Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase)Awoke one night from a rich dream of peace,And saw, within the moonlight of his room,Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom,An angel, writing in a book of gold.Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold,And to the Presence in the room he said,"What writest thou?" The Vision raised its head,And, with a look made of all sweet accord,Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord.""And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so,"Replied the Angel. Abou spoke, more low,But cheerily still; and said, "I pray thee, then,Write me as one that loves his fellow-men."The angel wrote and vanished. The next nightIt came again, with a great wakening light,And showed the names whom love of God had blessed,And lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest.—Leigh Hunt.
Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase)
Awoke one night from a rich dream of peace,
And saw, within the moonlight of his room,
Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom,
An angel, writing in a book of gold.
Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold,
And to the Presence in the room he said,
"What writest thou?" The Vision raised its head,
And, with a look made of all sweet accord,
Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord."
"And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so,"
Replied the Angel. Abou spoke, more low,
But cheerily still; and said, "I pray thee, then,
Write me as one that loves his fellow-men."
The angel wrote and vanished. The next night
It came again, with a great wakening light,
And showed the names whom love of God had blessed,
And lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest.
There are a few prepositions which might really be called derivative prepositions.
1. A few prepositions are formed from verbs. These are really participle prepositions, for they are the present participles of the verbs but have come to be used like prepositions. These are such asconcerning,excepting,regarding,respecting,during,according, etc. Nearly all of these participle prepositions can be expressed by a preposition phrase, as for example, we can either say; I wroteregardingthese facts, or I wrote youin regard tothese facts. I mentioned them allexceptingthe last, or, I mentioned them allwith the exception ofthe last. I have goneaccordingto the directions, or, I have gonein accord withthe directions.
2. Derivative prepositions are also formed by prefixingato other parts of speech, asalong,around,abroad, etc. Strictly speaking these might be called compound prepositions for the prefixais really from the prepositionon.
3. We have also compound prepositions formed:
By uniting two prepositions, asinto,within,throughout, etc.
By uniting a preposition and some other part of speech, usually a noun or an adjective, asbeside,belowandbeyond.
We also have a number of compound verbs which are made by prefixing a preposition to a verb. Some of these compound words have quite a different meaning from the meaning conveyed by the two words used separately; as for example, the compound verbwithstand, derived from the prepositionwithand the verbstand, has almost the opposite meaning fromstand with.
Our spelling lesson this week includes a number of these compound verbs formed by the use of the verb and a preposition. Look up the meaning in the dictionary. Use them in sentences in the compound form; then the two words separately as a verb and a preposition and note the difference in the meaning.
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Dear Comrade:
We are taking up in this lesson the study of the last important part of speech. We have spent some little time on the study of these parts of speech, but it has been time well spent. We cannot use good English and construct sentences that express our thoughts without an adequate knowledge of the words we use in sentence building. As soon as we finish the study of the parts of speech, we will spend several weeks in sentence building. This will give us a review of these lessons in which we have studied separate words.
The English language is one of the most interesting of all to study. It is the most truly international of all languages, for the English language contains words from almost every language in the world. Did you ever stop to think that we could have internationalism in language as well as in other things? We can be as narrowly patriotic concerning words as concerning anything else.
Nations have been prone to consider all those who do not speak their language as barbarians. Germany, perhaps, possesses as strong a nationalistic spirit as any country, and in Germany this spirit has found expression in a society formed for the purpose of keeping all foreign words out of the German language. They have published handbooks of native words for almost every department of modern life. They insist that the people use these words, instead of foreign importations. The German State takes great pride in the German language and considers it the most perfect of any spoken today. The rulers of Germany believe that it is a part of their duty to the world to see that all other nations speak the German language. In conquered Poland, only German is permitted to be taught in the schools or to be spoken as the language of commerce. The patriots in language seem to believe that there is some connection between purity of language and purity of race.
In English, however, we have the beginnings of an international speech. Our civilization is derived from various sources. Here in America we are truly the melting-pot of the nations, and this is mirrored forth in our language which is, in a way, a melting-pot also, in which have been thrown words from every tongue. Those for whom nationalism is an important thing will probably cling to the idea of a pure unmixed language, but to those of us to whom Internationalism is not an empty word, but a living ideal, an international language becomes also part of the ideal.
