I know notwhetherLaws be right,Or whetherLaws be wrong;All that we know who lie in gaolIsthatthe wall is strong;And thateach day is like a year,A year whose days are long.Butthis I know,thatevery LawThat men have made for Man,Sincefirst Man took his brother's life,Andthe sad world began,But straws the wheatandsaves the chaffWith a most evil fan.This too I know—andwise it wereIfeach could know the same—Thatevery prison that men buildIs built with bricks of shame,Andbound with barslestChrist should seeHowmen their brothers maim.With bars they blur the gracious moon,Andblind the goodly sun:Andthey do well to hide their Hell,Forin it things are doneThat son of Godnorson of ManEver should look upon!In Reading gaol by Reading townThere is a pit of shame,Andin it lies a wretched manEaten by teeth of flame,In a burning winding sheet he lies,Andhis grave has got no name.Andthere,tillChrist call forth the dead,In silence let him lie:No need to waste the foolish tear,Orheave the windy sigh:The man had killed the thing he loved,And sohe had to die.Andall men kill the thing they love,By all let this be heard,Some do it with a bitter look,Some with a flattering word,The coward does it with a kiss,The brave man with a sword.—Oscar Wilde.
I know notwhetherLaws be right,Or whetherLaws be wrong;All that we know who lie in gaolIsthatthe wall is strong;And thateach day is like a year,A year whose days are long.
I know notwhetherLaws be right,
Or whetherLaws be wrong;
All that we know who lie in gaol
Isthatthe wall is strong;
And thateach day is like a year,
A year whose days are long.
Butthis I know,thatevery LawThat men have made for Man,Sincefirst Man took his brother's life,Andthe sad world began,But straws the wheatandsaves the chaffWith a most evil fan.
Butthis I know,thatevery Law
That men have made for Man,
Sincefirst Man took his brother's life,
Andthe sad world began,
But straws the wheatandsaves the chaff
With a most evil fan.
This too I know—andwise it wereIfeach could know the same—Thatevery prison that men buildIs built with bricks of shame,Andbound with barslestChrist should seeHowmen their brothers maim.
This too I know—andwise it were
Ifeach could know the same—
Thatevery prison that men build
Is built with bricks of shame,
Andbound with barslestChrist should see
Howmen their brothers maim.
With bars they blur the gracious moon,Andblind the goodly sun:Andthey do well to hide their Hell,Forin it things are doneThat son of Godnorson of ManEver should look upon!
With bars they blur the gracious moon,
Andblind the goodly sun:
Andthey do well to hide their Hell,
Forin it things are done
That son of Godnorson of Man
Ever should look upon!
In Reading gaol by Reading townThere is a pit of shame,Andin it lies a wretched manEaten by teeth of flame,In a burning winding sheet he lies,Andhis grave has got no name.
In Reading gaol by Reading town
There is a pit of shame,
Andin it lies a wretched man
Eaten by teeth of flame,
In a burning winding sheet he lies,
Andhis grave has got no name.
Andthere,tillChrist call forth the dead,In silence let him lie:No need to waste the foolish tear,Orheave the windy sigh:The man had killed the thing he loved,And sohe had to die.
Andthere,tillChrist call forth the dead,
In silence let him lie:
No need to waste the foolish tear,
Orheave the windy sigh:
The man had killed the thing he loved,
And sohe had to die.
Andall men kill the thing they love,By all let this be heard,Some do it with a bitter look,Some with a flattering word,The coward does it with a kiss,The brave man with a sword.
Andall men kill the thing they love,
By all let this be heard,
Some do it with a bitter look,
Some with a flattering word,
The coward does it with a kiss,
The brave man with a sword.
In Lesson No. 17 we studied concerning abstract nouns derived from qualifying adjectives. We found that we formed these nouns expressing quality from adjectives that describe quality by the addition of suffixes.
Adjectives may likewise be formed from nouns and also from verbs by the addition of suffixes. There are a number of suffixes which may be used to form adjectives in this way; as,al,ous,ic,ful,less,able,ible,aryandory. Notice the following words: nation,national; peril,perilous; reason,reasonable; sense,sensible; custom,customary; advise,advisory; hero,heroic; care,careful,careless.
To some words, more than one suffix may be added and an adjective of different meaning formed; for example, use,useless,useful; care,careless,careful.
Make as many adjectives as you can from the nouns and verbs given in the spelling lesson for this week by the addition of one or more of the following suffixes:
Al,less,ous,ic,ful,able,ible,ary,ory, andly.
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Dear Comrade:
We have practically finished the study of the different parts of speech. We are now in possession of a knowledge of the tools which we need to use in expressing ourselves. We are ready to make practical application of this knowledge in writing and speaking. We will find that with our increasing ability to express ourselves there comes also the power to think clearly. The analysis of language has meant a growing power tothinkon the part of the people.
We sometimes imagine that simplicity of language was a part of primitive life, but this is not true. Simplicity of language is the product of high civilization. Primitive life was marked, not by simplicity of language, but by the scarcity of language. They made one word stand for an entire sentence, and if they wished to express a little different meaning, an entirely different word had to be used, as for example, in the primitive language:I said to her, would be one word, andI said to him, would be another, entirely different, word.
