Chapter 32

[794]In Polybius’ time bribery was a capital offence at Rome (Polyb. vi 56).[795]Polyb. vi. 14. The people are often judges of money penalties, when the offence can be valued in money, καὶ μάλιστα τοὺς τὰς ἐπιφανεῖς ἐσχηκότας ἀρχάς, θανάτου δὲ κρίνει μόνος. Cf. c. 15. The greatest source of the power of the people is that ἀποτιθεμένους τὴν ἀρχὴν ἐν τούτῳ δεῖ τὰς εὐθύνας ὑπέχειν τῶν πεπραγμένων.[796]Liv. xxiv. 43 (214B.C., the tribune Metellus prosecutes the censors Furius and Atilius) “Sed novem tribunorum auxilio vetiti causam in magistratu dicere dimissique fuerant”; Suet.Caes.23 (Caesar on leaving for Gaul) “a L. Antistio, tr. pl., postulatus, appellato demum collegio, obtinuit, cum reipublicae causa abesset, reus ne fieret.” In the case of the trial of the censors of 169B.C.(Liv. xliii 16) the accused agree to be put on their trial during their tenure of office.[797]Liv. xxix. 22 (204B.C.). Pleminius and his colleagues were “producti ad populum ab tribunis.”[798]ib. vi. 1 “Q. Fabio ... ab Cn. Marcio tribuno plebis dicta dies est, quod legatus in Gallos, ad quos missus erat orator, contra jus gentium pugnasset.”[799]ib.Ep.69 “L. Appuleius Saturninus ... Metello Numidico, eo quod in eam (the agrarian law) non juraverat, diem dixit.”[800]ib. xxv. 3 (Postumius apublicanus, for shipwrecking and false reports of shipwreck).[801]e.g. waging war without authorisation (Ascon.in Cornelian. p. 80, 104B.C.), disgraceful flight imperilling the safety of others (Liv. xxvi. 2, 211B.C.).[802]Exceeding the legal duration of a magistracy, in this case the dictatorship (Cic.de Off.iii. 31, 112). The instance, though typical, is not historic.[803]Liv. xliii. 7, 8 (170B.C.).[804]Tac.Ann.xi. 22 “apud majores ... cunctis civium, si bonis artibus fiderent, licitum petere magistratus.”[805]Festus p. 231 “plebeium magistratum neminem capere licet, nisi qui ex plebe est.” Cf. Suet.Aug.10.[806]This seems shown by Suet.Claud.24 (see p. 135).[807]Momms.Staatsr.i. p. 488. Exceptional elections of the sons of freedmen are found in 304B.C.(Liv. ix. 46, Cn. Flavius (see p. 185) as aedile) and in the year 100B.C.(App.B.C.i. 33).[808]Lex Julia Municipalis(BrunsFontes) l. 92 “in castreis inve provincia.”[809]Plut.C. Gracch.2.[810]There is also evidence for this as the minimum age at a period earlier than Cicero’s political career; see Cic.in Verr.ii. 49, 122.[811]In Caesar’s municipal law (45B.C.) the qualification for a municipal magistracy is either thirty years of age or a certain length of service—six years on foot or three on horseback (L.J.M.l. 89).[812]Liv. ix. 46 (of the election of Cn. Flavius to the curule aedileship) “Invenio in quibusdam annalibus, cum adpareret aedilibus ... neque accipi nomen, quia scriptum faceret, tabulam posuisse et jurasse, se scriptum non facturum.”[813]Cic.de Off.i. 42, 150; in later Roman law spoken of asvilitas; see GreenidgeInfamia in Roman Lawpp. 12, 193.[814]Cic.pro Cluent.42, 119; Schol. Bob. in Cic.pro Sulla5, 17, p. 361 Orell.; Cic.pro Rosc. Com.6, 16; Tertull.de Spect.22; Ascon.in orat. in Tog. Cand.p. 115;Lex Julia Munic.l. 104;Dig.48, 7, 1. All these passages are discussed in GreenidgeInfamia in Roman Lawpp. 18-40 and 187.[815]Liv. iii. 35 “Ars haec erat, ne semet ipse creare posset; quod praeter tribunos plebi (et id ipsum pessimo exemplo) nemo unquam fecisset.” The revolutionary period shows Cinna and Carbo nominating themselves consuls for two successive years (Liv.Ep.83) and Caesar as dictator presiding over his own election to the consulship (Caes.B.C.iii. 1, 1).[816]Cic.de Leg. Agr.ii. 8, 21 “Licinia est lex atque altera Aebutia, quae non modo eum, qui tulerit de aliqua curatione ac potestate, sed etiam collegas ejus, cognatos, affines excipit, ne eis ea potestas curatiove mandetur.”[817]Liv. vii. 42 “aliis plebiscitis cautum ne quis eundem magistratum intra decem annos caperet; neu duos magistratus uno anno gereret.” Cf. x. 13.[818]Cic.de Leg. Agr.ii. 9, 24 “ne in iis quidem magistratibus quorum certus ordo est.”[819]Liv. xl. 44 “eo anno rogatio primum lata est ab L. Villio tr. pl., quot annos nati quemque magistratum peterent caperentque.” It probably accepted the age of twenty-eight for the quaestorship; the minimum age for the consulship in the time of Cicero was forty-three (Phil.v. 17, 48); that for the praetorship is quite unknown; thirty-five and forty have been conjectured.[820]Cic.ad Fam.x. 25, 2 “non est annus hic tibi destinatus, ut, si aedilis fuisses, post biennium tuus annus esset” (i.e. for election to the praetorship). To be elected in the earliest year, when one is qualified by the interval, is to attain a magistracy “anno sibi destinato” (l.c.) or “suo anno” (Cic.pro Mil.9, 24). Momms.Staatsr.i. pp. 527, 529. The principle of at least one year’s interval seems to have applied to the transition from plebeian to patrician magistracies in the form that candidature during the holding of any office was forbidden (Momms.Staatsr.i. p. 533).