There is a wealth of wonderful literature open to us once we have gained a command of the English language. Pay especial attention to the quotations given in each lesson. These are quotations from the very best literature. If there are any of them that arouse your interest and you would like to read more from the same author, write us and we shall be glad to furnish you full information concerning further reading.
Yours for Education,
THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.
328.You remember that in Lesson 3, where we studied the parts of speech, we found that we had another connective word besides the preposition,—the conjunction.
A preposition connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with the other. The conjunction plays a different part as a connective, for it connects not only words but also phrases and clauses. Note the following sentences:
The use of the conjunction saves a great deal of tiresome repetition, for, by its use, where two subjects have the same predicate or two predicates have the same subject, we can combine it all into one sentence.
You will readily realize how important this part of speech is to us. If we did not have conjunctions our speech would be cumbersome and we would have to use a great many short sentences and a great deal of repetition. If we wanted to make the same statement concerning a number of things, without conjunctions, we would have each time to repeat the entire statement. Try to write a description of a scene and avoid the use of conjunctions and you will see what an important part these connective words play in our power of expression.
Without the use of the conjunction, you would necessarily use a great many short expressions and repeat the same words again and again, and your description would be a jerky, tiresome, unsatisfactory piece of writing.
Rewrite the following sentences, writing in separate sentences the clauses that are united by the conjunctions:
Note that these sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences combined; and each of these simple sentences is called a clause, and each clause must contain a subject and a predicate.
Rewrite the following simple sentences, using conjunctions to avoid a repetition of the same subject and predicate. Rewrite these into a paragraph, making as well written a paragraph as you possibly can:
329.Conjunctions are divided into classes, as are other parts of speech, according to the work which they do. Notice the following sentences and notice how the use of a different conjunction changes the meaning of the sentence.
In the first sentence the conjunctionandconnects the two clauses,we are unitedandwe shall win. They are both independent clauses, neither is dependent upon the other, and both are of equal importance. But by the use of the conjunctionwhen, instead of the conjunctionand, we have changed the meaning of the sentence. There is quite a difference in saying,We are united and we shall win, andWhen we are united we shall win.
By connecting these two statements with the conjunctionwhen, we have made of the clause,we are united, a dependent clause, it modifies the verb phraseshall win. It tellswhenwe shall win, just as much as if we had used anadverbto modify the verb phrase, and had said,We shall win tomorrow, instead of,We shall win when we are united.
So in these two sentences we have two different kinds of conjunctions, the conjunctionand, which connects clauses of equal rank or order, and the conjunctionwhen, which connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.
330.So the conjunctions likeandare called co-ordinate conjunctions.Co-ordinatemeans literally of equal rank or order. Conjunctions likewhenare called sub-ordinate conjunctions.Sub-ordinatemeans of inferior rank or order.
So we have our definitions:
331.A conjunction is a word that connects words or phrases or clauses.
A co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins words, phrases or clauses having the same rank.
A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.
332.Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of equal rank.The most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions are;and,but,or,nor.
333.But there are a number of words which we often use as adverbs, which may also be used as co-ordinate conjunctions. These words are not always conjunctions, for they are sometimes used as adverbs. When they are used as conjunctions they retain something of their adverbial meaning; but still they are conjunctions, for they are used to show the connection between two clauses of equal rank. Thus:
334.The co-ordinate conjunctions which we use with this adverbial meaning also, are;therefore,hence,still,besides,consequently,yet,likewise,moreover,else,than,also,accordingly,nevertheless,notwithstanding,otherwise,however,soandfurthermore.
These conjunctions always refer to what has been said before and serve to introduce and connect new statements.
335.We often use these conjunctions, and also,and,but,or, andnor, at the beginning of a separate sentence or paragraph to connect it in meaning with that which has gone before. You will often see the use of these conjunctions as the first word of a new paragraph, thus relating this paragraph to that which has preceded it.
336.Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of equal rank.
Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or morenounsused as the subject of a verb. As:
In this sentence,deathis just as much the subject of the verbfollowas is the worddisaster, but no more so. You can omit either of these words and the other will make a subject for the sentence. They areboth of equal importance, both of the same rank in the sentence, and neither depends upon the other. These two words taken together form the subject of the sentence. This is called thecompound subject, for it consists of two simple subjects.
Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as theobjectof a verb.
In this sentence the wordshistoryandscienceare both used as objects of the verbstudies.
Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of apreposition.
In this sentencelettersandpapersare both objects of the prepositionfor, connected by the co-ordinate conjunctionand.
Note in the following sentences the nouns which are connected by conjunctions and decide whether they are used as the subject of the sentences or the object of verbs or of prepositions. Draw a line under compound subjects.
337.Co-ordinate conjunctions may also connect pronouns.
These are used in the same way as nouns,—either as subject or object. Nouns have the same form whether used as subject or object. Pronouns, however, have different forms when used as the object. Here is where we often make mistakes in the use of pronouns. When the pronouns are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions they are of the same rank and are used in the same construction;—if they are used as subjects both must be used in the subject form;—if they are used as objects, both must be used in the object form. For example, it is incorrect to say,He told the story to her and I. Hereheris properly used in the object form, for it is the object of the prepositionto; the pronounIconnected withherby the use of the conjunctionandis also the object of the prepositionto, and the object form should be used. You would not say,He told the story to I. The sentence should read,He told the story to her and me.
Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as thesubjectof a sentence, as for example:
Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as theobjectof the verb, as for example:
Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of thepreposition, as:
Study closely the following sentences and correct those in which the wrong form of the pronoun is used.
338.Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect verbs.Verbs connected in this way have the same subject; and with the use of the conjunction to connect the verbs, we save repeating the subject.
In this sentencereadsandstudiesare words of the same kind and of the same rank; either could be omitted and the other would make a predicate for the sentence. They are of equal importance in the sentence and are connected by the conjunctionand. They have a single subject, the pronounhe.
This is called a compound predicate.
In the sentence,He reads constantly, we have a simple predicate, the single verbreads; but in the sentence,He reads and studies constantly, we have a compound predicate, compound of the two verbsreadsandstudies. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate. As, for example:
In this sentenceJohnandJamesis the compound subject of both the verbs,readandstudy. So we have a compound subject and a compound predicate.
Notice the verbs in the following sentences connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Draw lines under each compound predicate.
339.Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect adjectives.
In this way we use a number of adjectives to modify the same word without tiresome repetition. When several adjectives are used to modify the same word, the conjunction is used only between the last two adjectives. As, for example:
Asimple,clearandconcisecourse has been prepared.
In the following sentences, underscore the adjectives which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions.
340.Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect adverbs.This gives us the power to describe the action expressed in verbs without the tiresome repetition of the verb. For example:
In the following sentences underscore the adverbs which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions:
341.Co-ordinate conjunctions are used, not only to connect words, but also to connect phrases.
342.Verb phrases may be connected by conjunctions. For example:
In this last sentence the two verb phrases,have madeandare makingare connected by the co-ordinate conjunctionand. Often in using verb phrases, we use phrases in which the same helping verb occurs in both phrases. When this is the case the helping verb is quite often omitted in the second phrase and only the participle is connected by the conjunction. As, for example:
In this sentence the helping verbisbelongs in both the phrases but is omitted in the second phrase in order to make a smoother sounding sentence. In the second phrase, only the past participlecontrolledis used. It is understood that we mean,
The People's Collegeis ownedandis controlledby the working class.
Note the use of the conjunction in the following sentences to connect the verb phrases. Supply the helping verb where it is omitted.
343.Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect prepositional phrases.
These phrases may be used as adjective phrases. For example:
These phrases may be used as adverb phrases. For example:
Note in the following sentences, the prepositional phrases which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Mark which are used as adjective and which as adverb phrases.
344.Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect infinitives and participles.
In the following sentences mark the infinitives and participles connected by co-ordinate conjunctions.
