spawn, the females arealways observed to precede the males, depositing their ova in little pools or sort of nests, which they form in the sand at the bottom, for the males to fecundate. The young grow very rapidly, and at the present time, the subject of the changes which they undergo in their progress to maturity is one exciting much interest. When first hatched they are about an inch in length, and during the first year are called "Parr." When they remove to the sea, they receive a more brilliant dress, and then become the "Smolt," varying from four to six inches in length. After a residence in the sea of from two months to ten weeks, they revisit the fresh waters, and are then from two-and-a-half to four pounds' weight, and are called 'grilses' or 'gilses.' During the ensuing winter they spawn, and are then known as Salmon. Salmon grow to a large size, full-grown specimens weighing about forty pounds, though individuals are mentioned which have weighed seventy or even eighty pounds. Such are now excessively rare, owing to the perfection of the means of capturing them at the mouths of our rivers, by which the chances are very greatly against any fish escaping the various dangers by which it is environed for such a succession of years as is likely to admit of its attaining to its full dimensions. The power these fish have in overcoming obstacles to their progress up large rivers at spawning time is very great; they shoot up rapids with thevelocity of arrows, and clear considerable waterfalls, leaping a height of ten, twelve, and even as much as twenty feet. The usual time at which the Salmon leaves the sea is the autumn; it remains in the rivers during the winter, and returns to the sea, after having deposited its spawn, in the spring. The fishing of this excellent and universally admired fish gives employment to many thousands of people, throughout the whole of the north of Europe. Salmon fisheries, it has been said, rank next to agriculture. In this country the Scotch rivers supply by far the greater proportion of the salmon brought to market. The total value of the Scotch fisheries has been calculated at £150,000 a year."

FIG. 39.—THE SALMON (Salmo salar).

Many salmon are caught by stake nets, and also by the practice of "spearing;" this is a very picturesque sight, as it is conducted by torchlight.

The Herring (Clupea Harengus) makes its visit to this country about September, in enormous shoals, extending many miles each way; they are caught in great quantities and salted in the boats immediately; when brought on shore they are suspended in the smoke of wood fires, and become "red herrings." The Herring fisheries are very important, and afford—like the Salmon fisheries—employment to thousands; the greatest quantities are caught off the coast of Norway, where it is calculated about 400,000,000 are taken yearly. A great many are caught off Lowestoffe, and Wick, in Caithness. The Pilchard (Clupea pilchardus) is a kind of Herring, and is caught in enormous quantities off the coasts of Cornwall. The Sprat and Whitebait are species of "Clupea."

3.Malacopterygii sub-brachiales(Sub-brachial soft fin).

The brachial Malacopterygii include most of the Flat Fish; as the Turbot, Plaice, Sole, &c. (fig. 40). The Turbot, and Halibut are caught out in the deep waters, but the Plaice and Flounders, chiefly in shallows; these fish have one side dark and the other light, and both eyes are placed onthe dark side; they always swim with this side upwards; in the Turbot this is theleft, while in Plaice it is therightside. The Cod (fig. 40) is also included in this order; it is a large fish, often weighing forty or fifty pounds, and three or four feet long; it is chiefly caught in northern regions, the banks of Newfoundland being the most celebrated for its Cod fisheries, and supply the London market. These fish are caught by a long line and hook let down to a great depth.

FIG. 40.—1, TURBOT (Rhombus maximus). 2, SOLE (Solea vulgaris). 3, PLAICE (Platessa communis). 4, COD (Gadus morrhua).

4.Malacopterygii apodes(Footless soft fin).

To this order belong the Eels (fig. 41). They have no abdominal fins, and are therefore called apodial, or footless; they very much resemble the serpent in their elongated form; they live chiefly in rivers and ponds, in the mud of which they obtain worms, &c., upon which they feed, they have been known to leave the water at night and travel for some distance in search of worms, frogs, &c. These fish live a long time after they are removed from the water, and are extremely tenacious of life; their skins are covered with such fine small scales that they appear quite smooth, and are extremely slimy. The Conger Eel is much thicker in proportion than the common Eel, and has a dorsal fin like a fringe all down the back; it grows to the weight of ninety or a hundred pounds sometimes. Eels are often caught by thrusting many-pronged spears (having the spears barbed) into the mud, and the Eels are brought up sticking between the prongs. The Electrical Eel (Gymnotus electricus) belongs to this section; it somewhat resembles a large ordinary Eel four or five feet long, but has a broad ventral fin running all along its lower part; it is famous for its power of giving electrical shocks when touched, and seems to have the power of using this influence at pleasure, but after giving a certain number of shocks its power becomes exhausted, and it has to remain some time before it can again give out shocks of any strength; these shocks are sufficientlystrong to prove fatal to small animals, and even to mules and horses crossing the streams which they frequent, when a number will attack them at once. This creature is a native of the rivers and pools of South America, Demerara, &c.; the natives kill them by driving in a great number of horses, and when the Eels have exhausted their electrical powers, they are then caught and killed.

FIG. 41.—THE EEL (Anguilla acutirostris).

FIG. 42.—HIPPOCAMPUS(From a dried specimen).

5.Lophobranchi(Tufted gill).