But as the power of thought began to develop, we began to analyze our meaning and we found that this thought was identical except thehimand theher. So as we analyzed our thought our expression of itbecamemore simple. In most languages, the different meaning of the verb, for example, is expressed by an arbitrary change in the verb form. This is called the inflection of the verb. In English we would use several words to express the same thing. For example, the Latin wordFuissemrequires four English words to express the same meaning;I should have been, we say in English. So instead of having to learn a great number of different changes in the verb form, we, by the use of auxiliary verbs,have,shall,do,be, etc., are able to express all these shades of thought much more simply and clearly.
Most other languages also have changes for gender. Every noun has a gender of its own and sometimes this form gives the wrong gender to living beings and attributes sex to sexless objects and the only way to know the gender of the noun is simply by memory. Then the adjectives, possessive pronouns and the articlesaandthehave gender also and have to be changed to suit the gender of the noun; this involves a great effort of memory. So while the English may seem somewhat involved to you, it is, after all, much simpler than other languages. It has been freed from many superfluous endings and unnecessary complications.
Take a little time each day to read something out of the best literature. The quotations given in each of these lessons are from our very best writers. A study of these will be a wonderful help and inspiration to you and bring you in touch with some of the great thinkers of the revolution. They are our comrades and are putting into words the thoughts and hopes and dreams of our lives.
Yours for the Revolution,
THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.
367.In our study of subordinate clauses, we have studied subordinate clauses used as adverbs and as nouns. We have found that adverb clauses can be used in the same way as adverbs, to describe the time, place, manner, cause, condition or purpose of the action expressed in the verb. We have found, also, that a noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun can be used, as the subject of the sentence, the object of a verb or preposition or as the predicate complement. But these are not the only uses to which the subordinate clause may be put. Note the following sentences:
Do you see any difference in the words which are used to modify the nounmen? In the first sentence,wealthyis an adjective, modifying the nounmen. In the second sentence,of wealthis a prepositional phrase, used as an adjective modifying the nounmen. In the last sentence,who are wealthyis a clause used in exactly the same way that the adjectivewealthyand the adjective phraseof wealthare used, to modify the nounmen.
We have expressed practically the same meaning in these three ways: by a word; by a phrase; by a clause.
368.A word used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective.
A phrase used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective phrase.
A clause used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective clause.
Note the difference between a phrase and a clause.
369.A prepositional phrase, used as an adjective, consists of the preposition and the noun which is its object, together with its modifiers. A phrase never has either a subject or a predicate.Who are wealthy, is a clause because it does contain a subject and a predicate. The pronounwhois the subject in the clause, and the predicate is the copulative verbarewith the predicate complement, the adjectivewealthy.
In the following sentences change the adjective into a phrase and also into a clause, if possible. For example:
370.You will notice that these adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronounswho,whichandthat. These relative pronouns fulfil something of the office of a conjunction, because they are serving as connecting elements; they join these subordinate clauses to the words which they modify. But you will note, also, that these relative pronouns not only serve as connecting elements, but they also play a part in the subordinate clause, as either the subject or object. For example:
In the first sentence,who has an educationis an adjective clause modifying the nounman, introduced by the relative pronounwho, which is also the subject of the verbhas.
In the second sentence,that you orderedis an adjective clause, modifying the nounbooks, introduced by the relative pronounthat, which is also the object of the verbordered.
371.There is no need to be confused in this matter of clauses. If the clause is used as a noun, either as the subject or the object or in any other way in which a noun can be used, it is a noun clause. If it is used as an adverb and will answer any of the questionswhy,when,where, orhow, etc., it is an adverb clause. If it is used as an adjective,—if it modifies a noun or pronoun,—it is an adjective clause.
You will note that the only way in which a noun is used that does not have its corresponding clause is as a possessive. We do not have possessive clauses. The clause used as an adjective always modifies a noun or pronoun.
372.An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective and hence always modifies a noun or pronoun.
An adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns,who,whichorthat. The use of this clause is a great help to us in the expression of our ideas, for it enables us to combine several sentences containing related thoughts into one sentence so we have it all presented to the mind at once.
In the following sentences, note which are the noun clauses and which are the adjective clauses and which are the adverb clauses. The verb in the subordinate clause is in italics.
373.We are sometimes confused as to which relative pronoun to use in introducing an adjective clause. We hesitate as to whether we should usethatorwhoorwhich. Remember thatwhoalways refers topersons,whichrefers toanimalsorthings, andthatmay refer to eitherpersons,animalsorthings.
So when referring to aperson, we may use eitherwhoorthat, and when referring toanimalsorthings, we may use eitherwhichorthat. As, for example, we may say, either,The man who was here yesterday came back today, orThe man that was here yesterday came back today. Either is correct, forwhoandthatboth refer to persons.
374.We may make a little distinction in the use ofwhoandthatwhen referring topersons, however. A clause introduced bythatis usually a restrictive clause. It limits or restricts the meaning of the noun which it modifies. When you say,The man that was here yesterday, you meanthatman and no other, limiting your meaning to that particular man. On the other hand, when you say,The man who was here yesterday, there is no restriction or limitation expressed in the use of the clause, but it is merely a descriptive clause, adding a new fact to our knowledge concerning that particular man.