[821]App.B.C.i. 100 καὶ στρατηγεῖν ἀπεῖπε πρὶν ταμιεῦσαι καὶ ὑπατεύειν πρὶν στρατηγῆσαι, καὶ τὴν ἀρχὴν τὴν αὐτὴν αὖθις ἄρχειν ἐκώλυσε πρὶν ἒτη δέκα διαγενέσθαι.[822]Cic.ad Fam.xvi. 12, 3 “se praesentem trinum nundinum petiturum”; Sallust,Cat.18 “post paulo Catilina pecuniarum repetundarum reus prohibitus erat consulatum petere, quod intra legitimos dies profiteri nequiverit.” The interval was probably twenty-four days. See the section on thecomitia.[823]Plut.Aem. Paul.3;Sull.5.[824]Cic.de Leg. Agr.ii. 9, 24 (63B.C.) “praesentem profiteri jubet, quod nulla alia in lege unquam fuit, ne in iis quidem magistratibus quorum certus ordo est”; Suet.Caes.18 (60B.C.) “cum edictis jam comitiis ratio ejus haberi non posset ... et ambienti ut legibus solveretur multi contradicerent, coactus est triumphum, ne consulatu excluderetur, dimittere.” Cf. Plut.Caes.13.[825]Dio Cass. xl. 56 (Pompeius) τὸν περὶ τῶν ἀρχαιρεσιῶν νόμον τὸν κελεύοντα τοὺς ἀρχήν τινα ἐπαγγέλλοντας ἐς τὴν ἐκκλησίαν πάντως ἁπαντᾷν, ὥστε μηδένα ἀπόντα αἱρεῖσθαι, παρημελημένον πῶς ἀνενεώσατο.[826]Hence their association withsequestres—the agents in whose hands the candidate deposited money. Cic.pro Planc.18, 19; Q. Cic.de Pet. Cons.14, 57.[827]Lex Jul. Munic.l. 132 “neve quis ejus rationem comitieis conciliove [habeto, neive quis quem, sei adversus ea comitieis conciliove] creatum est, renuntiato.” In 67B.C.the consul Piso, questioned “Palicanum num suffragiis populi consulem creatum renuntiaturus esset,” answered “non renuntiabo” (Val. Max. iii. 8, 3).[828]p. 47.[829]Mommsen (Staatsr.i. p. 599) places this change in 222B.C.Liv. xxxi. 5, etc.[830]Fasti Praenestini(C.I.L.i. p. 364) “[ann]us nov[us incipit], quia eo die mag[istratus] ineunt: quod coepit [p. R.] c. a. DCI.”[831]Quaestors (Cic.in Verr.Act. i. 10, 30;Lex de XX. quaest.in BrunsFontesl. 15); tribunes (Dionys. vi 89).[832]Dio Cass. xl. 66; Cic.in Verr.i. 41, 105; Liv. xxi. 63.[833]Theexecratiois given by Pliny (Paneg.64), “explanavit verba quibus caput suum, domum suam, si sciens fefellisset, deorum (Jupiter and the Dii Penates) irae consecraret.”[834]Cic.ad Att.ii. 18, 2 “habet ... Campana Lex (of the consul Caesar in 59B.C.) execrationem in contione candidatorum.”[835]Liv. xxxi. 50; if we may argue from municipal law (Lex Salpens.c. 26), omission to take it due to mere neglect was visited in the first instance by a fine.[836]Liv. l.c.[837]Cic.ad Fam.v. 2, 7;pro Sulla11, 34;in Pison.3, 6;pro Domo35, 94. Cicero, at the close of 63, varied the oath by swearing that he had saved the state.[838]p. 45.[839]Liv. v. 41.[840]The dagger is mentioned more frequently than the sword (gladius) as the distinctive sign of military power. Momms.Staatsr.i. p. 434 n. 1.[841]Hence such phrases asdecedere via,descendere equo,adsurgere sella,caput aperire. The senators were in the habit of rising from their seats when the consul entered the Curia (Cic.in Pis.12, 26).[842]A decree of the augurs in 426B.C.declared the consular tribunes capable of this nomination (Liv. iv. 31).[843]p. 165.[844]Liv. viii. 12 “Aemilius, cujus tum fasces erant, collegam dictatorem dixit”; iv. 26 “Sors, ut dictatorem diceret (nam ne id quidem inter collegas convenerat) T. Quinctio evenit”; iv. 21 “Verginius, dum collegam consuleret, moratus, permittente eo, nocte dictatorem dixit.”[845]Liv. iv. 17 “senatus ... dictatorem dici Mam. Aemilium jussit”; vii. 12 “dictatorem dici C. Sulpicium placuit. Consul ad id adcitus C. Plautius dixit.”[846]ib. xxii. 57 (216B.C.) “dictator ex auctoritate patrum dictus M. Junius.”[847]ib.Ep.19; Suet.Tib.2 (the enforced abdication of Claudius Glicia, nominated by Claudius Pulcher). In Liv. iv. 26 thecoercitioof the tribune is represented as employed against the consuls who disobey.[848]Mommsen inC.I.L.i. p. 557.[849]Liv. xxvii 5 (210B.C., on the proposal of the consul to nominate a dictator in Sicily) “patres extra Romanum agrum (eum autem in Italia terminari) negabant dictatorem dici posse.”[850]ib. ix. 38-39.[851]Polyb. iii. 87; but, as a rule, he was preceded by only twelve within the walls (Liv.Ep.89 “Sulla, dictator factus, quod nemo umquam fecerat, cum fascibus viginti quatuor processit”).[852]Liv. ii. 18 “Creato dictatore primum Romae, postquam praeferri secures viderunt, magnus plebem metus incessit.”[853]p. 85.[854]e.g. the dictator named by Livy (ix. 26) as “quaestionibus exercendis” (314) is mentioned in theFast. Capitol.as “rei gerundae causa” (Momms.Staatsr.ii. p. 157 n. 2); a dictator “seditionis sedandae et rei gerundae causa” is found in theFastifor 368.