To the Lophobranchi belongs the Pipe-fish (Hippocampus, or Sea-horse, fig. 42). The following is Dr. Baird's description of these curious little creatures:—

"Most of these species are straight, but others of the family contract after death, so as to form a grotesque resemblance to a horse in miniature. These form the genus Hippocampus, and from their shape are generally called Sea-horses. Hippocampus brevirostris (the short-nosed Sea-horse) is occasionally met with on the British coast. It is from six to ten inches long, the body much compressed, short and deep; the whole length of the body and tail divided by longitudinal and transverse ridges, with tubercular points at the angles of the intersection. The snout is slender, and the tail long, quadrangular, and terminated in a naked or finless tip. When swimming about, the Hippocampus maintains a vertical position, but the tail is ready to grasp whatever meets it in the water; it quickly entwines in any directionround weeds or other objects, and darts at its prey with great dexterity."

6.Plectognathi(Plaited jaw).

FIG. 43.—THE SUN-FISH (Orthagoriscus).

The Sea Porcupine (Diodon hystrix) belongs to this order. These Fish are of a peculiar thick rounded form, and occasionally inflate their stomachs with air, which makes them almost spherical, in which state they float with the belly upwards, and being covered with spines, present rather a formidable object to attack; the flesh is unwholesome, and, it is said, the liver is violently poisonous; some of the species of this fish are phosphorescent, and from this appearance they derive the name of Sunfish, as they shine very brightly in the dark. The short Sunfish (fig. 43) turns round as it swims; it is very large, sometimes weighing from three to four hundred pounds. They yield a considerable quantity of oil, for which they are caught. Their jaws are not divided into teeth, but consist each of a single piece; they live upon seaweeds and various crustaceans.

The Cartilaginous Fishes are divided into three orders.

1.Sturiones(Sturgeons).

FIG. 44.—THE STURGEON (Accipenser sturio).

Sturgeons (fig. 44) are inhabitants of the northern seas, but are occasionally found in our rivers. They have rows of bony plates imbedded in the skin; they sometimes attain the length of twenty feet, but are usually from six to eight feet long. Isinglass is made of the swimming bladder of the Sturgeon, and the roe (dried and salted) forms the "Caviare."

2.Plagiostomi(Wide-mouthed).

FIG. 45.—THE SHARK (Carcharias vulgaris).

The Plagiostomi comprise the Sharks (fig. 45) and Dog-fishes, a most voracious tribe; the White Shark often attains the length of twenty feet. They are terribly famous for their dreadful powers of destruction, swallowing all that comes before them; they are able to bite intwo, with one snap of their formidable jaws, the body of any one unfortunate enough to fall in their way; their mouths are armed with several rows of short spear-shaped teeth; the mouth is placed a considerable distance under the head, so that when biting they turn on one side or quite over; they have no gills, but the water passes through five oblong openings on each side. Sailors hold this terrible inhabitant of the deep in great detestation, as well they may, for there are few who have spent many years at sea but can tell of a friend or messmate who has been mutilated or devoured by the Sharks. When sailors catch one, it is hauled on deck and killed with great gusto; the stomach is opened and its contents examined, and it generally contains some terrible mementoes in the form of buttons, buckles, &c., the only relics of its victims.

3.Cyclostomi(Round-mouthed).

FIG. 46.—THE LAMPREY (Petromyzon fluviatilis)(b, the sucker).

The Lamprey or Lampern (fig. 46) inhabits both rivers and lakes, and some species, the sea; it has a round mouth, by which it affixes itself to rocks, &c., and also to other fish, it is furnished with teeth on the outer edge, it has no scales, but is covered with a glutinous skin; in form it much resembles an Eel, and is from twelve to eighteen inches long. The Lamprey was once very plentiful in the Thames, and considered a dainty.

These constitute the second class of the Vertebrate animals. They are divided into four orders.

FIG. 47.—1, FROG (Rana temporaria). 2, TOAD (Bufo vulgaris). 3, TADPOLES.

1.Amphibia(double-lived).

By some naturalists a separate class is made out of the Amphibia, including the Frog kind, Toads, and Newts (fig. 47), which they call "Batrachia," and which takes a place between Reptiles and Fishes, as the young of this class have a totally different form from the adult animal, and much resemble a fish, breathing by gills and having no legs, but as they become mature the gills are replaced by lungs, and the legs make their appearance.

The Amphibia have soft skins, which appear to serve as lungs or gills when they are under the water, extracting the air from it, and enabling them to remain a long time there without coming up to breathe; they are partly aquatic, and feed upon insects and other small creatures, which they capture by darting out the tongue, which is covered with a glutinous secretion, and drawing it in again instantly with the insect adhering to it, whichthey swallow whole. The Frogs are furnished with webbed feet and swim well; they progress on land by leaps, their powerful hind legs carrying them to a great distance. The young of the Amphibia are brought forth as eggs, which float on the water, and when they first come to life form the curious little creatures called Tadpoles, having long tails and no feet, and, as before stated, more resembling Fish than Reptiles. The Toads are for the most part nocturnal in their habits, living in the daytime in gardens and holes; they feed upon insects, as do Frogs, and lay their eggs in the water. The stories of Toads being found alive in rock and the heart of trees, arise from the following circumstances: Toads when small will often creep into holes in rocks and hollows in trees, and in these situations they find abundance of food; being slothful in their habits, and capable of existing upon but little food, and abstaining from it a long time, they are apt to remain in their snug quarters and content themselves with what insects may come to them. In this way they grow too large to get out of the hole, and live for a great time in it; when chance discovers them, by the rock being broken open or the wood of the tree cleft, the opening into which they had crept is overlooked. The Water Newt (Triton cristatus) inhabits pools and ditches, and (like the others of this order) is first formed as a Tadpole; it is of a brown and bright yellow colour, with a crest down its back and tail, and has the most extraordinary powers of reproducing any part cut off or removed, such as a leg or the tail.

2.Ophidia(Snake-like order).

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