The same is true when we are speaking ofthingsusing eitherthatorwhich. The clause introduced bywhichis presumably a descriptive clause. We do, however, often usewhoorwhichwhen thesense of the clause is restrictive, but we should never usethatto introduce an adjective clause, unless the sense is restrictive. When in your sentences you can use, instead of the relative pronounwhoorwhich, the conjunctionand, you can know that the use of the pronounwhoorwhichis correct. As, for example:
You could say instead:
This would express the same meaning. But if you say:I have read the book that I found very interesting, you mean that you limit your idea to this particular book.
375.We do not always observe these niceties in our spoken and written speech, but it is interesting to know the shades of thought and meaning which you can express by the proper use of the language. The man who runs an engine and learns to know and love his machine almost as though it were a human being, can easily recognize the slightest change in the action of his machine. His ear catches the least difference in the sound of the running of the machine, a difference which we, who do not know and love the machine, would never notice.
So it is in language. Once we have sensed its beauty and its wondrous power of expression, we notice all these slight differences and shades of meaning which may be expressed by the use of words. In just the same manner the musician catches the undertones and overtones of the music, which we, who possess an uneducated ear, cannot know; and the artist also has a wondrous range of color, while we, who are not sensitive to color, know only a few of the primal colors.
376.The adjective clauses which we have been studying so far have been introduced by relative pronouns. Adjective clauses may also be introduced by conjunctions, such as,where,when,whence, orwhy. As, for example:
Note in these sentences the clauses,where a terrible battle was fought,when opportunity will be his,why this world-war was precipitated, are all adjective clauses modifying the nounsplace,hourandreason, and are introduced by the conjunctionswhere,when, andwhy. These are adjective clauses because they modify, by either limiting or describing, the nouns with which they are used. You will note that we could omit the nouns in the first two of these sentences and these clauses would become noun clauses, for they would be used in the place of a noun. As, for example:
377.We determine whether a clause is an adjective or an adverb or a noun clause just as we determine whether a word is an adjective, adverb or noun, by the work which it does in a sentence. Noun clauses are used in the place of a noun; adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns.
378.Adjective clauses may also be introduced byas.Asis a very convenient word and may be used in several different ways; sometimes as an adverb, sometimes as a conjunction; and it may also be used as a relative pronoun aftersuch,sameandmany. For example:
In these sentencesasis really used as a relative pronoun, connecting these adjective clauses to the words which they modify.Asmay also be used as an adverb.I am as tall as you are.
Here the firstasmodifiestalland is used as an adverb; the secondasis a conjunction connecting the subordinate clauseyou are, with the principal clause. Note that in making comparisons,asis always used when the comparison is equal,sowhen it is unequal, thus:
We have found thatasis also used as a conjunction to introduce an adverb clause. For example:
The clause,as she is good, is an adverb clause, modifying the adjectivebeautiful. In the sentence,Do as I say,as I sayis an adverb clause of manner, modifying the verbdo.
379.Let us not be confused in this matter of connectives. There are just four classes of connective words:
380.The copulative verb is not a pure connective, for it serves another purpose in the sentence. For example, in the sentence,The book is interesting, the copulative verbisconnects the adjectiveinterestingwith the nounbook, which it modifies; but it also is the asserting word in the sentence. So it fulfils a double function. It is an asserting word and also a connective word.
381.The relative pronoun also is not a pure connective, for it serves two purposes in the sentence. It not only connects the clause which it introduces, with the word which it modifies, but it also serves as either the subject or object in the clause. For example:The man who was here has gone.The clause,who was here, is introduced by the relative pronounwho, which connects that clause with the nounman, which the clause modifies.Whoalso serves as the subject of the verbwas.
In the sentence,The men whom we seek have gone, the clause,whom we seek, is introduced by the relative pronounwhom, which connects the clause with the wordmen, which it modifies.Whomalso serves as the object of the verb in the clause, the verbseek.
382.A preposition is not a pure connective, since it serves a double function. It shows the relation of its object to the rest of the sentence and also governs the form of its object. As, for example, in the sentence:The man before me is not the culprit, the prepositionbeforeconnects its objectmewith the nounman, which the prepositional phrase modifies, showing the relation between them; and it governs the form of its object, for the pronoun following a preposition must be used in theobjectform.
383.Even co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered pure connectives unless it be the co-ordinate conjunctionand. Co-ordinate conjunctions such asbut,yet,still,however, etc., not only connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, but in addition to connecting the words and expressions they also indicate that they are opposite in thought.
384.Co-ordinate conjunctions liketherefore,hence,then, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also introduce areasonorcause. Co-ordinate conjunctions likeor,either,nor,neither,whether, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also express the choice of an alternative. Thus these co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered as pure connectives.
385.Subordinate conjunctions are most frequently used to introduce adverb clauses and have an adverbial meaning. They express, as do adverbs,place,time,manner,cause,reason,purpose,conditionorresult. Some authorities indicate this double function by calling such words as these conjunctive adverbs, because, even when they are used as conjunctions, they retain some of their adverbial force.