[855]Liv. vii. 24 “qui aegris consulibus comitia haberet.” Cf. c. 26 (absence of consuls in the field) and ix. 7.[856]ib. xxiii. 22. In 216B.C.M. Fabius Buteo was appointed dictator “qui senatum legeret.”[857]ib. viii. 40.[858]ib. vii. 28 (for establishment offeriaeon the occasion of aprodigium); “dictator Latinarum feriarum causa” inFast. Cap.(C.I.L.i. p. 434) for the year 257B.C.[859]The first instance was on the occasion of the great pestilence in 363B.C.(Liv. vii. 3 “Lex vetusta est ... ut, qui praetor maximus sit, Idibus Septembribus clavum pangat”). Cf. Fest. p. 56.[860]Cic.de Off.iii. 31, 112 (see p. 183); cf. Liv. vii. 3. L. Manlius, appointed “clavi figendi causa,” acted “perinde ac reipublicae gerendae ... gratia creatus esset,” and was forced to abdicate.[861]p. 84.[862]This is Mommsen’s interpretation (Staatsr.ii. p. 160 n. 4) of Liv. xxx. 39. C. Servilius Geminus had been appointed dictatorcomitiorum causa—“Saepe comitia indicta perfici tempestates prohibuerunt. Itaque, cum prid. Id. Mart. veteres magistratus abissent, novi subfecti non essent, respublica sine curulibus magistratibus erat.”[863]Liv. iv. 41. The consul is here said “auspicio dictatoris res gerere.”[864]ib. ii. 32 “quamquam per dictatorem dilectus habitus esset, tamen, quoniam in consulum verba jurassent, sacramento teneri militem rati.”[865]This view has led to the exaggerated statement of Polybius (iii. 87) that, on the establishment of a dictator, παραχρῆμα διαλύεσθαι συμβαίνει πάσας τὰς ἀρχὰς ἐν τῇ Ῥώμῃ πλὴν τῶν δημάρχων: which has been copied by later Greek writers.[866]This is clearly shown by the attitude of the dictator L. Papirius Cursor when pursuing his disobedient master of the horse (Liv. viii. 34). The dictator hopes that the veto will not be employed (“optare ne potestas tribunicia, inviolata ipsa, violet intercessione sua Romanum imperium”). Zonaras expresses the fact and not the law (vii. 13 οὔτ’ ἐγκαλέσαι τις αὐτῷ οὔτ’ ἐναντίον τι διαπράξασθαι ἴσχυεν οὐδὲ οἱ δήμαρχοι).[867]Zonar. vii. 13 οὔτε ἐκ τῶν δημοσίων χρημάτων ἀναλῶσαι τι ἐξῆν αὐτῷ, εἰ μὴ ἐψηφίσθη.[868]Liv.Ep.19 (249B.C.) “Atilius Calatinus primus dictator extra Italiam exercitum duxit”; Dio Cass. xxxvi. 17 (the dictatorship was limited to Italy) καὶ οὐκ ἂν εὑρεθείη δικτάτωρ οὐδεὶς ἄλλοσε, πλὴν ἑνὸς ἐς Σικελίαν, καὶ ταῦτα μηδὲν πράξαντος, αἱρεθείς.[869]Festus p. 198 “optima lex in magistro populi faciendo, qui vulgo Dictator appellator, quam plenissimum posset jus ejus esse significabatur ... postquam vero provocatio ab eo magistratu ad populum data est, quae ante non erat, desitum est adici ‘ut optima lege,’ ut pote imminuto jure priorum magistrorum.”[870]p. 168. It could not have been a consequence of the Valerio-Horatian laws of 449B.C.(see p. 109).[871]Liv. xxii. 8.[872]Livy (xxii. 25) describes it as arogatio“de aequando magistri equitum et dictatoris jure.” Cf. c. 26 “de aequato imperio.”[873]Liv. xxii. 57, M. Junius Pera.[874]Fast. Capitol.[875]Sulla was nominated by an interrex (though his powers were conferred by law), Caesar by a praetor. Plutarch (Marc.24) says that the praetor could nominate the dictator, a proceeding which is declared by Cicero to be wholly unconstitutional,ad Att.ix. 15, 2 (49B.C.) “volet (Caesar) ... vel ut consules roget praetor vel dictatorem dicat, quorum neutrum jus est. Etsi si Sulla potuit efficere, ab interrege ut dictator diceretur, cur hic non possit?” The nomination of Caesar was regular in so far as a speciallexwas passed which empowered the praetor to nominate (Caes.B.C.ii. 21; Dio Cass. xli. 36).[876]An exception is found in 216B.C.M. Fab. Buteo was appointed “dictator sine mag. eq. senatus legendi causa” (see p. 193).[877]In the single case of the election of a dictator, themagister equitumwas also elected (Liv. xxii. 8).[878]Dio Cass. xlii. 27; Antonius, as Caesar’smagister equitum, had six lictors.[879]Cic.de Leg.iii. 3, 9 “equitatumque qui regat, habeto pari jure cum eo, quicumque erit juris disceptator.”[880]Pompon. inDig.1, 2, 2, 19 “et his dictatoribus magistri equitum injungebantur sic, quo modo regibus tribuni celerum: ... magistratus tamen habebantur legitimi.”[881]Liv. iv. 34 “jussoque magistro equitum abdicare se magistratu, ipse deinde abdicat.”[882]Liv. ix. 38 “Papirius C. Junium Bubulcum magistrum equitum dixit: atque ei, legem curiatam de imperio ferenti, triste omen diem diffidit.”[883]Cic.de Leg.iii. 4, 10; see p. 160.[884]Liv. viii. 32 sq.; cf. xxii. 27 “in ... civitate, in qua magistri equitum virgas ac secures dictatoris tremere atque horrere soliti sint.”[885]ib. iv. 27 “relictoque (at Rome) L. Julio magistro equitum ad subita belli ministeria.”[886]ib. ii. 18; Dio Cass. xlii. 21 (Caesar τὸν Ἀντώνιον, μηδ’ ἐστρατηγηκότα, ἵππαρχον προσελόμενος).[887]Dionys. ii. 6 τῶν δὲ παρόντων τινὲς ὀρνιθοσκόπων μισθὸν ἐκ τοῦ δημοσίου φερόμενοι.