345.Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect clauses of equal rank.For example:
Each of these clauses is a complete sentence in itself, but they are combined into one compound sentence by the use of the co-ordinate conjunction,and. Clauses united in this way may have a compound subject and a compound predicate, but two complete clauses must be united by a co-ordinate conjunction in order to form a compound sentence. For example:
Here the first clause in the compound sentence,the rain and snow fell, contains a compound subject,rain and snow.
Here the first clause has a compound predicate,are runningandshouting. The secondandconnects the two clauses forming the compound sentence.
346.Certain co-ordinate conjunctions are used in pairs, such asboth, and;either, or;neither, nor;whether, or. These pairs are called correlatives. The first word in the pair, as,both,either,neither, orwhether, is used as an assistant conjunction helping the other to do the connecting. These are used in such sentences as:
Note thatnoris always the proper correlative to use withneitherand also with the negativesnotandneverwhen they apply to what follows as well as to what precedes. For example:
Oris always used with the correlativeeither. For example:
Note the use of the co-ordinate conjunctionsand,but,orandnor, in the following quotation. Mark especially the use ofandas an introductory conjunction, introducing a new sentence, but connecting it with that which has gone before.
In my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance. Liberty is born of intelligence. Only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the human mind. Men began to inquire, "By what right does a crowned robber make me work for him?" The man who asked this question was called a traitor.They said then, and they say now, that it is dangerous for the mind of man to be free. I deny it. Out on the intellectual sea there is room for every sail. In the intellectual air, there is space enough for every wing. And the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave, and does not do his duty to his fellow men. For one, I expect to do my own thinking. And I will take my oath this minute that I will express what thoughts I have, honestly and sincerely. I am the slave of no man and of no organization. I stand under the blue sky and the stars, under the infinite flag of nature, the peer of every human being.All I claim, all I plead is simple liberty of thought. That is all. I do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth. I do not claim that I have floated level with the heights of thought, nor that I have descended to the depths of things; I simply claim that what ideas I have, I have a right to express, and any man that denies it to me is an intellectual thief and robber.Every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the chain or the fagot. I do not want it. Free labor will give us wealth, and has given us wealth, and why? Because a free brain goes into partnership with a free hand. That is why. And when a man works for his wife and children, the problem of liberty is, how to do the most work in the shortest space of time; but the problem of slavery is, how to do the least work in the longest space of time. Slavery is poverty; liberty is wealth.It is the same in thought. Free thought will give us truth; and the man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves, exactly. Free thought will give us wealth. There has not been a generation of free thought yet. It will be time to write a creed when there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid women in this world. I don't know what the future may bring forth; I don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future; I don't know what garments may be woven, with the years to come; but I do know, coming from the infinite sea of the future, there will never touch this "bank and shoal of time" a greater blessing nor a grander glory, than liberty for man, woman and child.Oh, liberty! Float not forever in the far horizon! Remain not forever in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist. But come and take up thine abode with the children of men forever.—Ingersoll.
In my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance. Liberty is born of intelligence. Only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the human mind. Men began to inquire, "By what right does a crowned robber make me work for him?" The man who asked this question was called a traitor.
They said then, and they say now, that it is dangerous for the mind of man to be free. I deny it. Out on the intellectual sea there is room for every sail. In the intellectual air, there is space enough for every wing. And the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave, and does not do his duty to his fellow men. For one, I expect to do my own thinking. And I will take my oath this minute that I will express what thoughts I have, honestly and sincerely. I am the slave of no man and of no organization. I stand under the blue sky and the stars, under the infinite flag of nature, the peer of every human being.
All I claim, all I plead is simple liberty of thought. That is all. I do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth. I do not claim that I have floated level with the heights of thought, nor that I have descended to the depths of things; I simply claim that what ideas I have, I have a right to express, and any man that denies it to me is an intellectual thief and robber.
Every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the chain or the fagot. I do not want it. Free labor will give us wealth, and has given us wealth, and why? Because a free brain goes into partnership with a free hand. That is why. And when a man works for his wife and children, the problem of liberty is, how to do the most work in the shortest space of time; but the problem of slavery is, how to do the least work in the longest space of time. Slavery is poverty; liberty is wealth.