But according to our rule that every word in the sentence is classified according to the function which it performs in that sentence, all words that perform the function of a conjunction are called conjunctions, although we understand that these conjunctions which introduce dependent clauses do still retain some of their adverbial meaning.
In the following sentences the connectives are in italics. Determine whether they are copulative verbs, relative pronouns, prepositions, co-ordinate conjunctions or subordinate conjunctions.
"It takes great strength to livewhereyou belong,Whenother people thinkthatyouarewrong."
"It takes great strength to livewhereyou belong,
Whenother people thinkthatyouarewrong."
In the following sentences underscore all the connectives—copulative verbs, prepositions, relative pronouns, co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions.
"There was a bird's egg once, picked up by chance upon the ground, and those who found it bore it home and placed it under a barn-yard fowl. And in time the chick bred out, and those who had found it chained it by the leg to a log lest it should stray and be lost. And by and by they gathered round it, and speculated as to what the bird might be.One said, "It is surely a waterfowl, a duck, or it may be a goose; if we took it to the water it would swim and gabble." But another said, "It has no webs to its feet; it is a barn-yard fowl; if you should let it loose it will scratch and cackle with the others on the dungheap." But a third speculated, "Look now at its curved beak; no doubt it is a parrot, and can crack nuts."But a fourth said, "No, but look at its wings; perhaps it is a bird of great flight." But several cried, "Nonsense! No one has ever seen it fly! Why should it fly? Can you suppose that a thing can do a thing which no one has ever seen it do?" And the bird, with its leg chained close to the log, preened its wings.So they say about it, speculating and discussing it: and one said this, and another that.And all the while, as they talked, the bird sat motionless, "Suppose we let the creature loose to see what it will do?"—and the bird shivered. But the others cried, "It is too valuable; it might get lost. If it were to try to fly it might fall down and break its neck." And the bird, with its foot chained to the log, sat looking upward into the clear sky; the sky, in which it had never been—for the bird—the bird, knew what it would do—because it was an eaglet!"—Olive Schreiner.
"There was a bird's egg once, picked up by chance upon the ground, and those who found it bore it home and placed it under a barn-yard fowl. And in time the chick bred out, and those who had found it chained it by the leg to a log lest it should stray and be lost. And by and by they gathered round it, and speculated as to what the bird might be.
One said, "It is surely a waterfowl, a duck, or it may be a goose; if we took it to the water it would swim and gabble." But another said, "It has no webs to its feet; it is a barn-yard fowl; if you should let it loose it will scratch and cackle with the others on the dungheap." But a third speculated, "Look now at its curved beak; no doubt it is a parrot, and can crack nuts."
But a fourth said, "No, but look at its wings; perhaps it is a bird of great flight." But several cried, "Nonsense! No one has ever seen it fly! Why should it fly? Can you suppose that a thing can do a thing which no one has ever seen it do?" And the bird, with its leg chained close to the log, preened its wings.
So they say about it, speculating and discussing it: and one said this, and another that.
And all the while, as they talked, the bird sat motionless, "Suppose we let the creature loose to see what it will do?"—and the bird shivered. But the others cried, "It is too valuable; it might get lost. If it were to try to fly it might fall down and break its neck." And the bird, with its foot chained to the log, sat looking upward into the clear sky; the sky, in which it had never been—for the bird—the bird, knew what it would do—because it was an eaglet!"
—Olive Schreiner.
These stirring lines are taken from Arturo Giovannitti's "Arrows in the Gale" and are a part of the poem "The Sermon on the Common." Note the use of the conjunctions. Mark all of the clauses.
Ye are the power of the earth, the foundations of society, the thinkers and the doers of all things good and all things fair and useful, the makers and dispensers of all the bounties and the joys and the happiness of the world, and if ye fold your mighty arms, all the life of the world stands still and death hovers on the darkened abodes of man.Ye are the light of the world. There was darkness in all the ages when the torch of your will did not blaze forth, and the past and the future are full of the radiance that cometh from your eyes.Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal, and no power of time and dissolution can prevail against you.Ages have come and gone, kingdoms and powers and dynasties have risen and fallen, old glories and ancient wisdoms have been turned into dust, heroes and sages have been forgotten and many a mighty and fearsome god has been hurled into the lightless chasms of oblivion.But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and abide forever.Therefore I say unto you, banish fear from your hearts, dispel the mists of ignorance from your minds, arm your yearning with your strength, your vision with your will, and open your eyes and behold.Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait.Think, dare, do, rebel, fight—ARISE!It is not true that ye are condemned to serve and to suffer in shame forever.It is not true that injustice, iniquity, hunger, misery, abjection, depravity, hatred, theft, murder and fratricide are eternal.There is no destiny that the will of man cannot break.There are no chains of iron that other iron cannot destroy.There is nothing that the power of your arms, lighted by the power of your mind, cannot transform and reconstruct and remake.Arise, then, ye men of the plow and the hammer, the helm and the lever, and send forth to the four winds of the earth your new proclamation of freedom which shall be the last and shall abide forevermore.Through you, through your united, almighty strength, order shall become equity, law shall become liberty, duty shall become love and religion shall become truth.Through you, the man-beast shall die and the man be born.Through you, the dark and bloody chronicles of the brute shall cease and the story of man shall begin.Through you, by the power of your brain and hand,All the predictions of the prophets,All the wisdom of the sages,All the dreams of the poets,All the hopes of the heroes,All the visions of the martyrs,All the prayers of the saints,All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of the ages, and all the glorious destinies of mankind shall become a triumphant and everlasting reality in the name of labor and bread and love, the great threefold truth forever.And lo and behold, my brothers, this shall be called the revolution.