[888]Cic.post Red. ad Quir.5, 11. The first meeting of the Senate was in early times held by the elder of the two consuls (ὁ πρεσβύτερος τῶν ὑπάτων Dionys. vi. 57).[889]Cic.pro Planc.25, 60 “honorum populi finis est consulatus.”[890]App.B.C.ii. 19. In formal dating the names of the two chief praetors were added. See theSenatus Consultum de Asclepiade(BrunsFontes).[891]Suet.Tib.31; see p. 191.[892]Liv. xliv. 17 (169B.C.) “designatos extemplo sortiri placuit provincias.”[893]ib. ii. 33 “consul alter Romae mansit, alter ad Volscum bellum missus”; cf. Dionys. vi. 91; Liv. ix. 42.[894]Cic.de Rep.ii. 31, 55.[895]Festus p. 161 “majorem consulem L. Caesar putat dici, vel eum penes quem fasces sint, vel eum, qui prior factus sit.” The first explanation is doubtless the correct one.[896]Suet.Caes.20.[897]Polyb. vi. 12 πασῶν εἰσι κύριοι τῶν δημοσίων πράξεων.[898]Cicero furnishes an instance for the year 54B.C.,ad Att.iv. 15, 5 “Reatini me ad sua Τέμπη duxerunt, ut agerem causam contra Interamnates apud consulem et decem legatos, quod lacus Velinus ... in Nar defluit.”[899]p. 167.[900]Selection of a consul, Cic.de Fin.ii. 16, 54, in 141B.C., “decreta a senatu est consuli quaestio”; of a praetor, Liv. xlii. 21, in 172B.C., “C. Licinius praetor consuluit senatum quem quaerere ea rogatione vellet. Patres ipsum eum quaerere jusserunt.”[901]Cic.de Rep.iii. 18, 28 (of the year 136B.C.) “Consul ego quaesivi, cum vos mihi essetis in consilio, de Numantino foedere.” Mommsen (Staatsr.ii. p. 112 n. 3) thinks that theconsiliumwas formed by the Fetiales (cf. Cic.de Leg.ii. 9, 21).[902]For the question whether thepomeriumor the first milestone was the limit of the fullimperiumsee p. 79.[903]For the rotation of theimperiumbefore Cannae (216B.C.) see Polyb. iii. 110, Liv. xxii. 41.[904]Liv. xxii. 27 “Ita (Fabius, after the appointment of Minucius as his colleague in 217B.C.) obtinuit uti legiones, sicut consulibus mos esset, inter se dividerent.”[905]ib. xxx. 1 (203B.C.) “censuerunt patres, ut consules inter se compararent sortirenturve, uter Bruttios adversus Hannibalem, uter Etruriam ac Ligures provinciam haberet.”[906]Italy and Macedonia (ib. xxxii. 8, xlii. 31, xliii. 12), Italy and Greece (xxxvii. 1).[907]Italia and some foreign country are still consularprovinciaein 112 and 111B.C.(Sall.Jug.27, 43). When a consul was appointed to one of the old praetorian provinces, he did not supplant the praetor but commanded with and over him.[908]Liv. xxx. 1 “ut consules inter se compararent sortirenturve.” Cf. ib. xxxii. 8, xxxvii. 1, and the other passages cited in note 3.[909]ib. viii. 16; cf. Cic.pro Domo9, 24. In 205B.C.Scipio was given Siciliaextra sortembecause his colleague waspontifex maximus(Liv. xxviii. 38).[910]Liv. xxi. 17 (218B.C.) “nominatae jam antea consulibus provinciae erant; tum sortiri jussi.” Cf. ib. xxviii. 38.[911]Sall.Jug.27; Cic.pro Domo9, 24.[912]Cic.ad Att.viii. 15, 3 “consules quibus more majorum concessum est vel omnes adire provincias.” Lucullus went as consul to Asia in 74B.C.[913]p. 153.[914]That staunch conservative Q. Catulus was wont to reflect with pleasure “non saepe unum consulem improbum, duos vero nunquam, excepto illo Cinnano tempore, fuisse” (Cic.post Red. in Sen.4, 9). ByimprobiCatulus meant “radicals.”[915]The consul was the “legitimus tutor” of the state (Cic.post Red. ad Quir.5, 11) and “quasi parens bonus aut tutor fidelis” (de Or.iii. 1, 3).[916]p. 120.[917]Two praetors for Sicily and Sardinia (Liv.Ep.xx.), two more for the Spanish provinces (Liv. xxxii. 27). For thelex Baebiasee Liv. xl. 44. For the restoration of the number six see Vell. ii. 16. Pomponius says that four were added by Sulla (Dig.1, 2, 2, 32), but eight are found in 47B.C.(Dio Cass. xlii. 51).[918]The praetor had a right to six lictors (στρατηγὸς ἑξαπέλεκυς, App.Syr.15; cf. Polyb. iii. 40) and appears with the full number in the province (Cic.in Verr.v. 54, 142 “sex lictores circumsistunt”); but, in the exercise of his jurisdiction within the city, he employed, or was allowed, only two (Censorinusde Die Nat.24, 3; cf. Cic.de Leg. Agr.ii. 34, 93).[919]Praetor urbanus(S. C. de Bacch.ll. 5, 8, 17, 21),praetor qui inter cives jus dicet(lex Agrariaof 111B.C.),provinciaorsors urbana(Liv. xxiv. 9, xxv. 3, xxvii. 7, xxviii. 10, xxix. 13), jurisdictio urbana (ib. xxxii. 28, xlii. 31)—praetor qui inter peregrinos jus dicet(lex Acil.ll. 12 and 89;lex Jul. Munic.ll. 8 and 12),jurisdictio inter peregrinos(Liv. xl. 1),provincia peregrina(ib. xxvii. 7, xxviii. 10). Both these praetors, as distinct from those in foreign command, are said to haveurbanae provinciae(ib. xliii. 11),provincia urbana(xxxii. 1),jurisdictio urbana(xxv. 41, xxx. 1).[920]p. 197.[921]App.B. C.ii. 112.[922]Cic.Phil.ii. 13, 31.[923]p. 174.[924]Liv. xlii. 21.