It is the same in thought. Free thought will give us truth; and the man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves, exactly. Free thought will give us wealth. There has not been a generation of free thought yet. It will be time to write a creed when there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid women in this world. I don't know what the future may bring forth; I don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future; I don't know what garments may be woven, with the years to come; but I do know, coming from the infinite sea of the future, there will never touch this "bank and shoal of time" a greater blessing nor a grander glory, than liberty for man, woman and child.
Oh, liberty! Float not forever in the far horizon! Remain not forever in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist. But come and take up thine abode with the children of men forever.—Ingersoll.
We found that we often formed adjectives by adding suffixes to other words. We also form many adverbs by the addition of suffixes to other words. Derivative adverbs are formed in the following ways:
1. By adding suffixes to adjectives, chiefly the suffixly, as for example;chiefly,truly,really,lately, etc.
2. By changingbletobly, as inably,nobly, etc.
3. By adding the suffixward, as inforward,upward,skyward,downward,homeward, etc.
4. We have some adverbs formed by adding the prefixato adjectives and nouns, asahead,afoot,afresh, also by adding the prefixbe, as inbesides,beyond.
We often misspell a number of adverbs by addingswhere it does not rightfully belong; as,anywheres,everywheres,backwards,forwards,towards,upwards,downwards,afterwards,homewards, etc. All of these words should be written without thes.
We also have a number of compound adverbs which are made by the union of two other parts of speech, such assometime,henceforth,forever,overheard,outside, etc.
In the lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, adjectives are given having opposite meanings. Make the proper adverbs from these adjectives by the addition of the suffixly.
Thursday's and Friday's lessons are made up of both adjectives and adverbs that end inly. Look up in your dictionary and be sure you know which are adjectives and which are adverbs.
Saturday's lesson is made up of compound adverbs.
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Dear Comrade:
In this lesson we are completing the study of conjunctions. We have studied the conjunction last among the parts of speech and in the order of the development of language, the conjunction naturally comes last. The need of connective words does not come in any language until the language is quite well developed. You will notice that the connective words, such as prepositions and conjunctions are the last words the child begins to use. The child first begins to use the names of the things with which it comes in contact, then it learns the words that express what these things do. But it is not until the child begins to reason that it begins to use connective words. These become necessary when we have reached a stage of development where we can consider the relationship existing between things.
The use of conjunctions, however, can be greatly overdone. The long and involved sentences are more difficult to understand. If you will note the authors which you enjoy the most, it will probably be those who use short and crisp sentences. We have some authors who by the use of conjunctions can string one sentence out over several pages. You wonder how they manage to exist so long without stopping for breath. It is very easy for us to fall into this error when we are thinking rapidly and our thoughts all seem to be closely connected. But no mind can grasp many ideas at one time. Break your sentences up and express your ideas concisely and clearly. Use conjunctions rather sparingly, especially these subordinate conjunctions. Do not have too many subordinate clauses in one sentence.
Notice in your reading for this week those who use the short, crisp sentences and those who use the longer and more involved sentences. Notice which are understood more readily and which are more enjoyable to read. Take some of the paragraphs from those who write long and involved sentences and break them up into short sentences and see if these shorter sentences do not make the meaning simpler and clearer. This will be excellent practice also in gaining the power of expression.
Especially in the class struggle do we need those who can write clearly and simply of the great problems of the day. As the work of the world is conducted today, the workers have too little time for reading. They are apt, after a hard day's work, to be too tired to follow an author through long, winding, involved passages.
In the spoken word, this is also true. You will find your hearers much more in sympathy with you if you will use short sentences. Break your thought up so they can readily grasp your meaning and follow you to your conclusion.
Conjunctions are very important to save us from tiresome repetitions and short, jerky sentences, but we must avoid using them too frequently.
Yours for Education,
THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.