Ye are the power of the earth, the foundations of society, the thinkers and the doers of all things good and all things fair and useful, the makers and dispensers of all the bounties and the joys and the happiness of the world, and if ye fold your mighty arms, all the life of the world stands still and death hovers on the darkened abodes of man.
Ye are the light of the world. There was darkness in all the ages when the torch of your will did not blaze forth, and the past and the future are full of the radiance that cometh from your eyes.
Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal, and no power of time and dissolution can prevail against you.
Ages have come and gone, kingdoms and powers and dynasties have risen and fallen, old glories and ancient wisdoms have been turned into dust, heroes and sages have been forgotten and many a mighty and fearsome god has been hurled into the lightless chasms of oblivion.
But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and abide forever.
Therefore I say unto you, banish fear from your hearts, dispel the mists of ignorance from your minds, arm your yearning with your strength, your vision with your will, and open your eyes and behold.
Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait.
Think, dare, do, rebel, fight—ARISE!
It is not true that ye are condemned to serve and to suffer in shame forever.
It is not true that injustice, iniquity, hunger, misery, abjection, depravity, hatred, theft, murder and fratricide are eternal.
There is no destiny that the will of man cannot break.
There are no chains of iron that other iron cannot destroy.
There is nothing that the power of your arms, lighted by the power of your mind, cannot transform and reconstruct and remake.
Arise, then, ye men of the plow and the hammer, the helm and the lever, and send forth to the four winds of the earth your new proclamation of freedom which shall be the last and shall abide forevermore.
Through you, through your united, almighty strength, order shall become equity, law shall become liberty, duty shall become love and religion shall become truth.
Through you, the man-beast shall die and the man be born.
Through you, the dark and bloody chronicles of the brute shall cease and the story of man shall begin.
Through you, by the power of your brain and hand,
All the predictions of the prophets,
All the wisdom of the sages,
All the dreams of the poets,
All the hopes of the heroes,
All the visions of the martyrs,
All the prayers of the saints,
All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of the ages, and all the glorious destinies of mankind shall become a triumphant and everlasting reality in the name of labor and bread and love, the great threefold truth forever.
And lo and behold, my brothers, this shall be called the revolution.
In our study of the spelling of English words we have found that there are not many rules that apply. In fact, the only way to learn to spell correctly is by sheer dint of memory.
In last week's lesson we found that a number of adjectives can be formed from nouns or verbs by the addition ofableorible, but we find it difficult to determine whether to addableorible. The sound is practically the same and we are confused as to whether we should useaori. There is no rule which applies in this case and there is nothing to do but to master the spelling of these words by memory. These are words which we use a great deal and which are very helpful members of our working vocabulary.
Our list of words in this week's lesson contain some of the most common words which we use ending inibleorable. The words for Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday all end inable; the words for Thursday, Friday, and Saturday will end inible. Notice them carefully and get fixed firmly in mind the correct spelling. Notice also that most of these adjectives can be changed into adverbs by changingbletobly. So when you have added these adjectives to your vocabulary, you have also added the adverbs as well.
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Dear Comrade:
In this lesson we are taking up the study of interjections. Interjections are the language of emotion. This was probably the earliest form of speech. You notice that children use these exclamations often, and the sounds which are imitations of the noises about them. This language belongs also to the savage, whose peculiar and expressive grunts contain whole areas of condensed thought. As we progress from feeling to thinking, the use of the interjection diminishes.
You will not find interjections used in a book on mathematics or physical science or history. To attempt to read one of these books may make you use interjections and express your emotion in violent language, but you will not find interjections in these books. These books of science are books that express thought and not feeling. But if you turn to fiction and to oratory you will find the interjection used freely, for these are the books which treat of the human emotions and feelings. Especially in poetry will you find the interjection used, for poetry is the language of feeling and the interjection is an important part of the poet's stock in trade.
In conversation, these exclamatory words are very useful. They fill the gaps in our conversation and they help to put the listener and the speaker in touch with one another. They are usually accompanied by a gesture, which adds force to the word. The tone of the voice in which they are expressed also means a great deal. You can say, Oh! in half a dozen different ways; you may express surprise, wonder, joy, sorrow, pain, or disgust. A great many different and widely separated feelings can be expressed simply by the tone in which you use the exclamatory words. Some one has said that these words grease the wheels of talk. They serve to help the timid, to give time to the unready and to keep up a pleasant semblance of familiarity.
When we use them in the stress of emotion to express deep feeling, their use is perfectly justified. But one author has called these words "the miserable refuge of the speechless." We use them many times because we have no words with which to express ourselves. This use is unjustified. Be careful that you do not use them in this way. It has been said that the degree of a man's civilization can be pretty fairly judged by the expletives which he uses. Do not sprinkle your conversation with interjections and even stronger words because you are at a loss for other words.
There is a rich mine of words at your disposal. Do not be satisfied with bits of glass that have no value, when the rich diamonds of real expression can be yours for just a little digging. Save your emotional language for the time when you really need it to express deep emotion.
Yours for Education,
THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.
386.We have been studying the parts of speech,—the elements of which sentences are composed. But we have another class of words which we call parts of speech because they are spoken and written as words, but which are really not parts of speech in the same sense as the words which we have been discussing. These are words which we call interjections.
Interjection means, literally, thrown between, fromjecto, to throw,andinter, between. So interjections do not enter into the constructionof sentences but are only thrown in between. Every word that is really a part of the sentence is either a noun, a pronoun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition or a conjunction.
There are words, however, that we use with sentences which do not enter into the construction. For example, you say:
387.Words which we use in these sentences, like,oh,aha,alas, are used to express the emotion which you feel in making the statement. YourOh!in a sentence like:Oh! I am wounded, would probably sound very much like a groan. But yourAha!in the,Aha! I have conquered, will sound like a shout of victory, and yourAlas!in the sentence,Alas! He came too late, will express grief or regret over the fact that he came too late.
These words do not assert anything and very much of the meaning which we give them must come from the tone in which they are uttered. Every one, upon hearing them, knows at once whether they express grief or delight.
388.An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express feeling or to imitate some sound.
389.Interjections may be divided into four classes:
1.Words which we use instead of an assertion to express feeling of various kinds, as:
2.Words used instead of a question; as,Eh?Hey?
3.Words used instead of a command; as:
4.Words used to imitate sounds made by animals, machines, etc., as,Bow-wow,Ding-dong,Bang,Rub-a-dub.
When we wish to imitate noises or sounds made by animals, machines, etc., in writing, we spell out the words as nearly as we can, just as we writeding-dongto represent the sound of the bell ortick-tockto indicate the ticking of a clock.
Note that a number of our verbs and nouns have been formed from imitating the sound which these nouns or verbs describe or express, as for instance,crash,roar,buzz,hush,groan,bang,puff, etc.
Mark the interjections in the following sentences. Which express surprise? Which joy? Which sorrow? Which disgust?
Write sentences using an interjection to express: 1. Joy. 2. Surprise. 3. Pain. 4. Sorrow. 5. Disgust. 6. To ask a question. 7. To call attention. 8. To silence. 9. To direct. 10. To imitate the sound made by an animal. 11. By a machine.
390.Interjections express only emotion or feeling. They do not express ideas. However, we have a number of words which are used somewhat as interjections are used, which we may class as exclamatory words, but they express more than interjections, for they express ideas as well as emotions; but, like interjections, they are used independently and have no part in the construction of the sentence.
391.Many ordinary words and phrases are used in this way as exclamations. When they are so used they have no place in the construction of the sentence; that is, they do not depend upon the sentence in which they are used, in any way. A noun used in this way is not used as the subject or the object, but simply as an exclamation.
For example; the nounnonsensemay be used as an interjection, as in the sentence;Nonsense! I do not believe a word of it.In this sentence,nonsenseis a noun used as an interjection and plays no part in the sentence, either as subject or object, but is an independent construction. There are a number of words used in this way:
1. Nouns and pronouns, asfire,mercy,shame,nonsense,the idea,what.
2. Verbs like,help,look,see,listen,hark,behold,begone.
3. Adjectives like,good,well,brave,welcome,strange.
4. Adverbs like,out,indeed,how,why,back,forward.
5. Prepositions like,on,up,down.
6. Phrases like,Oh dear,dear me,good bye.
Words and phrases such as these, used as exclamations, are not true interjections, for they express a little more than feeling. They express an idea which, in our haste, we do not completely express. The other words necessary to the expression of the idea are omitted because of the stress of emotion. For example:
In this sentence it is understood that we mean,Let us have silence, I will hear no more. But in the stress of our emotion, we have omitted the words,Let us have.
If we say,Good! that will do splendidly, you know that we mean,That is good, we have simply omittedThat is, which is necessary to complete the sentence. Sometimes when we are greatly excited we abandon our sentence construction altogether and use only the most important words. For example:
This is not a sentence, for it does not contain a verb, yet we know that what was meant was,I see a sail, I see a sail.
Write sentences using the words given in the foregoing list as exclamatory words, and add as many more to the list as you can think of.
392.The wordsyesandno, which we use in reply to questions were originally adverbs, but we no longer use them as adverbs. We no longer combine them with other words as modifying or limiting words, but use them independently. They are in themselves complete answers. Thus, if you ask me the question,Will you come?I may sayYes, meaning,I will come; or,No, meaning,I will not come.
The responsivesyesandnothus stand for whole sentences, so they are really independent words. We may use them in connection with other sentences. For example; I may say,Yes, I will come, orNo, I will not come. Used in this way, they still retain an independent construction in the sentence. We call them responsives because they are used in response to questions.
393.Other words may be used in an independent construction in sentences, without depending upon the sentence in which they are used or without having the sentences depend upon them, such as:
1.A word used in address.For example:
In these sentences,Mr. PresidentandFellow Workersare nouns used independently; that is, they are neither the subject of the sentence nor used as object or predicate complement. They are independent of all other words in the sentence.
The most common use of words used independently in direct address occurs with imperative sentences. For example:
2.Exclamatory expressions.These are nouns used in the manner in which we have already discussed, as in the sentence:
3.Words and phrases used parenthetically, as for example:
In these sentences such words as,however, and such phrases as,by the way, and,it seems, are used independently,—in parenthesis, as it were; that is, they are just thrown into the sentences in such a way that they do not modify or depend upon any other word in the sentence. When we analyze our sentences, these independent words are not considered as elements of the sentences in which they are used. It is sufficient to say that they are independent words.
4.Conjunctions used as introductory words.We have noted the use of conjunctions like the co-ordinatesand,but, etc., and the subordinatesbecause,in order that,so,for,wherefore,how,whether, etc., which are used to introduce sentences and connect them in thought with sentences and paragraphs which have gone before.
394.We have a number of words which we use to introduce our sentences.They are such words as,so,wellandwhy. These are ordinarily adverbs, but when they are used merely to introduce a sentence they retain little of their adverbial force. For example:
In these sentences,so,wellandwhydo not modify any of the words in the sentences, but are used merely to introduce the sentences. They serve in a measure to connect them with something which has gone before.
395.The adverbthereis also used as an introductory word.When it is used in this manner, it loses its adverbial force.There, as ordinarily used, is an adverb of place, but it is often used to introduce asentence. For example:There is some mistake about it.In this sentencethereis not used as an adverb, but it is used simply as an introductory word. It is used to introduce a sentence in which the verb comes before the real subject.Mistakeis the real subject of the verb is, andthereis used simply as the introductory word.
396.The indefinite pronounitis also used as an introductory word, to introduce a sentence in much the same manner asthere. The real subject of the verb occurs later in the sentence. For example:
This could be written,To know the truth is best, and the entire meaning of the sentence would be conveyed.
397.Adverbs of mode.You remember in our study of adverbs, we had certain adverbs which were called adverbs of mode. These are used to modify the entire sentence. They express the feeling in which the entire sentence is uttered. Adverbs of mode may be regarded also as independent words. They are such words as,indeed,surely,certainly,perhaps, etc. For example:
Note in the following sentences the words which are pure interjections, and those which are other parts of speech used as exclamatory words. Mark those which are used in direct address, those which are used parenthetically, and those which are used as mere introductory words.
398.We sometimes use words which do not belong in the construction of a sentence to explain other words in the sentence. For example:
In the first sentence, the words,the undersigned, are added to the pronounweto explain whowemeans. In the second sentence, the words,the most wonderful woman of this age, are added to explain who Helen Keller is. Words added to other words in this way are called explanatory words. They are placed in apposition to the noun which they explain. Apposition meansby the side of, orin position near. You remember that in clauses we found that a clause may be placed in apposition with a noun to explain the meaning of that noun. For example:
These words in apposition may themselves be modified or limited by other words or phrases or clauses. For example:
In this sentence,womanis the noun placed in apposition to the particular name, Helen Keller, and the nounwomanis modified by the adjectivesthe, andwonderful, and by the phraseof this age.
Sometimes a second explanatory word is placed in apposition to the first one. This is quite often the case in legal documents or resolutions, where the language is quite formal. For example:
These words,undersignedandmembers, are both placed in apposition to the pronounWe, explaining to whom that pronoun refers.
In the following sentences note the explanatory words and their modifiers:
Read the following list of words and note the ideas which they suggest to you, then make sentences containing these words,modified by a word or group of words in apposition, which explain more fully these words.
Law, martyr, society, education, inventor, commander, freedom, Eugene V. Debs, Karl Marx, Kaiser Wilhelm, The Balkan, Lawrence, Colorado, Calumet.
399.We have found that every word in a sentence bears some relation to every other word, except these words which we have been studying, which we use independently. These explanatory words which we have just been studying are not used independently, but do in a sense modify the noun with which they are placed in apposition. Sometimes we place a noun or a pronoun and its modifiers alongside the whole sentence and it does not really modify any part of the sentence, but modifies the whole sentence in a way, for it expresses an attendant thought or an accompanying circumstance. For example:
The workers being unorganisedandthe strikers having wonare not clauses for they do not contain a verb.Being unorganizedandhaving wonare participles. Neither do they modify any word in the sentence. They are not placed in apposition with any other word. While they do express a thought in connection with the sentence, in construction they seem to be cut loose from the rest of the sentence; that is, they are not closely connected with the sentence, hence they are called absolute constructions.Abmeans from, andsolute, loose; so this means, literally, loose from the rest of the sentence.
We speak of these as absolute constructions, instead of independent, because the thought expressed is connected with the main thought of the sentence and is really a part of it. Notice that the noun used in the absolute construction is not thesubjectof the sentence.
Take the sentence,The workers being unorganized, the strike waseasily defeated, the nounstrikeis the subject of the sentence, and the nounworkersis used in the absolute construction with the participle,being unorganized.