[794]In Polybius’ time bribery was a capital offence at Rome (Polyb. vi 56).

[795]Polyb. vi. 14. The people are often judges of money penalties, when the offence can be valued in money, καὶ μάλιστα τοὺς τὰς ἐπιφανεῖς ἐσχηκότας ἀρχάς, θανάτου δὲ κρίνει μόνος. Cf. c. 15. The greatest source of the power of the people is that ἀποτιθεμένους τὴν ἀρχὴν ἐν τούτῳ δεῖ τὰς εὐθύνας ὑπέχειν τῶν πεπραγμένων.

[796]Liv. xxiv. 43 (214B.C., the tribune Metellus prosecutes the censors Furius and Atilius) “Sed novem tribunorum auxilio vetiti causam in magistratu dicere dimissique fuerant”; Suet.Caes.23 (Caesar on leaving for Gaul) “a L. Antistio, tr. pl., postulatus, appellato demum collegio, obtinuit, cum reipublicae causa abesset, reus ne fieret.” In the case of the trial of the censors of 169B.C.(Liv. xliii 16) the accused agree to be put on their trial during their tenure of office.

[797]Liv. xxix. 22 (204B.C.). Pleminius and his colleagues were “producti ad populum ab tribunis.”

[798]ib. vi. 1 “Q. Fabio ... ab Cn. Marcio tribuno plebis dicta dies est, quod legatus in Gallos, ad quos missus erat orator, contra jus gentium pugnasset.”

[799]ib.Ep.69 “L. Appuleius Saturninus ... Metello Numidico, eo quod in eam (the agrarian law) non juraverat, diem dixit.”

[800]ib. xxv. 3 (Postumius apublicanus, for shipwrecking and false reports of shipwreck).

[801]e.g. waging war without authorisation (Ascon.in Cornelian. p. 80, 104B.C.), disgraceful flight imperilling the safety of others (Liv. xxvi. 2, 211B.C.).

[802]Exceeding the legal duration of a magistracy, in this case the dictatorship (Cic.de Off.iii. 31, 112). The instance, though typical, is not historic.

[803]Liv. xliii. 7, 8 (170B.C.).

[804]Tac.Ann.xi. 22 “apud majores ... cunctis civium, si bonis artibus fiderent, licitum petere magistratus.”

[805]Festus p. 231 “plebeium magistratum neminem capere licet, nisi qui ex plebe est.” Cf. Suet.Aug.10.

[806]This seems shown by Suet.Claud.24 (see p. 135).

[807]Momms.Staatsr.i. p. 488. Exceptional elections of the sons of freedmen are found in 304B.C.(Liv. ix. 46, Cn. Flavius (see p. 185) as aedile) and in the year 100B.C.(App.B.C.i. 33).

[808]Lex Julia Municipalis(BrunsFontes) l. 92 “in castreis inve provincia.”

[809]Plut.C. Gracch.2.

[810]There is also evidence for this as the minimum age at a period earlier than Cicero’s political career; see Cic.in Verr.ii. 49, 122.

[811]In Caesar’s municipal law (45B.C.) the qualification for a municipal magistracy is either thirty years of age or a certain length of service—six years on foot or three on horseback (L.J.M.l. 89).

[812]Liv. ix. 46 (of the election of Cn. Flavius to the curule aedileship) “Invenio in quibusdam annalibus, cum adpareret aedilibus ... neque accipi nomen, quia scriptum faceret, tabulam posuisse et jurasse, se scriptum non facturum.”

[813]Cic.de Off.i. 42, 150; in later Roman law spoken of asvilitas; see GreenidgeInfamia in Roman Lawpp. 12, 193.

[814]Cic.pro Cluent.42, 119; Schol. Bob. in Cic.pro Sulla5, 17, p. 361 Orell.; Cic.pro Rosc. Com.6, 16; Tertull.de Spect.22; Ascon.in orat. in Tog. Cand.p. 115;Lex Julia Munic.l. 104;Dig.48, 7, 1. All these passages are discussed in GreenidgeInfamia in Roman Lawpp. 18-40 and 187.

[815]Liv. iii. 35 “Ars haec erat, ne semet ipse creare posset; quod praeter tribunos plebi (et id ipsum pessimo exemplo) nemo unquam fecisset.” The revolutionary period shows Cinna and Carbo nominating themselves consuls for two successive years (Liv.Ep.83) and Caesar as dictator presiding over his own election to the consulship (Caes.B.C.iii. 1, 1).

[816]Cic.de Leg. Agr.ii. 8, 21 “Licinia est lex atque altera Aebutia, quae non modo eum, qui tulerit de aliqua curatione ac potestate, sed etiam collegas ejus, cognatos, affines excipit, ne eis ea potestas curatiove mandetur.”

[817]Liv. vii. 42 “aliis plebiscitis cautum ne quis eundem magistratum intra decem annos caperet; neu duos magistratus uno anno gereret.” Cf. x. 13.

[818]Cic.de Leg. Agr.ii. 9, 24 “ne in iis quidem magistratibus quorum certus ordo est.”

[819]Liv. xl. 44 “eo anno rogatio primum lata est ab L. Villio tr. pl., quot annos nati quemque magistratum peterent caperentque.” It probably accepted the age of twenty-eight for the quaestorship; the minimum age for the consulship in the time of Cicero was forty-three (Phil.v. 17, 48); that for the praetorship is quite unknown; thirty-five and forty have been conjectured.

[820]Cic.ad Fam.x. 25, 2 “non est annus hic tibi destinatus, ut, si aedilis fuisses, post biennium tuus annus esset” (i.e. for election to the praetorship). To be elected in the earliest year, when one is qualified by the interval, is to attain a magistracy “anno sibi destinato” (l.c.) or “suo anno” (Cic.pro Mil.9, 24). Momms.Staatsr.i. pp. 527, 529. The principle of at least one year’s interval seems to have applied to the transition from plebeian to patrician magistracies in the form that candidature during the holding of any office was forbidden (Momms.Staatsr.i. p. 533).

[821]App.B.C.i. 100 καὶ στρατηγεῖν ἀπεῖπε πρὶν ταμιεῦσαι καὶ ὑπατεύειν πρὶν στρατηγῆσαι, καὶ τὴν ἀρχὴν τὴν αὐτὴν αὖθις ἄρχειν ἐκώλυσε πρὶν ἒτη δέκα διαγενέσθαι.