347.We have found that co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases and also clauses that are entirely independent; that is, they do not depend in the slightest degree upon any other word, phrase or clause. Subordinate conjunctions connect inferior clauses to the main clauses of the sentence. These inferior clauses are dependent clauses. Subordinate conjunctions never connect words or phrases; but only dependent clauses, to the rest of the sentence. Note the following sentences:
In the first sentence the wordquicklyis an adverb modifying the verbcameand answers the questionwhen. It tellswhenhe came. In the second sentence, the phraseon timeis an adverb phrase modifying the verbcame, and answers the questionwhen. It tellswhenhe came. In the third sentence, the clausewhen he was called, also answers the questionwhen, and tellswhenhe came. Therefore, it is a clause used as an adverb. It is different from the phraseon time, for the phraseon timedoes not contain a subject and a predicate.
348.The difference between the phrase and the clause is that the phrase does not contain either a subject or a predicate, while the clausealwayscontains both a subject and a predicate. So in the clause,when he was called,heis the subject andwas calledis the predicate, andwhenis the subordinate conjunction, which connects this adverb clause to the verbcame, which it modifies. The clausehe came, and the clausewhen he was called, are not of equal rank and importance, because the clause,when he was called, simply modifies the verb contained in the clausehe came, by describing thetimeof the action expressed in the verbcame. So the clause,when he was called, is a subordinate or dependent clause, and the conjunctions which connect this class of clauses to the main clause are called subordinate conjunctions.
349.A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.
350.Most subordinate conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses. These clauses will answer some one of the questions answered by adverbs. They will tellhow,when,whereorwhythe action expressed in the verb in the principal clause occurred. There are six classes of these subordinate conjunctions which are used to introduce adverb clauses. They introduce:
351.Adverb clause of time.These clauses will answer the questionwhenand are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as,before,since,as,while,until,when,afterandas soon as. Notice in the following sentences the difference made in the meaning of the sentences by the use of the different conjunctions:
352.Adverb clause of place.These answer the questionwhere, and are introduced by the conjunctions,where,whence,whither.
353.Adverb clauses expressing cause or reason.These will answer the questionwhy. They are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as,because,for,since,as,whereas,inasmuch as, etc.
Note the difference in the meaning of the following sentences expressed by the use of different conjunctions:
354.Adverb clauses of manner.These clauses will answer the questionhow, and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as,as,as if,as though, etc.
In these clauses ofmanner, introduced byas if, andas though,wereis used in the present form with either singular or plural subjects. For example:
355.Adverb clauses of comparison.These clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctionsthanandas. The verbs are often omitted in these dependent clauses introduced bythanandas. For example:He is taller than I.The complete sentence would be:He is taller than I am.He is not so tall as I.Here the sentence would be:He is not so tall as I am.
When the pronoun occurs in these dependent clauses, be sure to use the proper form of the pronoun. It may be the subject or the object of the verb which is not expressed. For example; it is incorrect to say:I am not so tall as him.The correct form is:I am not so tall as he.The complete sentence would be:I am not so tall as he is, and the pronoun should be in the subject form, for it is the subject of the verbis, which is understood and omitted.
The use of thesubjector of theobjectform may make a difference in the meaning of your sentence. For example, you say:I admire them as much as he.You mean that you admire them as much as he admires them. But if you say,I admire them as much as him, you mean that you admire them as much as you admire him. Quite a different meaning!
Be careful in the use of your pronouns in this way, for you can express quite a different meaning. For example, if you say,I care more for you than he, you mean, I care more for you than he cares for you. But if you say,I care more for you than him, you mean, I care more for you than I care for him. A mistake like this might mean a great deal to you some time, if the one to whom you had been speaking had been studying a course in Plain English!
356.Adverb clauses of condition.These clauses are introduced by such conjunctions as,if,provided,supposing,unless,except,otherwise,though,notwithstanding,albeit, andwhether. For example:
When subordinate clauses beginning withif,thoughorunlessare joined to clauses containingmight,could,wouldorshould, the verbwereis sometimes used with a singular subject, in such sentences as:
Sometimes in sentences like these,ifis omitted in the clause, and the verb placed first. For example:
These clauses express something which is uncertain, or which is to be decided in the future; a supposition contrary to a fact or a wish. Occasionally you will find the verbbeused instead ofis, in clauses of this kind introduced byif,though,unless,except,lest, etc. For example:
In subordinate clauses connected byif,unless, etc., with a principal clause which expresses future time, the present form of the verb is used in the subordinate clause. For example:
357.Adverb clauses expressing purpose.These are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as,that,in order thatandlest. For example:
Notice thatthat, when used in this way, as a pure conjunction, meansin order that. For example, the sentence above might read:
358.Adverb clauses expressing result.These are introduced by the subordinate conjunctionthat, as for example:
359.We have then adverb clauses introduced by subordinate conjunctions expressing:
In the following sentences, mark the conjunctions and tell to what class they belong; ask the questionwhen,where,why,how,on what condition,for what purpose,to what result. Underscore the subordinate clauses. The subjects of the subordinate clauses are printed in italics.