These absolute constructions can ordinarily be rewritten into adverb clauses. For example, this sentence might read:The strike was easily defeated because the workers were unorganized.Do not make the mistake of rewriting your sentences and using the noun in the absolute construction as the subject of the sentence. For example:
This is not the meaning of this sentence. The meaning of the sentence is that thestrikewas easily defeatedbecausethe workers were unorganized. But the adverb clause,because the workers were unorganized, instead of being written as an adverb clause, has been written in the absolute construction,the workers being unorganized.
While it is nearly always possible to change these absolute constructions into adverb clauses the sentences are sometimes weakened by the change. These absolute constructions often enable us to make a statement in a stronger manner than we could make it with a clause or in any other way.
In the following sentences, note the groups of words which are used in absolute construction. Rewrite these sentences and if possible change these words used in absolute construction into equivalent adverb phrases or clauses. Note how some of the sentences are weakened when you make this change.
Mark the interjections in the following quotations. Note the independent constructions. Mark the words used as explanatory words in apposition.
In the mind's eye, I see a wonderful building, something like the Coliseum of ancient Rome. The galleries are black with people; tier upon tier rise like waves the multitude of spectators who have come to see a great contest. A great contest, indeed! A contest in which all the world and all the centuries are interested. It is the contest—the fight to death—between Truth and Error.The door opens, and a slight, small, shy and insignificant looking thing steps into the arena. It is Truth. The vast audience bursts into hilarious and derisive laughter. What! Is this Truth? This shuddering thing in tattered clothes, and almost naked? And the house shakes again with mocking and hisses.The door opens again, and Error enters—clad in cloth of gold, imposing in appearance, tall of stature, glittering with gems, sleek and huge and ponderous, causing the building to tremble with the thud of its steps. The audience is for a moment dazzled into silence, then it breaks into applause, long and deafening. "Welcome!" "Welcome!" is the greeting from the multitude. "Welcome!" shout ten thousand throats.The two contestants face each other. Error, in full armor—backed by the sympathies of the audience, greeted by the clamorous cheering of the spectators; and Truth, scorned, scoffed at, and hated. "The issue is a foregone conclusion," murmurs the vast audience. "Error will trample Truth under its feet."The battle begins. The two clinch, separate, and clinch again. Truth holds its own. The spectators are alarmed. Anxiety appears in their faces. Their voices grow faint. Is it possible? Look! See! There! Error recedes! It fears the gaze of Truth! It shuns its beauteous eyes! Hear it shriek and scream as it feels Truth's squeeze upon its wrists. Error is trying to break away from Truth's grip. It is making for the door. It is gone!The spectators are mute. Every tongue is smitten with the palsy. The people bite their lips until they bleed. They cannot explain what they have seen. "Oh! who would have believed it?" "Is it possible?"—they exclaim. But they cannot doubt what their eyes have seen—that puny and insignificant looking thing called Truth has put ancient and entrenched Error, backed by the throne, the altar, the army, the press, the people and the gods—to rout.The pursuit of truth! Is it not worth living for? To seek the truth, to love the truth, to live the truth? Can any religion offer more?—Mangasarian.
In the mind's eye, I see a wonderful building, something like the Coliseum of ancient Rome. The galleries are black with people; tier upon tier rise like waves the multitude of spectators who have come to see a great contest. A great contest, indeed! A contest in which all the world and all the centuries are interested. It is the contest—the fight to death—between Truth and Error.
The door opens, and a slight, small, shy and insignificant looking thing steps into the arena. It is Truth. The vast audience bursts into hilarious and derisive laughter. What! Is this Truth? This shuddering thing in tattered clothes, and almost naked? And the house shakes again with mocking and hisses.
The door opens again, and Error enters—clad in cloth of gold, imposing in appearance, tall of stature, glittering with gems, sleek and huge and ponderous, causing the building to tremble with the thud of its steps. The audience is for a moment dazzled into silence, then it breaks into applause, long and deafening. "Welcome!" "Welcome!" is the greeting from the multitude. "Welcome!" shout ten thousand throats.
The two contestants face each other. Error, in full armor—backed by the sympathies of the audience, greeted by the clamorous cheering of the spectators; and Truth, scorned, scoffed at, and hated. "The issue is a foregone conclusion," murmurs the vast audience. "Error will trample Truth under its feet."
The battle begins. The two clinch, separate, and clinch again. Truth holds its own. The spectators are alarmed. Anxiety appears in their faces. Their voices grow faint. Is it possible? Look! See! There! Error recedes! It fears the gaze of Truth! It shuns its beauteous eyes! Hear it shriek and scream as it feels Truth's squeeze upon its wrists. Error is trying to break away from Truth's grip. It is making for the door. It is gone!
The spectators are mute. Every tongue is smitten with the palsy. The people bite their lips until they bleed. They cannot explain what they have seen. "Oh! who would have believed it?" "Is it possible?"—they exclaim. But they cannot doubt what their eyes have seen—that puny and insignificant looking thing called Truth has put ancient and entrenched Error, backed by the throne, the altar, the army, the press, the people and the gods—to rout.
The pursuit of truth! Is it not worth living for? To seek the truth, to love the truth, to live the truth? Can any religion offer more?—Mangasarian.