[822]Cic.ad Fam.xvi. 12, 3 “se praesentem trinum nundinum petiturum”; Sallust,Cat.18 “post paulo Catilina pecuniarum repetundarum reus prohibitus erat consulatum petere, quod intra legitimos dies profiteri nequiverit.” The interval was probably twenty-four days. See the section on thecomitia.

[823]Plut.Aem. Paul.3;Sull.5.

[824]Cic.de Leg. Agr.ii. 9, 24 (63B.C.) “praesentem profiteri jubet, quod nulla alia in lege unquam fuit, ne in iis quidem magistratibus quorum certus ordo est”; Suet.Caes.18 (60B.C.) “cum edictis jam comitiis ratio ejus haberi non posset ... et ambienti ut legibus solveretur multi contradicerent, coactus est triumphum, ne consulatu excluderetur, dimittere.” Cf. Plut.Caes.13.

[825]Dio Cass. xl. 56 (Pompeius) τὸν περὶ τῶν ἀρχαιρεσιῶν νόμον τὸν κελεύοντα τοὺς ἀρχήν τινα ἐπαγγέλλοντας ἐς τὴν ἐκκλησίαν πάντως ἁπαντᾷν, ὥστε μηδένα ἀπόντα αἱρεῖσθαι, παρημελημένον πῶς ἀνενεώσατο.

[826]Hence their association withsequestres—the agents in whose hands the candidate deposited money. Cic.pro Planc.18, 19; Q. Cic.de Pet. Cons.14, 57.

[827]Lex Jul. Munic.l. 132 “neve quis ejus rationem comitieis conciliove [habeto, neive quis quem, sei adversus ea comitieis conciliove] creatum est, renuntiato.” In 67B.C.the consul Piso, questioned “Palicanum num suffragiis populi consulem creatum renuntiaturus esset,” answered “non renuntiabo” (Val. Max. iii. 8, 3).

[828]p. 47.

[829]Mommsen (Staatsr.i. p. 599) places this change in 222B.C.Liv. xxxi. 5, etc.

[830]Fasti Praenestini(C.I.L.i. p. 364) “[ann]us nov[us incipit], quia eo die mag[istratus] ineunt: quod coepit [p. R.] c. a. DCI.”

[831]Quaestors (Cic.in Verr.Act. i. 10, 30;Lex de XX. quaest.in BrunsFontesl. 15); tribunes (Dionys. vi 89).

[832]Dio Cass. xl. 66; Cic.in Verr.i. 41, 105; Liv. xxi. 63.

[833]Theexecratiois given by Pliny (Paneg.64), “explanavit verba quibus caput suum, domum suam, si sciens fefellisset, deorum (Jupiter and the Dii Penates) irae consecraret.”

[834]Cic.ad Att.ii. 18, 2 “habet ... Campana Lex (of the consul Caesar in 59B.C.) execrationem in contione candidatorum.”

[835]Liv. xxxi. 50; if we may argue from municipal law (Lex Salpens.c. 26), omission to take it due to mere neglect was visited in the first instance by a fine.

[836]Liv. l.c.

[837]Cic.ad Fam.v. 2, 7;pro Sulla11, 34;in Pison.3, 6;pro Domo35, 94. Cicero, at the close of 63, varied the oath by swearing that he had saved the state.

[838]p. 45.

[839]Liv. v. 41.

[840]The dagger is mentioned more frequently than the sword (gladius) as the distinctive sign of military power. Momms.Staatsr.i. p. 434 n. 1.

[841]Hence such phrases asdecedere via,descendere equo,adsurgere sella,caput aperire. The senators were in the habit of rising from their seats when the consul entered the Curia (Cic.in Pis.12, 26).

[842]A decree of the augurs in 426B.C.declared the consular tribunes capable of this nomination (Liv. iv. 31).

[843]p. 165.

[844]Liv. viii. 12 “Aemilius, cujus tum fasces erant, collegam dictatorem dixit”; iv. 26 “Sors, ut dictatorem diceret (nam ne id quidem inter collegas convenerat) T. Quinctio evenit”; iv. 21 “Verginius, dum collegam consuleret, moratus, permittente eo, nocte dictatorem dixit.”

[845]Liv. iv. 17 “senatus ... dictatorem dici Mam. Aemilium jussit”; vii. 12 “dictatorem dici C. Sulpicium placuit. Consul ad id adcitus C. Plautius dixit.”

[846]ib. xxii. 57 (216B.C.) “dictator ex auctoritate patrum dictus M. Junius.”

[847]ib.Ep.19; Suet.Tib.2 (the enforced abdication of Claudius Glicia, nominated by Claudius Pulcher). In Liv. iv. 26 thecoercitioof the tribune is represented as employed against the consuls who disobey.

[848]Mommsen inC.I.L.i. p. 557.

[849]Liv. xxvii 5 (210B.C., on the proposal of the consul to nominate a dictator in Sicily) “patres extra Romanum agrum (eum autem in Italia terminari) negabant dictatorem dici posse.”

[850]ib. ix. 38-39.

[851]Polyb. iii. 87; but, as a rule, he was preceded by only twelve within the walls (Liv.Ep.89 “Sulla, dictator factus, quod nemo umquam fecerat, cum fascibus viginti quatuor processit”).

[852]Liv. ii. 18 “Creato dictatore primum Romae, postquam praeferri secures viderunt, magnus plebem metus incessit.”

[853]p. 85.

[854]e.g. the dictator named by Livy (ix. 26) as “quaestionibus exercendis” (314) is mentioned in theFast. Capitol.as “rei gerundae causa” (Momms.Staatsr.ii. p. 157 n. 2); a dictator “seditionis sedandae et rei gerundae causa” is found in theFastifor 368.

[855]Liv. vii. 24 “qui aegris consulibus comitia haberet.” Cf. c. 26 (absence of consuls in the field) and ix. 7.

[856]ib. xxiii. 22. In 216B.C.M. Fabius Buteo was appointed dictator “qui senatum legeret.”

[857]ib. viii. 40.

[858]ib. vii. 28 (for establishment offeriaeon the occasion of aprodigium); “dictator Latinarum feriarum causa” inFast. Cap.(C.I.L.i. p. 434) for the year 257B.C.

[859]The first instance was on the occasion of the great pestilence in 363B.C.(Liv. vii. 3 “Lex vetusta est ... ut, qui praetor maximus sit, Idibus Septembribus clavum pangat”). Cf. Fest. p. 56.

[860]Cic.de Off.iii. 31, 112 (see p. 183); cf. Liv. vii. 3. L. Manlius, appointed “clavi figendi causa,” acted “perinde ac reipublicae gerendae ... gratia creatus esset,” and was forced to abdicate.

[861]p. 84.

[862]This is Mommsen’s interpretation (Staatsr.ii. p. 160 n. 4) of Liv. xxx. 39. C. Servilius Geminus had been appointed dictatorcomitiorum causa—“Saepe comitia indicta perfici tempestates prohibuerunt. Itaque, cum prid. Id. Mart. veteres magistratus abissent, novi subfecti non essent, respublica sine curulibus magistratibus erat.”

[863]Liv. iv. 41. The consul is here said “auspicio dictatoris res gerere.”

[864]ib. ii. 32 “quamquam per dictatorem dilectus habitus esset, tamen, quoniam in consulum verba jurassent, sacramento teneri militem rati.”

[865]This view has led to the exaggerated statement of Polybius (iii. 87) that, on the establishment of a dictator, παραχρῆμα διαλύεσθαι συμβαίνει πάσας τὰς ἀρχὰς ἐν τῇ Ῥώμῃ πλὴν τῶν δημάρχων: which has been copied by later Greek writers.

[866]This is clearly shown by the attitude of the dictator L. Papirius Cursor when pursuing his disobedient master of the horse (Liv. viii. 34). The dictator hopes that the veto will not be employed (“optare ne potestas tribunicia, inviolata ipsa, violet intercessione sua Romanum imperium”). Zonaras expresses the fact and not the law (vii. 13 οὔτ’ ἐγκαλέσαι τις αὐτῷ οὔτ’ ἐναντίον τι διαπράξασθαι ἴσχυεν οὐδὲ οἱ δήμαρχοι).

[867]Zonar. vii. 13 οὔτε ἐκ τῶν δημοσίων χρημάτων ἀναλῶσαι τι ἐξῆν αὐτῷ, εἰ μὴ ἐψηφίσθη.

[868]Liv.Ep.19 (249B.C.) “Atilius Calatinus primus dictator extra Italiam exercitum duxit”; Dio Cass. xxxvi. 17 (the dictatorship was limited to Italy) καὶ οὐκ ἂν εὑρεθείη δικτάτωρ οὐδεὶς ἄλλοσε, πλὴν ἑνὸς ἐς Σικελίαν, καὶ ταῦτα μηδὲν πράξαντος, αἱρεθείς.

[869]Festus p. 198 “optima lex in magistro populi faciendo, qui vulgo Dictator appellator, quam plenissimum posset jus ejus esse significabatur ... postquam vero provocatio ab eo magistratu ad populum data est, quae ante non erat, desitum est adici ‘ut optima lege,’ ut pote imminuto jure priorum magistrorum.”

[870]p. 168. It could not have been a consequence of the Valerio-Horatian laws of 449B.C.(see p. 109).

[871]Liv. xxii. 8.

[872]Livy (xxii. 25) describes it as arogatio“de aequando magistri equitum et dictatoris jure.” Cf. c. 26 “de aequato imperio.”

[873]Liv. xxii. 57, M. Junius Pera.

[874]Fast. Capitol.

[875]Sulla was nominated by an interrex (though his powers were conferred by law), Caesar by a praetor. Plutarch (Marc.24) says that the praetor could nominate the dictator, a proceeding which is declared by Cicero to be wholly unconstitutional,ad Att.ix. 15, 2 (49B.C.) “volet (Caesar) ... vel ut consules roget praetor vel dictatorem dicat, quorum neutrum jus est. Etsi si Sulla potuit efficere, ab interrege ut dictator diceretur, cur hic non possit?” The nomination of Caesar was regular in so far as a speciallexwas passed which empowered the praetor to nominate (Caes.B.C.ii. 21; Dio Cass. xli. 36).

[876]An exception is found in 216B.C.M. Fab. Buteo was appointed “dictator sine mag. eq. senatus legendi causa” (see p. 193).

[877]In the single case of the election of a dictator, themagister equitumwas also elected (Liv. xxii. 8).

[878]Dio Cass. xlii. 27; Antonius, as Caesar’smagister equitum, had six lictors.

[879]Cic.de Leg.iii. 3, 9 “equitatumque qui regat, habeto pari jure cum eo, quicumque erit juris disceptator.”

[880]Pompon. inDig.1, 2, 2, 19 “et his dictatoribus magistri equitum injungebantur sic, quo modo regibus tribuni celerum: ... magistratus tamen habebantur legitimi.”

[881]Liv. iv. 34 “jussoque magistro equitum abdicare se magistratu, ipse deinde abdicat.”

[882]Liv. ix. 38 “Papirius C. Junium Bubulcum magistrum equitum dixit: atque ei, legem curiatam de imperio ferenti, triste omen diem diffidit.”

[883]Cic.de Leg.iii. 4, 10; see p. 160.

[884]Liv. viii. 32 sq.; cf. xxii. 27 “in ... civitate, in qua magistri equitum virgas ac secures dictatoris tremere atque horrere soliti sint.”

[885]ib. iv. 27 “relictoque (at Rome) L. Julio magistro equitum ad subita belli ministeria.”

[886]ib. ii. 18; Dio Cass. xlii. 21 (Caesar τὸν Ἀντώνιον, μηδ’ ἐστρατηγηκότα, ἵππαρχον προσελόμενος).

[887]Dionys. ii. 6 τῶν δὲ παρόντων τινὲς ὀρνιθοσκόπων μισθὸν ἐκ τοῦ δημοσίου φερόμενοι.

[888]Cic.post Red. ad Quir.5, 11. The first meeting of the Senate was in early times held by the elder of the two consuls (ὁ πρεσβύτερος τῶν ὑπάτων Dionys. vi. 57).

[889]Cic.pro Planc.25, 60 “honorum populi finis est consulatus.”

[890]App.B.C.ii. 19. In formal dating the names of the two chief praetors were added. See theSenatus Consultum de Asclepiade(BrunsFontes).

[891]Suet.Tib.31; see p. 191.

[892]Liv. xliv. 17 (169B.C.) “designatos extemplo sortiri placuit provincias.”

[893]ib. ii. 33 “consul alter Romae mansit, alter ad Volscum bellum missus”; cf. Dionys. vi. 91; Liv. ix. 42.

[894]Cic.de Rep.ii. 31, 55.

[895]Festus p. 161 “majorem consulem L. Caesar putat dici, vel eum penes quem fasces sint, vel eum, qui prior factus sit.” The first explanation is doubtless the correct one.

[896]Suet.Caes.20.

[897]Polyb. vi. 12 πασῶν εἰσι κύριοι τῶν δημοσίων πράξεων.

[898]Cicero furnishes an instance for the year 54B.C.,ad Att.iv. 15, 5 “Reatini me ad sua Τέμπη duxerunt, ut agerem causam contra Interamnates apud consulem et decem legatos, quod lacus Velinus ... in Nar defluit.”

[899]p. 167.

[900]Selection of a consul, Cic.de Fin.ii. 16, 54, in 141B.C., “decreta a senatu est consuli quaestio”; of a praetor, Liv. xlii. 21, in 172B.C., “C. Licinius praetor consuluit senatum quem quaerere ea rogatione vellet. Patres ipsum eum quaerere jusserunt.”

[901]Cic.de Rep.iii. 18, 28 (of the year 136B.C.) “Consul ego quaesivi, cum vos mihi essetis in consilio, de Numantino foedere.” Mommsen (Staatsr.ii. p. 112 n. 3) thinks that theconsiliumwas formed by the Fetiales (cf. Cic.de Leg.ii. 9, 21).

[902]For the question whether thepomeriumor the first milestone was the limit of the fullimperiumsee p. 79.

[903]For the rotation of theimperiumbefore Cannae (216B.C.) see Polyb. iii. 110, Liv. xxii. 41.

[904]Liv. xxii. 27 “Ita (Fabius, after the appointment of Minucius as his colleague in 217B.C.) obtinuit uti legiones, sicut consulibus mos esset, inter se dividerent.”

[905]ib. xxx. 1 (203B.C.) “censuerunt patres, ut consules inter se compararent sortirenturve, uter Bruttios adversus Hannibalem, uter Etruriam ac Ligures provinciam haberet.”

[906]Italy and Macedonia (ib. xxxii. 8, xlii. 31, xliii. 12), Italy and Greece (xxxvii. 1).

[907]Italia and some foreign country are still consularprovinciaein 112 and 111B.C.(Sall.Jug.27, 43). When a consul was appointed to one of the old praetorian provinces, he did not supplant the praetor but commanded with and over him.

[908]Liv. xxx. 1 “ut consules inter se compararent sortirenturve.” Cf. ib. xxxii. 8, xxxvii. 1, and the other passages cited in note 3.

[909]ib. viii. 16; cf. Cic.pro Domo9, 24. In 205B.C.Scipio was given Siciliaextra sortembecause his colleague waspontifex maximus(Liv. xxviii. 38).

[910]Liv. xxi. 17 (218B.C.) “nominatae jam antea consulibus provinciae erant; tum sortiri jussi.” Cf. ib. xxviii. 38.

[911]Sall.Jug.27; Cic.pro Domo9, 24.

[912]Cic.ad Att.viii. 15, 3 “consules quibus more majorum concessum est vel omnes adire provincias.” Lucullus went as consul to Asia in 74B.C.

[913]p. 153.

[914]That staunch conservative Q. Catulus was wont to reflect with pleasure “non saepe unum consulem improbum, duos vero nunquam, excepto illo Cinnano tempore, fuisse” (Cic.post Red. in Sen.4, 9). ByimprobiCatulus meant “radicals.”

[915]The consul was the “legitimus tutor” of the state (Cic.post Red. ad Quir.5, 11) and “quasi parens bonus aut tutor fidelis” (de Or.iii. 1, 3).

[916]p. 120.

[917]Two praetors for Sicily and Sardinia (Liv.Ep.xx.), two more for the Spanish provinces (Liv. xxxii. 27). For thelex Baebiasee Liv. xl. 44. For the restoration of the number six see Vell. ii. 16. Pomponius says that four were added by Sulla (Dig.1, 2, 2, 32), but eight are found in 47B.C.(Dio Cass. xlii. 51).

[918]The praetor had a right to six lictors (στρατηγὸς ἑξαπέλεκυς, App.Syr.15; cf. Polyb. iii. 40) and appears with the full number in the province (Cic.in Verr.v. 54, 142 “sex lictores circumsistunt”); but, in the exercise of his jurisdiction within the city, he employed, or was allowed, only two (Censorinusde Die Nat.24, 3; cf. Cic.de Leg. Agr.ii. 34, 93).

[919]Praetor urbanus(S. C. de Bacch.ll. 5, 8, 17, 21),praetor qui inter cives jus dicet(lex Agrariaof 111B.C.),provinciaorsors urbana(Liv. xxiv. 9, xxv. 3, xxvii. 7, xxviii. 10, xxix. 13), jurisdictio urbana (ib. xxxii. 28, xlii. 31)—praetor qui inter peregrinos jus dicet(lex Acil.ll. 12 and 89;lex Jul. Munic.ll. 8 and 12),jurisdictio inter peregrinos(Liv. xl. 1),provincia peregrina(ib. xxvii. 7, xxviii. 10). Both these praetors, as distinct from those in foreign command, are said to haveurbanae provinciae(ib. xliii. 11),provincia urbana(xxxii. 1),jurisdictio urbana(xxv. 41, xxx. 1).

[920]p. 197.

[921]App.B. C.ii. 112.

[922]Cic.Phil.ii. 13, 31.

[923]p. 174.

[924]Liv. xlii. 21.

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