360.There are certain phrases which have come to be used together as conjunctions so commonly that we may consider them as conjunctions. They are:
As if,as though,but also,but likewise,so that,except that,inasmuch as,notwithstanding that,in order that,as well as,as far as,so far as,as little as,provided that,seeing that, etc.
Write sentences using these phrase conjunctions to introduce clauses.
361.We have found that there are two kinds of clauses, principal clauses and subordinate clauses.
A principal clause is one that does not depend on any word.
A subordinate clause is one that depends upon some word or words in the principal clause.
We have found, also, that these principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, for they are of equal rank and importance; neither is dependent upon the other.
Subordinate clauses are always connected with the principal clause by a subordinate conjunction. The subordinate clauses which we have been studying have all been adverb clauses which are used to describe the action expressed in the verb contained in the principal clauses.
The subordinate clause in a sentence may also be used as a noun. When the subordinate clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause.
362.A noun clause is a clause used as a noun.
A noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun is used, except as a possessive. It may be used as a subject, an object, a predicate complement, or in apposition with a noun. These noun clauses may be introduced by either relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns or by conjunctions. For example:
In the first sentence,who he is, is a noun clause used as the object of the verbknow. It tellswhatI know, and is the object of the verbknow,—just as if I had said;I know the facts.In this sentence the noun,facts, is the object of the verbknow.
In the second sentence,He asked, "what do you want?" the noun clausewhat do you wantis the object of the verbasked, and is introduced by the interrogative pronounwhat.
We will study in a subsequent lesson the use of noun clauses introduced by relative pronouns. In this lesson we are studying the conjunctions.
In the last sentence,I know where it is, the noun clausewhere it is, is the object of the verbknow, and is introduced by the conjunctionwhere.
363.Noun clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions,where,when,whence,whither,whether,how,why, and also by the subordinate conjunctionthat. For example:
In all of these examples the noun clauses are used as the objects of the verb. Noun clauses may also be used as objects of prepositions. As, for example:
364.Noun clauses may also be used as the subject of a sentence. As for example:
In all of these sentences, the noun clause is used as the subject of the verb. You will note that most frequently the noun clause used as subject of the verb is introduced by the subordinate conjunctionthat. But quite often we write these sentences in a somewhat different way. For example:
You will notice in these sentences we have expressed practically the same thought as in the sentences where the noun clause was used as the subject of the verb.
But now we have this little pronounitused as the subject, insteadof the clause, which is the real subject of the sentence.Itis simply used as the introductory word in the sentence. The noun clause is in reality the subject of the sentence.
365.Noun clauses may also be used as the predicate complement with a copulative verb. For example:
In all of these sentences the noun clause is used as the complement of the incomplete verbsisandwas, to complete the meaning, just as we use a noun as the predicate complement of a copulative verb in such sentences as,Socialism is a science.War is murder.
366.A noun clause may also be used in apposition to a noun to explain its meaning. Apposition means to place alongside of. Note in the following sentences:
In the first sentence, the clause,that such a law had been passed, is placed beside the nounfactand explainswhatthat fact is. The clause,that the matter should be laid on the table, is in apposition to and explains the nounmotion.
These noun clauses are used in apposition.
Complete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate conjunctions and pronouns in the blank spaces:
Note all the co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions in the following verses from "The Ballad of Reading Gaol." Underscore the subordinate clauses. Are they adverb or noun clauses? Do the co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses?